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REESE    LIBRARY 


UNIVERSITY    OF   CALIFORNIA. 

Received .'..U-^SfcZ^     iSS.^ 

Accessions  Mo.  "^  ^~^  ^  «^        S/ielf  J\  'o 


is 


BIBLICAL   ARCHAEOLOGY. 


J  A  K  N '  S 


TKAXSLATED    FROM    TUE    LATIN, 


WITH  ADDITIONS  AND  CORRECTIONS, 


BY   THOMAS    C.    UPHAM, 

rROFESSOR    OF    MORAL    AND    INTELLECTUAL    rillLOSOPIIT,   AND    OF    TUE 

HEBREW  L>»etjAi3E  ,rs  jjo«:^mjJ  college. 

'UNIVEESITyJ 
SAri^ >•/ 

FIFTH    EDIxioX,   STEREOTYPED. 


NEW  YORK : 
P  U  B  L  I  S  H  E  D  B  Y  I V I  S  O  N   &   P II I  N  N  E  Y. 

CHICAGO:    S.    C.    GRiaGS    &   CO. 
1859. 


w  -p^  ^' 


Sneered  aecording  to  Act  of  Congress,  In  the  year  1SS>,  nj 

GOULD   &   NEWMAN, 
Jb  tbs  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  Massachuaet^ 


^ 


PREFACE 


TO     THE     SECOXD     EDITIOX 


y 
This  Translation,  of  -whicli  a  second  edition  is  now  offered 
to  the  public,  "was  undertaken  at  the  suggestion  and  desire  of 
Professor  Stuart  of  the  Theological  Seminary  at  Andover ; 
and  was  first  published  at  that  place  in  February  of  1823.  For 
the  encouragement  and  aid,  which  Professor  Stuart  afforded 
him  in  this  undertaldng,  and  for  the  assistance,  which  he  re- 
ceived in  various  ways  from  other  gentlemen  of  the  Theological 
Seminary,  with  which  the  Translator  was  at  that  time  connected 
as  an  assistant  instructor,  he  ^brates^this  opportunity  to  repeat 
his  orateful  acknowledgments.  '' 

The  author  of  the  original  work  is  Dr.  JoHX  Jahx,  who  was 
fonnerly  Professor  of  Oriental  Langmages  in  the  University  of 
Vienna.  It  was  first  written  in  the  German  Language,  and  ex- 
tended thi'ough  five  octavo  volumes.  Being  of  such  extent,  and 
accompanied  with  numerous  plates,  it  was  found  too  expensive 
for  common  use,  and  after  numerous  sohcitations  to  that  effect, 
was  abridged  by  the  author  himself,  translated  into  Latin,  and 
printed  in  a  single  octavo  volume.  The  Translation  into  Enghsh, 
which  is  now  presented  to  the  public,  is  made  from  the  second 
edition  of  the  Latin  Abridgment,  printed  at  Vienna  in  1814. 

The  Translator,  m  fulfilling  his  task,  has  constantly  had  before 
him  the  original  German  Edition,  and  it  is  proper  for  him  to 
remark,  that  where  he  noticed  an  observation  in  the  German 
which  seemed  to  be  important,  and  which  promised  to  instruct 
and  interest  the  Enghsh  reader,  but  which,  nevertheless,  was  not 
in  the  Latin,  he  has  ventured  ui  a.  considerable  n-umber  of  in- 

A* 


vi  PREFACE. 

stances,  to  translate  and  insert  it.  In  doing  this,  lie  has  con- 
siderably increased  the  labor  and  responsibility,  which  devolved 
upon  him,  but  it  is  believed  the  work  has  thereby  been  rendered 
more  valuable.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  remark  that,  in  order 
to  learn  the  additions  and  alterations,  and  the  grounds  on  which 
they  have  been  made,  it  will  be  found  important  to  compare  the 
translation  with  the  German,  as  well  as  with  the  Latin. 

The  NOTES,  which  have  been  occasionally  inserted,  and  the 
EXTRACTS,  which,  ui  order  to  render  some  articles  more  complete 
than  they  otherwise  would  have  been,  it  has  been  thought  proper 
to  insert,  are  distinguished  from  the  text  of  Jahx,  by  being  en- 
closed with  brackets.  ]Many  errors  in  the  references  have  been 
corrected  ;  and  in  the  present  edition  the  reader  Avill  find  a  full 
and  valual)le  Index  of  the  passages  referred  to. 

For  this  Index  the  translator  here  acknowledges  his  obhga- 
tions  to  the  interest  taken  m  this  work  by  Mr.  Smith  Travers 
of  the  city  of  Washmgton.  It  was  made  out  with  much  care 
and  labor  by  Mr.  Travers  soon  after  the  publication  of  the  first 
edition,  and  is  now  with  pleasure  presented  to  the  reader  with 
only  a  few  alterations  from  his  copy.  Other  minor  improve- 
ments will  be  found  in  this  edition ;  and  it  is  confidently  hoped 
that  the  work  will  be  found  in  all  respects  a  valuable  assistant  to 
the  bibhcal  student  in  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tares. 

THOMAS  C.  UPHAM. 

liowdoin  College,  Bruns\nck,  Me. 
November  30,  1837. 


CONTENTS. 


Section.  l 

1.  Biblical  Archaeology. 

2.  Its  importance  to  a  Theologian. 

3.  The  sources  of  Biblical  Archaeology. 

PART    I . 

CHAP.  I. 
Ox  Domestic  Antiquities. 

4.  Biblical  Geography. 

5.  Aramea. 

6.  Phcnicia. 

7.  ]\Iedia. 

8.  Persia,  Susiana,  Elymais. 

9.  Babylonia,  Chaldea. 

10.  Arabia. 

11.  Egypt. 

12.  Gessen  or  Goshen,  and  the  river  of 

Egypt. 

13.  Extent  and  boundaries  of  the  He- 

brew territories. 

14.  Face  of  the  countrv,  Mountains. 

15.  Plains. 

16.  Forests. 

17.  Deserts. 

18.  The  Jordan,  Lake  Merom,  and  Gen- 

ncsareth. 

19.  The  Dead  Sea. 

20.  Other  Rivers. 

21.  On  the  climate  of  Palestine. 

22.  Fertility  of  the  Soil. 

23.  Calamities   to   which    Palestine  is 

subject. 

24.  Division  of  Palestine  among  the  Is- 

raelites. 

25.  Division  of  Palestine  in  the  time  of 

Christ. 

CHAP.  II. 
Of  Dwellings. 

26.  The   earliest   shelters    were   shady 

trees  and  caves. 

27.  The   more   recent   Troglody'  js   or 

dwellers  in  caves. 

28.  Tabernacles. 

29.  On  Tents. 

30.  Formation  of  Tents. 

31.  Interaal  stmcturc  of  Tents. 


Section. 

32.  irouses. 

33.  Size  of  Houses. 

34.  Form  and  roof  of  Houses. 

35.  The  Gate,  Porch,  Area  or  open  court, 
female  apartments. 

Chambers  and  other  Apartments. 
Doors,  and    methods   of   securing 
them. 

38.  Windows. 

39.  ^Materials  for  building. 

40.  Household  furniture  and  utensils. 

41.  Villages,  Towns,  Cities. 

CHAP.  III. 
Of  the  Nomades. 

42.  Antiquitv,  etc.  of  the  Nomades. 

43.  Of  Pastures. 

44.  Emigrations  of  the  Komades. 

45.  Fountains  and  Cisterns. 

46.  Flocks  of  the  Nomades. 

47.  Animals  of  the  Ox  kind. 

48.  Of  Asses  and  Mules. 

49.  Camels. 

50.  Horses. 

51.  Doss. 

52.  Of  Hunting. 

53.  Of  robberies  committed  on  Travel- 

lers. 

CHAP.  IV. 
On  Agriculture. 

54.  Its  value  and  importance. 

55.  Laws  of  JNIoses  in  regard  to  Agri- 

culture. 

56.  Estimation    in  which  Agriculture 

was  held. 

57.  Means  of  increasing  Fertility. 

58.  Different  kinds  of  Grain. 

59.  Instruments  of  Agriculture. 

60.  Animals  used  in  Agriculture. 

61.  Preparation  of  the  Land. 
G2.  Harvest. 

63.  Threshing  Floor. 

64.  Threshing. 

65.  Ventilation. 

66.  Of  Vines  and  Vineyards. 


Vlll 


CONTEN'TS. 


Section. 

67.  Situation  and  arrangement  of  Vine- 

yards. 

68.  Culture  of  Vineyards. 

69.  Vintage  and  AVincpress. 

70.  Gardens. 

71.  Of  Olive-Trecs. 

72.  The  Fig-tree. 

73.  The  Pomegranate. 

74.  Tlie  Balsam. 

75.  The  Palm. 

76.  Terebinths  and  Pi<taci:is. 

77.  Bees  and  Honey. 

78.  Fishing. 

79.  The  fallow  year. 

CHAP.  V. 

Of  the  Akt.s. 

80.  On  the  Origin  of  the  Arts. 

81.  State  of  the  Arts  from  the  Deluge 

till  Moses. 

82.  The  Arts  among  the  Hebrews  in 

the  time  of  Moses. 

83.  Arts  among  the  Hebrews  in  Pales- 

tine. 

84.  State  of  the  Arts  after  the  Captivity. 

85.  Antiquity  of  the  Art  of  Writing. 

86.  The    extension    of    Alphabetical 

Writing. 

87.  Materials  and  Instruments  of  Writ- 

ing. 

88.  Respecting  Books. 

89.  Of  Epistles. 

90.  On  Poetry. 

91.  Character  of  the  Hebrew  Poetry. 

92.  On  Music. 

93.  Uses  of  Music  among  the  Hebrews. 

94.  Stringed  Instruments. 

95.  AVind  Instruments. 

96.  Ditferent  sorts  of  Drams. 

97.  On  Dancing. 

CHxVP.  VI. 
Ox  THE  Sciences. 

98.  The  origin  of  the  Sciences. 

99.  Historj',  Genealogy,  and  Chronol- 

ogy. 

100.  Arithmetic,  Mathematics,  Astrono- 

my, and  Astrology. 

101.  Division  of  Day  and  Xight. 

102.  Of  Weeks. 

103.  Of  the  Months  and  the  Year. 

104.  Surveying,    JNIcchanic    Arts,    and 

Geography. 

105.  ^ledicine.  .... 

106.  Physics,  Natural  History  and  Phi- 

losophy. 
Note.    Academical  Degree. 


Stction 

CHAP.  VII. 
Of  Commekce. 

107.  Antiquity  of  Commerce. 

108.  Commerce  of  the  Phenicians,  Ara- 

bians, and  Egyptians. 

109.  Mercantile  Routes. 

110.  Method  of  carrying  goods  by  land. 

111.  Commerce  of  the  Hebrews. 

112.  Weights  and  Measures. 

113.  Measures  of  length. 

114.  Hollow  Measures. 

115.  Weights  and  JMoncy. 
Weights   and    Money  before  tin. 

Captivity. 
W^eights  and  Money  after  the  Cap- 
tivitv. 


116. 


117 


CHAP.  vin. 
On    Clothing. 

118.  Materials   of  which  clothes   we:« 

made. 

119.  Color  of  Cloths. 

120.  The  Tunic. 

121.  The  Girdle. 

122.  Of  Upper  Garments. 

123.  Sandals  and  Shoes. 

124.  Of  the  Beard. 

125.  Of  the  Hair. 

126.  Coverings  for  the  Head. 

127.  Of  the  Veil. 

128.  Staff,  Seal,  and  Rings. 

129.  Ladies'  Rings  and  Pendants. 

130.  Necklaces,  Bracelets,  etc. 

131.  Amulets. 

132.  Mirrors. 

133.  Purse  and  Napkins. 

134.  Painting  and  Branding  or  Sealing. 

135.  Dress  at  Festivals  and  on  occasions 

of  ilourning. 

CHAP.  IX. 

Concerning  Food  and  Feasts. 

136.  Of  Food  in  general. 

137.  Preparation  of  Food  hv  Fire. 

138.  Of  Mills. 

139.  Grinding. 

140.  Baking  bread  in  an  Oven. 

141.  On  the  different  kinds  of  Food. 

142.  Of  Roasting. 

143.  Interdicted  Food. 

144.  Beverage. 

145.  Time  and  circumstances  of  taking 

Refreshment. 

146.  Table  and  method  of  Sitting. 

147.  Mode  of  Eating. 

148.  Of  Feasts. 

149.  Hospitality  of  the  Orientals. 


CONTEXTS. 


U 


Section. 


CHAP.  X. 


Ox  THE  STATE  OF  DOMESTIC  SOCIETT. 

150.  Precaution  against  Fornication. 

151.  Polygamy. 

152.  The  choice  of  a  "Wife. 

15.3.  The  ^larriage  Vow  and  Dowry. 

154.  Celebration  of  Nuptials. 

155.  Concubines. 

15G.  Fruitfulness  in  the  Marriage  State. 

157.  Marriage  of  a  Childless  Brother's 

Widow. 

158.  Concerning  Adultery. 

159.  The  Suspected  Wife". 
IGO.  Bill  of  Divorce. 
161.  Child-Birth. 

1G2.  Circumcision. 

153.  Antiquity  of  Circumcision. 

164.  On  the  Naming  of  Children. 

165.  Concerning  the  First-born. 

166.  The  Nurture  of  Children. 

167.  The  power  of  the  Father. 
163.  Of  the  Testament  or  Will. 

169.  Respecting  Slaves. 

1 70.  Ways  in  which  men  became  Slaves. 

171.  Condition  of  slaves  among  the  He- 

brews. 

172.  Condition  of  slaves  among  other 

Nations. 

CH^VP.  XI. 

CnAKACTER  AXD  SoCIAL INTERCOURSE 
OF  THE  HeBKEAVS. 

173.  Character  of  the  Hebrews. 

174.  Propriety  and  refinement  of  Man- 

ners. 

175.  Mode  of  Salutation. 

176.  On  Visiting. 

177.  Of  Gifts. 

178.  Kinds  of  Presents  and  methods  of 

bringing-  them. 

179.  Public^Honors. 

ISO.  Conversation  and  Bathing. 

181.  Treatmcntofthe  Jews  to  Strangers. 

182.  The  Poor  and  Beggars. 

1 83.  Levitical  Defilements. 

CILVP.  XII. 
Of  Diseases. 

184.  Of  Diseases  generally. 

185.  Disease  of  the  Philistines  mention- 

ed in  1  Sam.  5:  6. 

186.  Disease  of  King  Jehoram. 

187.  False  Conceptions. 

183.  Countries  where  the  Leprosy  pre- 
»  lils. 


Section. 

189.  Beginnings  and  progress  of  Leprosy 
Note  I.  On  Bohak  as  distinct  from 

infectious  Leprosy. 
II.  On  the  Leprosy  of  Guada- 
loupe. 

190.  On  the  Pestilence. 

191.  The  disease  of  Saul  and  Nebuchad- 

nezzar. 

192.  Respecting  Demoniacs. 

193.  Demoniacs  were  possessed  with  a 

devil. 

194.  General  view  of  the  opposite  argu- 

ment. 

195.  Symptoms  in  Demoniacs,  the  same 

with  those  in  diseased  persons. 

196.  The    Apostles,    Evangelists,   and 

Christ  regarded  Demoniacs  as 
diseased  persons. 

197.  Real  possessions  inconsistent  with 

the  doctrine  of  Jesus  and  his 
Apostles. 

198.  Pool  near  the  Shccp-r^Iarket  at  Je- 

rusalem. 

199.  Concerning  Paralytics. 

200.  The  death  of  Judas  Iscariot. 

201 .  Blindness  of  the  sorcerer  Bar-Jesus. 

202.  Disease  of  Herod  Agrippa. 

CBAF.  XIIL 

Conxerxixg   Death,  Burials,  and 
Mourning. 

203.  On  Death. 

204.  Treatment  of  the  Corpse,  Embalm- 

ing. 

205.  Of  Funerals. 

206.  Situation  of  Sepulchres. 

207.  Sepulchres. 

Xote.  I.  Maundrell  on  the  Sepul- 
chres of   he  Kings. 
II.  Harmer    on    the   White- 
washing of  Sepulchres. 
20S.  Articles,  which  were  bm-icd  with 
the  dead. 

209.  Sepulchral  Monuments. 

210.  Burning  of  the  Corpse. 

211.  Of  Mourning. 

212.  Other  causes  of  Mourning. 


PART    II. 

ON  POLITICAL  ANTIQL^TIES. 

CHAP.  L 
On  the  Hebrew  Cojimonwealth. 

213.  Patriarchal  Government. 

214.  The  Fundamental  Law  of  the  Mo- 

saic Institutions. 


CONTENTS. 


Sfctio7t. 

215.  Condition  of  the   IIcl>rcws,  as  rc- 

siicctcd  other  nations. 
21 G.  Piineipal  Officers  in  the  Hebrew 

State. 

2 1 7.  Connection  of  the  Tribes  with  each 

other. 

218.  Tlie  Comitia  or  Legishitive  x\sscm- 

blies. 

219.  Form  of  Government  a  mixed  one. 

220.  The  Euler  of  the  Israclitish  Com- 

mnnity. 

221.  The  Tlicocracy. 

222.  Historical  Tables. 

CHAP.  11. 

Of  Kings,  Officers  of  State,  and 
OTHER  Magistrates. 

22.3.  The  Anointing;  of  Kings.  M 

224.  Poyal  Eobe,  Diadem,  and  Crown. 

225.  Tlie  Throne. 
22G.  Tlie  Sceptre. 

227.  The  Royal  Table. 

228.  Seclnsion  of  Kings,  Join-neys,  etc. 

229.  Eoyal  Palace  and  Gardens. 

230.  Veneration  paid  to  Kings,  and  Ti- 

tles, which  were  bestowed  upon 
them. 

231.  The  duties  of  tlie  Hebrew  Mon- 

arclis. 

232.  Extent  of  the  Royal  power  and 

prerogatives. 

233.  Methods  of   promulgating  Laws, 

etc. 

234.  On  the  Royal  Revenues. 

235.  Magistrates  under  the  Monarchy. 
23G.  Officers  of  the  Palace. 

237.  The  King's  Harem. 

238.  The  method,  in  which  the  Officers 

and  others  held  intercourse  with 
the  King. 

239.  Magistrates  during  and  after  the 

Ca]itivity. 

240.  Tetrarchs.' 

241.  Roman  Procurators. 

242.  Of  the  Tribute  and  Half  Shekel  of 

the  Temple. 

CHAP.  III. 
Of  Trials  and  Punishments 

243.  Of  Judges. 

244.  The  Sanhedrin. 

Note.  Of  the  Sanhedrin  instituted 
by  Moses. 

245.  Other  Tribunals   in   the   time  of 

Christ. 

246.  The  time  of  Trials. 


Section, 

247.  The  Forum  or  place  of  Trials. 

248.  Form  of  Trial. 

249.  Prisons  and  Tortures. 

230.  Regulations,   etc.    in    respect    to 
Debtors. 

251.  On  Usury. 

252.  The  smallest  Punishment. 

253.  Fines  and  Indemnifications. 

254.  Punishment  of  Theft. 

255.  Cor]ioral  Punishments. 

256.  On  Retaliation. 

257.  Mosaic  Punishments. 

258.  Excision  from  the  pcoj^le.  Excom- 

munication. 

259.  Of  punishments,  which  consist  of 

Posthumous  insults. 

260.  Pnnishnicnts,     introduced      from 

other  Nations. 

261.  Crucifixion,   as    practised   among 

the  Romans. 

262.  The  cruelties  of  Crucifixion. 

263.  The  Pnblic  Executioner. 

264.  Of  the  Blood-Avenger,  and  cities 

of  Refuge. 

265.  Of  the  imknown  Murderer. 

CHAP.  IX. 

On  Military  Affairs. 

266.  General  View  of  Military  Science 

267.  General  Military  Enrolment. 

268.  Of  the  Levy  for  Actual  Service. 

269.  Divisions,  etc.  introduced  into  Ar- 

mies. 

270.  Militarv  Reviews  and  Inspections. 

271.  Of  Shields. 

272.  The  Helmet. 

273.  Cuirass,  Breastplate,  or  Coat  of 

Mail. 

274.  Greaves  and  IMilitary  Frock. 

275.  On  Fortifications. 

276.  Arms,   witli    which    the    soldiers 

fought  hand  to  hand. 

277.  Of  Javelins. 

278.  Of  the  Bow,  Arrow,  and  Quiver. 

279.  Of  the  Sling. 

280.  Of  Engines,  used  in  war. 

281.  Battering  Rams. 

282.  Respecting  the  Cavalrv. 

283.  Of  Chariots  of  AVar. 

284.  Sports  and  Exercises  preparatory 

tp  War. 

285.  Gymnastic  Sports. 

286.  Of  Encair  pmcnts. 

287.  On  INIilitf  j-v  IMarches. 

288.  Military  Standards. 

289.  Respecting  "War. 

290.  Preparations  for  Battle. 


CONTENTS. 


XI 


Section. 

291.  Of  the  Battle. 

292.  On  Siepcs. 

293.  CiiTumvallation. 

294.  The  Be-^ieger's  Mound. 

295.  Consequences  of  Victory. 

296.  Severities  of  ancient  Avarfare. 

297.  Justice  of  the  war  against  the  Ca- 

.naanites. 
Note.  Eight  of  the  Israelites  to  Pa- 
lestine. 


Section. 

316.  General  state  of  Jewish  affairs. 

317.  On  the  Antiquity  of  the  Jewish 

Religious  sects. 

318.  On  the  doctrine  of  the  Pharisees. 

319.  Defects  in  the  moral  principles  and 

practice  of  the  Pharisees. 

320.  On  the  traditions  of  the  Pharisees. 

321.  Galileans  and  Zealots. 

322.  Respecting  the  Sadducees. 

323.  Essones  and  Tlicrapcutae. 

324.  Concerning  the  Hellenists. 


298.  On  the  division  of  the  Spoils. 

299.  Respecting  the  Spoils,  Avhich  the  32.5.  Concerning  Proseh-tes. 

Hebrews   took   away  from   the  320.  Concerning  the  Samaritans 
Egyptians. 

300.  Periods,  when  there  was  a  cessation 

from  Hostilities. 


PART    III. 

OX  SACRED  ANTIQUITIES. 

CHAP.  I. 

Historical  View  of  the  Religiox 
OF  THE  Bible. 

301.  Religion  down  to  the  Deluge. 

302.  from  the  Deluge  to  Abra- 

ham. 

303.  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob. 

304.  Respecting  the  religion  of  the  Pa- 

triarchs. 

305.  Respecting  Closes. 

306.  On  the  question,  "  Whether  Moses 

taught  the  existence  of  a  merely 
national  God  ?" 

307.  On  the    question.   "Whether  the 

character  of  Jehovali.  as  repre- 
sented by  Closes,  is  merely  that 
of  a  being  inexorably  just  V' 

308.  Respecting  the  regulations,  which 

Avere  made  in  order  to  preserve 
the  ti-ue  Religion. 

309.  On  the  moral  tendency  of  tlie  in- 

structions and  institutions  of  Mo- 
ses. 

310.  On  the  question,  "  Whether  there 

are  Types  in  the  Laws  of  Mo- 
ses ?" 

311.  Sketch  of  Religion  from  Moses  till 

after  the  Batiylonish  Captivity. 

312.  Perseverance   of  the    Hebrews    in 

their  Religion  after  the  Captivity. 

313.  Respecting  the  knowledge  of  God 

before  the  time  of  Christ,  as  de- 
veloped by  Philosophy. 

314.  On   the  Condition  of  Man  after 

Death. 


815.  Respecting 
daism. 


CHAP.  II. 
Of  Saceet>  Places. 

327.  Of  Sacred  Places  in  general. 

328.  Of  the  Tabernacle. 

329.  Tlie  Altar  and  tlie  Brazen  Laver. 
3.30.  The  Golden  Candlestick. 

331.  Of  the  Table  of  Shew-Bread. 

332.  The  Altar  of  Incense. 

333.  Ark  of  the  Covenant  in  the  Holy 

of  Holies. 

334.  Respecting  the  Holv  Land. 

335.  Of  Jerusalem,  the  Holy  City. 

336.  ;Mount  Moriah. 

337.  Of  the  Temple  of  Solomon. 

338.  The  Sanctuary  of  Solomon's  Tem- 

ple. 

339.  Of  the  Temple  of  ZerubbabcL 

340.  Of  the  Temple  of  Herod. 

341.  Of  the  gates  of  Herod's  Temple. 

342.  Porches  in  the  Temple  of  Herod. 

343.  Of  the  Sanctuary. 

344.  Origin  of  Sraagogues. 

345.  Of  the   Sti"ucture,  etc.  of  Syna- 

gogues. 

CHAP.  in. 

Of  Sacked  Seasoxs. 

346.  On  the  Antiquity  of  the  Sabbath. 

347.  On  the  design  of  the  Sabbath. 

348.  Concerning    those   things,   which 

were  to  be  omitted  on  the  Sab- 
bath. 

349.  Concerning  those    things,  which 

were  permitted  to  be  done  on 
the  Sabbath. 

350.  Concerning  the  Sabbatic  Year. 

351.  Of  the  Year  of  Jubilee. 

352.  New  Moons  and  Feast  of  the  Xcw 

Year. 

353.  Of  the  <rreat  Festivals  in  creneral. 


the  Propagation  of  Ju-'354.  Of  the  Passover. 
,'355.  Of  the  Pentecost. 


XI 1 


CONTEXTS. 


Section. 

356.  Of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles. 

357.  On  the  Day  of  Propitiation. 
35.8.  Of  other  Fasts. 

359.  Of  the  Feast  of  Purim. 

3G0.  On  'the  Festival  Encaenia,  otlicr- 
-svisc  called  the  Festival  of  the 
Purification  of  the  Temple. 

CILVP.  IV. 
Of  Sacred  Persons. 

361.  Of  the  Jews,  considered  as  a  holy 

people. 

362.  Of  persons  officially  employed  in 

discharging  religious  duties. 

363.  Of  the  servants,  who  were  allotted 

to  the  sanctuary. 

364.  Of  the  Consecration  of  the  Levites. 

365.  Of  the  duties  of  the  Levites. 

366.  Of  the  Priests. 

367.  The  Consecration  of  the  Priests 

and  of  the  High-Priest. 

368.  Concerning  the  i)ress  of  the  Priests. 

369.  Of  the  Duties  of  the  Priests. 

370.  Dress  of  the  High-Priest. 

Some  account  of  Urim  and  Thitm- 

viim. 
Note.  Ecmarks    of    Michaelis   on 
Urim  and  Thummim. 

371.  On  the  question,  "Whether  Priests 

and  Levites  were  Public  Teach- 
ers 1 

372.  Officers  in  the  Synagogues. 

CHAP.  V. 

Of  Sacred  Things. 

373.  On  the  question.  What  is  a  sacri- 

fice 1 
874.  On  the  Origin  of  Sacrifices. 

375.  On  the  division  or  kinds  of  Sacri- 

fices. 

376.  The  place  of  Sacrifices. 

377.  Of  Bloody  Sacrifices. 

378.  Ceremonies  at  the  offering  of  Sa- 

crifices. 

379.  Of  Holocausts  or  whole  Burnt-of- 

fei-incs. 

380.  Of  Sin-Offerings. 


Section. 

381.  Of  Trcsiiass-Ofterings. 

382.  ]'cacc  and  Thank-Ofterings. 
383    Of  Covenant-Sacrifices. 

384.  On  the  meaning  of  Sacrifices. 

385.  Of  Bloodless  Sacrifices. 

386.  Of  the  Purification  of  the  Unclean. 
Of  the  Bed  Heifer. 

387.  Purification  of  Leprous  Persons. 

388.  Of  the  First-Born. 

389.  Of  the  First-Fruits. 

390.  OfTvthes. 

391.  Of  the  Sacred  Oil. 

392.  Of  Oaths. 

393.  Of  Vows. 

394.  Of  Affirmative  Vows. 

Of  the  Vow  called  Chfrevi. 

395.  Of  Negative  Vows,  the  Nazarite, 

etc. 

396.  Of  Prayers. 

397.  Of  the  Worship  in  the  Synagogues. 

398.  The  language  in  whicli  the  service 
was  performed  in  the  Syna- 
gogues. 

399.  Mode  of  worship  practised  by  the 
Apostles. 

CHAP.  VI. 
Concerning  Idolatry. 

400.  Of  Idol  Deities. 

401.  Altars,  Statues,  Temples,  Groves 

402.  Sacrifices,  Prayers,  Festivals,  Pu- 

rifications, Mysteries. 

403.  Of  Divinations,  etc. 

404.  State  of  Idolatry  in  the  time  of 

Christ. 

405.  Of  Images  made  for  sacred  pur- 

poses. 

406.  Of  the  Host  or  Army  of  Heaven. 

407.  Of  the  Sun,  and  thegod  Baal. 

408.  Of  other  Baals,  or  Baalim. 

409.  Of  Astarte,  Ashtaroth,  or  the  Moon, 

as  an  ob.ject  of  worship. 

410.  Of  Tammuz  and  Adonis. 

411.  Moloc,  Molec,  Malcom,  Milcom. 

412.  Of  Chiun  and  Bemphan. 

413.  OfTeraphim. 

1414.  OfDagon. 

1415.  Of  other  Deities. 


BIBLICiVL    ARCHAEOLOGY 


PRELBnNARY  RE^IARKS. 


§  1.  Biblical  Archaeology. 

Archaeology,  doyuioloyia,  considered  suhjectivaly  or  in  refer- 
ence to  the  mind,  is  the  knowledge  of  whatever  in  antiquity  is 
worthy  of  remembrance,  but  objectively  is  that  knowledge  reduced 
to  a  system.  In  its  widest  sense,  therefore,  it  embraces  achieve- 
ments of  a  historical  nature,  and  everything  else,  important  to  be 
transmitted  to  subsequent  ages ;  but,  in  a  limited  sense,  has  special 
reference  to  religious  and  civil  institutions  and  ceremonies,  to 
opinions,  manners  and  customs,  and  the  like.  As  there  are  cir- 
cumstances, worthy  of  being  noticed  and  remembered,  not  only  in 
the  religious  and  civil,  but  also  in  the  domestic  concerns  of  the 
ancients,  so  Archaeology  may  be  divided  into'  sacred,  political,  and 
domestic. 

Biblical  Archaeology  embraces  everything  in  the  Bible  worthy  of 
notice  and  remembrance,  whether  it  be  merely  alluded  to,  or  treated 
a~  -omethir.g  well  known. 

§  2.  Its  importance  to  a  Theologiax. 

I.  It  enables  him  to  throw  himself  back  more  fully  into  the  age, 
the  country,  and  the  situation  of  the  sacred  writers  and  their  con- 
temporaries, and  to  understand  and  estimate  the  nature  and  the 
tendencies  of  the  objects,  which  are  there   presented  to  him.     11. 

1 


Z  rRELIMIXART    EEHARKS. 

It  puts  liim  in  a  better  situation  to  detect  allusions  to  ceremonies, 
customs,  laws,  peculiarities  in  the  face  of  the  country,  etc.,  and  to 
make  himself  sure  of  the  precise  import  of  the  passages,  where 
such  allusions  occur.  III.  It  proffers  him  new  ability  in  answer- 
ing the  objections  of  the  opposers  of  Revelation,  the  greater  part 
of  v.hijh  originate  in  ignorance  of  antiquity.  IV.  It  presents  to 
his  view  distinctly  and  impressively  the  adaptation  of  the  different 
dispensations,  the  object  of  wliieli  was  to  preserve  and  transmit 
religion,  to  the  character  and  situation  of  the  age.  Y.  It  shows 
him,  where  to  separate  moral  precept  and  religious  truth  from 
the  drapery  of  the  figurative  language,  in  which  they  are  clothed ; 
since  language,  considered  as  the  medium  of  thought,  takes  its 
character  in  a  measure  from  that  of  the  times.  VI.  It  enables 
him  to  enter  into  the  nature  and  spirit  of  the  arguments  in  flavor  of 
the  authenticity  of  the  sacred  books.  VII.  That  an  acquaintance 
with  Biblical  Archaeology  is  of  great  importance  is  evident  from 
this  also,  that  all,  who  have  undertaken  to  explain  the  Scriptures, 
while  ignorant  of  it,  have  committed  very  great  and  very  numerous 
mistakes. 

§  3.  The  sources  of  Biblical  Archaeology. 

It  is  necessary,  in  order  that  the  student  may  derive  real  profit 
from  a  book  of  sacred  antiquities,  not  only  that  he  should  make  a 
right  use  of  it  by  studying  it  in  a  proper  manner,  but  tliat  the  book 
or  system  itself  should  be  drawn  from  genuine  and  undoubted  sources. 
These  sources  are, 

I.  The  Scriptures ;  which  are  very  weighty,  because  they  are  in 
fact  the  testimony  of  the  people  themselves  in  regard  to  events  and 
customs,  in  which  they  were  the  agents. 

II.  Ancient  Monuments.  These  are  in  a  manner  living  testi- 
monies. Such  are,  the  triumphal  arch  of  Titus,  a  representation  of 
which  has  been  given  by  Reland  in  his  De  spoliis  iempU  Jerosoly- 
mitani  in  arctt  Titiano  Romae  conspicuis ;  the  ruins  of  Persepolis ; 
the  subterranean  vaults  or  sepulchres  in  Syria,  Palestine,  and 
Egypt,  countries  where  pyramids  also,  obelisks,  and  the  ruins  of 
various  edifices  bear  testimony  both  to  the  perfection  and  the  anti- 
quity of 'the  arts ;  and  the  ruins  of  Baalbec  and  Palmyra,  engravings 
of  which  iii  oopijer  have  been  furnished  by  Wood.     They  are  of 


I'UEI.IMIXARY    RICJIAUKS.  .T 

a  moi'e  recent  age,  but  they  illustrate  what  occurs  In  the  Bible,  rela- 
ti\e  to  the  edifices  of  Herod,  and  the  temple  of  Jerusalem  in  the  time 
of  our  Saviour. 

III.  Ancient  Greek,  Phenician,  Egyptian,  and  Roman  coins. 
Jewish  coins  with  inscriptions  in  the  old  Samaritan  character,  and 
those  of  a  few  other  nations. 

J  V.  The  Avorks  of  Philo  the  Jew  and  of  Josephus,  the  former  of 
whom  resided  in  Egypt,  the  latter  at  first  in  Judea  and  subsequently 
at  Kome ;  both  were  contemporaries  with  the  Apostles. 

Y.  Ancient  Greek  and  Latin  authors,  who  sometimes  give  a  more 
full  account  of  events  and  customs,  which  are  merely  mentioned  or 
alluded  to  in  the  Bible,  particularly  Herodotus,  also  Xenophon,  Ar- 
rian,  Strabo,  Plutarch,  Diodorus  Siculus,  and  almost  all  tlie  others. 
But  it  is  the  dictate  of  sound  criticism,  that  the  authority  of  the  Bib- 
lical writers,  Avho  were  indigenous,  and  for  the  most  part  contempo- 
rary with  the  events  they  relate,  should  supersede,  when  there  is  any 
disa"-reement,  that  of  these  profane  writers,  who  were  of  another  coun- 
try and  a  later  age. 

VI.  The  Mishna  or  the  text  of  the  Talmud,  Avhich  is  a  collection 
of  traditions,  made  very  nearly  between  the  year  190  and  220,  and 
was  accompanied  after  a  time  by  the  explanations  of  the  two  Gema- 
ras ;  the  one  of  wdiich,  called  the  Jerusalem,  was  written  about  the 
year  280 ;  the  other,  called  the  Babylonian,  was  begun  in  427  and 
completed  about  the  year  500.  In  making  use  of  the  information, 
which  this  woi'k  supplies,  there  is  need  of  much  caution,  as  there  are 
many  modern  interpolations  in  it. 

VII.  Certain  ecclesiastical  writers,  wdio  lived  in  Syria  or  other 
oriental  countries,  particularly  Jerome  and  Ephraem  Syrus ;  also 
some  Syriac  aixl  Arabian  books,  especially  the  mo.~t  ancient.  Final- 
ly, the  Journals  of  modern  travellers,  wdio  have  visited  the  East, 
marked  the  appearances  of  the  country,  and  given  an  account  of  the 
manners  and  customs  of  the  inhabitants.  In  making  use  of  the  last 
mentioned  works,  there  is  need  of  caution,  lest  we  assign  to  antiquity 
what  belongs  to  a  more  recent  period,  although  it  ought  at  the  same 
time  to  be  kept  in  mind,  that  the  inhabitants  of  (he  P^ast  are  not 
fond  of  innovations,  and  retain  to  this  day  customs,  which  throw  light 
on  many  things  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  The  people  wlio  have 
retained  with  the  most  constancy  and  exactness  their  ancient  habits, 
are  the  wandering  Arabs,  who  live  in  the  Arabian  deserts ;  next  to 


4  PHELIMIXAUY    REMARKS. 

these  are  tlie  itinerant  sheplierds  of  Palestine,  Syria,  Mesopotamia, 
Babylonia  or  Erak,  Egypt  and  the  north  part  of  Africa.  Other  na- 
tions corae  into  the  account,  on  the  subject  of  biblical  antiquities,  in 
pro[)Ortion  to  the  nearness  of  their  situation  to  the  Hebrews.  Fur- 
thermoi'e,  we  should  make  a  distinction  between  what  these  writers 
have  seen  and  heard,  and  their  conjectures  and  opinions ;  for  in  the 
one  case  they  are  witnesses,  and  in  the  other  they  assume  the  func- 
tions of  a  judge,  a  part  wliich  may  be  sustained  by  any  person,  pro- 
vided he  has  the  facts  in  the  first  place  upon  which  he  may  build  his 
judgment. 


V>  OF  THE 

UUIVEESITY 


BIBLICAL 

A  11  C  H  A  E  0  L  0  G  Y  . 


PART  FIRST. 
ON    DOMESTIC   ANTIQUITIES. 


CHAPTER  I. 

§  4.  Biblical  GEOGRApnT. 

As  it  seems  necessary  that  something  should  be  known  respect- 
ing the  theatre  of  the  memorable  events  in  the  Bible,  before 
proceeding  further  we  shall  give  a  concise  view  of  biblical  or 
sacred  geography.  Lest  we  should  delay  too  long  in  the  threshold, 
we  shall  not  now  discuss  the  situation  of  the  countries,  mentioned 
Gen.  10:  5 — 10,  etc.,  shall  say  nothing  respecting  the  origin  of 
the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  and  shall  omit  the  geography  of  Asia 
Minor  and  Greece.  We  proceed,  therefore,  to  state  in  a  few  words 
tlie  situation  of  those  countries,  which  occur  more  frequently  in  the 
Bible. 

§  5.  Akamea. 

The  region,  which  in  the  Bible  is  denominated  Aram,  C"^N,  is 
a  vast  tract, ,  extending  from  Mount  Taurus  south  as  far  as  Da- 
mascus   and    Baljylonia,  and    from    tlie    IMediterranean    Sea    in   an 

1* 


6  §  0,    ARAMEA. 

eastern  direclion  beyond  the  Tigris  into  Assyria.     DifTerent  j^arts  of" 
it  are  called  by  different  names. 

I.  Aram  beth  Kecliob,  :i''nn  rr^a  Q'^N ,  otherwise  called  Assyria ; 
in  the  most  limited  meaning  of"  the  term,  it  was  a  small  province  or 
peninsula  surrounded  by  the  Tigris,  and  the  less  and  greater  Zab. 
Its  extent  was  inci'eased  in  the  progress  of  time  by  the  addition  of 
seven  other  provinces,  and  in  the  age  of  Isaiah  and  Ahaz,  it  became, 
by  the  accession  of  other  territories  still,  which  extended  into  Syi'ia 
and  Palestine,  the  very  large  empire  of  Assyria.  Its  nietro[)olis, 
Nineveh,  was  situated  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Tigris,  nearly  op- 
posite the  site  of  Mosul  at  the  present  day.  It  was  laid  waste  in  the 
year  877  before  Christ  by  Arbaces  and  Belesis,  but  was  rebuilt; 
it  was  laid  waste  again  by  Cyaxares  I.  and  Nabopolassar  in  the  year 
G2o  before  Christ,  and  ever  afterwards  remained  desolate.  II.  Aram 
Naharaina,  IMesopotamia,  now  called  by  the  Arabic  name  Al-Gezira 
or  the  island,  for  it  is  almost  surrounded  by  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates. 
The  provinces  into  which  it  was  divided  wei'C  1.  the  Mesopotamian 
plains,  D"'^?  ',"3 ,  or  t3"'X  trir ,  and  2.  the  province  of  Nesibcne,  cnx 
nsiri.  III.  Aram  without  any  epithet  attached  to  it,  is  Syria,  now 
called  by  the  Arabic  name,  Al-Sham  or  the  country  to  the  left,  be- 
cause, when  the  Arab's  face  was  turned  towards  the  east,  Aram  or 
Syria  lay  upon  the  left,  i.  e.  to  the  north.  Its  most  celebrated  cities, 
the  ruins  of  which  still  remain,  were  Baalbec  or  Baal-Gad,  ^5  b;'2, 
otherwise  called  Ileliopolis ;  Tadmor,  'il':"i?i ,  or  Falmyra ;  Aleppo, 
now  called  Haleb,  "(I'^pn,  and  Antioch.  Its  minor  divisions  were, 
1.  the  kingdom  of  Damascus,  pw"3n ;  2.  the  kingdom  of  Maacha, 
i-"j^  ;  3.  the  kingdom  of  Tob,  21:2 ;  4.  the  kingdom  of  Hamath,  nrn ; 
and  5.  the  kingdom  of  Geshur,  ^ri-3 ,  on  t]ie  Orontes. 

Note.  The  orientals,  when  undertaking  to  designate  the  several 
quarters  of  the  heavens,  turn  their  face  to  the  east.  Hence  cn;^ , 
which  properly  means  inffont  or  before,  means  also  the  East;  ^x^d, 
0)1  the  left  ha7id,  means  also  the  North;  "jTins,  ^\ni<,  beliind,  and 
C"! ,  the  sea,  because  it  is  in  that  direction,  mean  likewise  the  West ; 
and  'pri ,  the  right  hand,  means  the  South. 


§  G.    PHEXICIA.  7 

§  G.    PlIEMCIA. 

It  is  that  part  of  Syria  and  Palestine,  which  borders  0!i  the 
shores  of  the  IMediterranean,  extending  from  the  river  Eleutherus, 
which  empties  between  Orthosia  and  Tripoli,  lat.  34°  2G',  to  Achzib 
or  pA'dippa,  lat.  32°  oO',  or,  as  some  saj,  to  Acco  or  Ptolemais  at  the 
niouth  of  the  River  Belus.  It  is  a  country  small  in  extent,  though 
once  celebrated  for  its  ai'ts  and  its  commerce. 

Its  principal  cities  were  the  celebrated  Sidon  and  Tyre,  the  last 
of  whicli  was  the  most  recent  in  point  of  origin,  but  eventually  rose 
to  the  greatest  distinction.  It  was  overthrown  by  Xebuchadnezzar, 
and  afterwards  rebuilt  on  a  neighboring  island.  It  was  again  over- 
thrown by  Alexander  the  Great,  and  was  rebuilt,  but  never  recovered 
its  ancient  greatness. 

§  7.  Media. 

Media,  "^n-:,  between  the  32d='  and  the  40th°  of  latitude,  is 
bounded  on  the  west  by  Ass^Tia  and  Armenia,  on  the  north  by  the 
Caspian  Sea,  on  the  east  by  Plyrcania  and  Parthia,  and  on  the  south 
by  Persia.  The  metropolis  was  Ecbatana,  Kr":rx,  now  called 
Hamdan. 

§  8.  Persia,  Susiana,  Elymais. 

Persia,  Oic ,  is  a  tract  of  country,  which  extends  from  Media,  lat. 
34°,  to  the  Persian  gulf,  lat.  27°,  and  embraces  Susiana  and  Elymais. 
In  a  more  restricted  sense,  it  had  Susiana  on  the  west  and  Carama- 
nia  on  the  east.  In  the  latter  sense,  Susiana,  whose  metropolis  was 
Shushan,  yrrr,  was  situated  between  Persia  and  Babylonia,  and 
was  bounded  on  the  south  l)y  the  Persian  gulf.  It  is  now  called 
Chuzistan.  Elymais,  =;-;; ,  occurs  in  ancient  books  for  the  whole  of 
Persia,  but  in  a  more  limited  signification  it  is  that  district,  which  is 
situated  to  the  north  of  Susiana  and  the  north-east  of  Babylonia,  and 
is  bounded  in  other  directions  i)y  Media.  Its  limits,  however,  cannot 
be  very  accurately  defined. 


8  §  9.  babylonia,  chaldea. 

§  9.  Babylonia,  Ciialdea. 

Babyloniii  was  so  denominated  from  its  celebrated  capital  Baby- 
lon. In  its  greatest  extent,  it  Avas  bounded  on  the  north  by  Arme- 
nia, and  v.-as  then  anciently  called  Shinar  or  Singar ;  but  when  the 
limited  meaning  was  attached  to  the  word,  it  designated  the  tract 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Mesopotamia,  by  Arabia  Deserta  on  the 
west,  and  by  the  Persian  Gulf  on  the  south.  A  section  of  the  south- 
ern division  of  this  country,  situated  on  the  western  shore  of  the  Eu- 
phrates, was  ceded  by  the  kings  of  Assyria  to  certain  tribes  of  Chal- 
deans. Their  original  residence  was  not,  as  Michaelis  supposes,  the 
south  eastern  shore  of  the  Euxine,  but  as  we  learn  from  Xenophon, 
the  southern  and  eastern  part  of  Armenia.  Cyropaed.  Bk.  II.  III. 
Anabasis,  Bk.  n.  in. 


§  10.  Arabia. 

Arabia  was  called  by  the  inhabitants  of  Palestine  the  eastern,  and 
by  the  Babylonians  the  western  country ;  by  the  former  C;;?  "("^N 
avaToXi'i,  and  by  the  latter  'z.yj  or  J^qu^iu. 

Hence  the  Arabians  were  sometimes  denominated  t";?  "ra  or 
orientals,  sometimes  c'^S'i"  or  the  people  of  the  west,  2  Chron.  9:  14. 
Jer.  3:  2.  The  Arabs  anciently  denominated  themselves,  and  do  to 
this  day,  by  either  of  these  names,  with  this  peculiarity,  however,  in 
regard  to  the  latter  word,  that  they  call  the  Bedouin  Arabs  or  tlie 
dwellers  in  tents  collectively,  2"^:?,  but  the  inhabitants  of  cities,  lyj  , 
comp.  Jer.  25:  24.  The  division  into  Arabia  the  happy,  the  stony, 
and  the  deserted,  which  was  made  by  Megasthenes  and  Ptolemy, 
was  unknown  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  East,  and  is  not  observed  in 
the  I5iI>Ie. 

Arabia  Felix  is  the  name  of  that  peninsula,  which  is  so  border- 
ed by  the  Red  Sea,  more  properly  called  the  Arabian  Gulf,  b}'  the 
Southern  Ocean,  which  was  formerly  in  this  part  called  the  Red 
Sea,  and  by  the  Persian  Gulf,  that  it  would  be  perfectly  surroimd- 
ed,  were  a  line  drawn  from  the  inland  extremity  of  the  Persian 
Gulf  to  port  Allan  or  Aelan,  situated  near  the  eastern  end  of  the  Red 
Sea. 

Tliat  region,  which  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  Arabia  Deserta, 


§  11.    EGYPT.  9 

on  the  west  by  Egypt  and  the  Mediterranean,  on  the  south  by  the 
Red  Sea,  which  here  divides  and  runs  north  in  two  branches,  and 
on  the  north  by  Palestine,  is  called  Arabia  Petrea,  or  the  stomj,  from 
the  city  Petrea,  r;G  .  Iduraea,  otherwise  called  Seir,  ""^'b ,  is  the 
north-eastern  part  of  Arabia  Petrea.  Finally,  the  tract,  which  has 
Arabia  Felix  on  the  south.  Babylonia  and  the  Euphrates  on  the  east, 
the  Euphrates  and  Syria  on  the  north,  and  Gilead  on  the  west,  is 
called  Arabia  Deserta.  There  are  large  tracts  in  these  regions,  es- 
pecially in  Arabia  Deserta,  covered  with  rolling  sands ;  barren  as 
they  are,  they  nevertheless,  occasionally  supply  pasturage  to  the  wan- 
dering shepherds. 


§  11.   Egypt. 

Egypt,  t:'^^:|T?,  '^'■'sri,  en  -j'-nx,  extending  from  lat.  3P  27'  to 
23°  45',  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  Arabia  Petrea  and  the  Red  Sea, 
on  the  south  by  Ethiopia  or  rather  Xubia,  on  the  west  by  the  des- 
erts of  Africa  or  Libya,  and  on  the  north  by  the  Mediterranean. 
It  has  been  divided  into  two  parts,  the  lower  or  northern, 
which  is  called  the  Delta,  and  the  upper  or  southern,  which  in  Ara- 
bic is  called  iXajuo  Zaid,  in  Greek  Qi^^utg  and  in  Hebrew 
bi-,rs,  unless,  which  may  be  the  case,  by  the  Hebrew  Pathros 
merely  a  district  or  canton  is  meant  to  be  designated.  It  is  some- 
times divided  into  three  parts,  in  which  case  the  lower  part  of 
Upper  Egypt  receives  the  name  of  Ileptanomis,  because  it  con- 
sisted of  seven  districts.  The  celebrated  Nile,  which  is  commonly 
denominated  in  the  Bible,  by  way  of  eminence,  ^X"^  or  the  river, 
passes  through  Egypt.  Every  year,  in  the  month  of  August  and 
September  it  inundates  the  adjacent  country,  fertilizes  it  by  a  deposi- 
tion of  black  mud,  and  empties  at  last  into  the  Mediterranean.  For- 
merly it  had  seven  mouths,  two  of  the  principal  of  which  remain. 
The  most  celebrated  cities  in  this  country  are  S3  or  ',''"^  i<-  i-  e. 
Thebes  or  Diospolis  magna,  the  metropolis  of  Upper  Egypt,  long 
ago  celebrated  by  Homer  for  its  hundred  gates,  and  still  memoi'a- 
"ble  for  its  ruins;  ri'3  or  Cji^,  Memphis,  almost  on  the  division  line 
between  Lower  and  Upper  Egypt,  on  the  western  shore  of  the 
Nile ;  yj-^  or  Tanis,  which  yet  remains  in  an  island  of  Lake  Ten- 
nis or  Mensale ;  and  Alexandria,  built  by  Alexander  on  the  shore 


10  §  12.    LAND    OF    GESSEX    OR    GOSIIEX. 

of  the  Mediterranean  near  the  western  boundary  of  Egypt,  eelel)rated 
for  its  harbor. 


§  12.  Land  of  Gessen  or  Gosiiex  and  the  river  of  Egypt. 

Tlie  region  of  Goshen,  'rs,  in  the  Vulgate  Gessen,  is  called 
Gen.  47:  G,  11,  ""]J<f7  ^'^^'9.  oi'  f^^^  land  of  pasture^  and  was,  tlierefore, 
not  a  cultivated  part  of  Egypt.  From  1  Chron.  7:  21,  it  is  clear  that 
the  boundary  line  of  this  tract  Avas  not  far  from  the  city  of  Gaza. 
Hence  it  must  have  been  the  eastern  part  of  Lower  Egypt,  which 
extended  along  the  shore  of  the  Mediterranean,  as  far  as  Arabia  Pe- 
trea.  This  accounts  for  the  circumstance,  that  the  Alexandrine  inter- 
preter, who  must  have  been  acquainted  with  the  geography  of  this 
region,  renders  Gen.  45:  10,  F^alv  Jloa^iag. 

From  these  particulars  it  appears,  that  Goshen  was  nearly  of  a 
triangular  form,  being  bounded  by  a  line  drawn  from  Ilei'oopolis  to 
the  river  of  Egypt,  by  the  INIediterranean,  and  by  the  Pelusian  branch 
of  the  Nile.  But  an  inquiry  arises  liere  in  respect  to  the  position  of 
the  river  of  Egypt,  which  occurs  so  often  in  the  Bible.  IMost  proba- 
bly it  is  the  torrent,  wliich  when  it  is  swollen  during  the  winter  sea- 
son, empties  into  the  sea  at  Rhinocolura,  now  called  Al-Arish ;  for 
the  Septuagint  renders  C'^'^ii's  ^nJ  by  the  word  PivoxoXovQa ; 
and  Epiphanius,  who  was  not  less  acquainted  with  these  regions  than 
the  Alexandrine  interpreter,  asserts,  Ilaer.  GG,  p.  703,  that  Rhinoco- 
lura was  called  by  the  inhabitants  rtt).,  Avhich  is  evidently  the  word 
bn:,  uttered  with  ditferent  vowels.  The  traveller  Helferich  also, 
p.  385,  says  he  came  in  15G5  to  Al-Arisli,  situated  in  a  country  called 
Nechile,  which  is  the  word  bn:  again  with  a  little  alteration.  Com- 
pare Brochard's  Book  of  Travels,  p.  466 ;  and  Wansleb,  in  the  col- 
lection of  Travels  made  by  Paulus,  iii.  164.  That  other  travellers 
have  not  found  the  river  or  torrent  in  question,  is  owing  to  the  cir- 
cumstance that  its  channel  or  valley  was  dry;  as  might  have  been 
expected  in  the  warm  season,  which  was  the  time  when  they  ap- 
proached it. 

§  13    Extent  and  boundaries  of  the  Hebrew  territories. 

Canaan,  "i":3,  a  region  occupied  in  the  tirst  instance  partly  by 
the  Canaanites,  the  posterity  of  Canaan  the  son  of  Ham,  partly  by 


§   13.    HEI311EAV    TERRITOUIES.  U 

Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  and  promised  by  God  to  the  posterity  of 
these  patriarchs,  is  enclosed  by  the  river  Jordan,  the  Dead  Sea,  Ara- 
bia Pctrea,  the  Mediterranean,  and  Syria.  The  divine  promise,  how- 
ever, had  respect  at  the  same  time  to  those  territories,  which  the  He- 
brews, when  afterwards  provoked  to  arms,  should  reduce  to  their 
authority.  As  soon  as  they  were  in  a  condition  to  penetrate  to  the 
land,  which  had  been  occupied  by  tlie  Patriarchs  before  them,  they 
conquered  the  kings  of  Gilead,  who  had  taken  up  arms  by  way  of  re- 
sistance, and  occupied,  by  the  right  of  war,  the  tract  which  stretches 
from  the  river  Anion  to  the  foot  of  mount  ITermon  or  Ahtilibanus, 
Num.  21:  21,  et  seq.  Afterwards  they  subjected  the  neighboring 
territories.  The  boundaries  in  reference  to  this  increased  extent  are 
defined.  Gen.  51:  18—21.  Kura.  34:  1,  2.  Deut.  11:  24.  Josh.  1:  4. 
11:  IG,  17.  12:  1—7.  15—33. 

On  the  south,  the  boundary  line  ran  with  some  irregularities  from 
the  end  of  the  Dead  Sea  along  Idumea  and  Arabia  Petrea,  as  far  as 
the  river  or  torrent  of  Egypt.  The  pastures  of  Arabia  Petrea,  par- 
ticularly of  the  desert,  Avhich  extends  both  through  Petrea  and  De- 
serta  as  far  as  the  Persian  Gulf  and  north  along  the  Euphrates, 
ren^ained  free,  for  it  was  not  possible  to  fix  any  definite  limits  in 
those  regions.  In  the  time  of  David,  the  whole  of  Idumea  as  far  as 
the  bay  of  Elana,  submitted  to  the  Hebrews.  The  furthest  city,  in 
this  direction,  that  belonged  to  them,  is  often  mentioned  by  the  name 
of  Beersheba,  :"2'r  1X3 ,  which,  however,  Avas  not  situated  on  the 
boundary  line. 

On  the  west,  from  the  river  of  Egypt  to  the  city  Acco  or  Ptole- 
mais,  or  rather  as  far  as  Achzib,  Josh.  19:  28,  29,  the  boundary  was 
the  ^Mediterranean  Sea,  called  in  Hebrew,  VliJij  C*f] ,  V"'"^~^v  -'t^  • 
Tlte  Philistines,  who  were  conquered  by  David,  dwelt  on  its  southern 
shore,  v.ithin  the  limits  just  mentioned. 

They  often  threw  off  the  yoke.  From  Achzib,  the  boundary 
received  a  direction  north  into  the  main  land,  and  ran  contiguous 
to  Phenicia  78  English  miles  to  lat.  34°,  terminating  at  Apheca, 
which  is  situated  between  Biblum  or  Gible  and  Baal-Gad  or  Baal- 
bec.  Phenicia,  therefore,  was  not  included  in  the  territory  of  the 
Hebrews.  Josh.  13:  2—6.  Comp.  Numbers  34:  1,  and  Joshua  19: 
24—31. 

The  northern  boundary  extended  with  many  deviations  from  Aph- 
eca to  the  east,  touched  in  Coelesyria  upon  the  kingdom  of  Ha- 


12       §  14.  FACE  OF  thl:  couxtry,  mouxtaixs. 

math,  and  enclosed  the  city  of  Baal-Gad,  lat.  34°,  near  which  ap- 
pears to  have  been  situated  the  city  of  Dan,  so  often  mentioned,  as 
being  on  the  northern  extremity  of  the  kingdom.  There  the  line 
ran  south-east  to  Arabia  Deserta,  so  as  to  exclude  the  kingdom  of 
Damascus ;  the  whole  of  which,  with  the  cities  of  Bctack  and  Bai- 
ruth,  was  at  length  occupied  by  the  armies  of  David.  It  recovered, 
however,  its  freedom  under  his  successors,  and  created  much  trouble 
to  the  kingdom  of  Israel. 

On  the  east,  the  Euphrates  was  the  boundary  assigned,  Deut.  11: 
24.  It  cannot,  however,  be  accurately  determined,  on  account  of  tlie 
extensive  deserts,  which  exist  in  that  direction.  The  mountains  of 
Gilead,  which  were  subjected  by  Moses,  approach  the  barren  waste, 
which  girds  the  shore  of  the  Euphrates,  and  as  we  learn  1  Chron.  5: 
9,  16,  supplied  pasture  to  the  tribes  of  Gad  and  Reuben.  The  tribes 
beyond  Jordan,  under  Saul,  subdued  a  large  extent  of  country, 
1  Chron.  5:  19.  The  Ammonites  possessed  the  territory  to  the  east 
of  the  river  Anion,  and  the  Moabites  inhabited  the  region  to  the  south 
of  the  same  river.  So  that  the  Arnon  was  the  boundary,  which  sepa- 
rated the  Hebrews  on  the  east  from  the  Ammonites,  and  on  the  south 
from  the  Moabites,  until  they  were  subdued  by  David,  who  extended 
the  lines  of  his  dominion,  as  far  north  as  35°  15'  of  lat.  where  the  city 
Thipsach  or  Tapsacus  was  situated.  From  these  facts  it  is  clear, 
that  the  kingdom  of  David  and  Solomon  was  very  large,  extending 
from  the  28th  to  the  35th  of  lat.,  and  from  the  52d  to  the  59th  of 
longitude. 

§  14.  Face  op  the  country;  Mountains. 

Palestine  is  a  mountainous  country.  Two  ranges,  the  one  on  the 
east,  the  other  on  the  west  side  of  the  Jordan,  extend  from  Syria  into 
Arabia,  interrupted,  however,  in  various  places,  by  vallies  and  level 
tracts  of  greater  or  less  extent.     The  principal  mountains  are, 

I.  Mount  Lebanon.  It  is  formed  of  two  summits,  which  run 
north  almost  parallel  from  lat.  33°  12'  to  lat.  34°  32',  and  leave 
a  valley  in  the  middle,  which  is  called  Coelesyria,  y.olXti  ^vqi'u, 
Vii^rn  ^^n  and  )i:^h  rrpa,  Gen.  10:  23.  Jos.  11:  17.  Tliese 
mountains  begin  to  ascend  about  three  miles  north  of  ancient  Tyre, 
where  the  river  Leontes,  now  called  Kasmie,  which  flows  from 
Coelesyria  or  the  valley  between  the  mountains,  empties  into  the 


§  14.    l-ACIi    OF    Till-:    COUNTliV,   rilOLXTAI 

sea.  The  western  summit  is  denoinuiated  Lihaiius,  by  tFi^'Scejik.Sr 
aiitl  the  eastern,  Antilihanus ;  but  the  Hebrews  do  not  make  this 
distinction  of  names,  denominating  both  summits  by  the  common 
name  of  Lebanon  or  Libanus.  Libanus  runs  north  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Leontes ;  bending  a  little  to  the  east,  it  leaves  on  the  bor- 
ders of  the  sea  a  plain  of  different  degi-ees  of  breadth.  Some  pro- 
montories, notwithstanding,  two  at  least,  project  into  the  sea,  the  one 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Lycus,  now  called  Xahr  el  Khalb,  lat.  33^  IG', 
the  other,  lat.  34°  50',  called  (hov  7in6(>anov.  Anciently  on  these 
mountains  there  grew  cedars,  of  which  there  remain  to  this  day  from 
twenty  to  forty,  though  according  to  Aryda  only  fourteen,  of  great 
size  and  antiquity,  together  with  many  smaller  ones.  Antilibanus 
runs  from  the  mouth  of  the  Leontes,  at  first,  in  an  eastern  direction, 
but  soon  alters  its  course  and  runs  north,  parallel  with  Libanus.  It 
is  much  higher  than  Libanus,  and  is  crowned  with  perpetual  snoics, 
Jer.  18:  13.  In  the  summer,  snow  is  also  found  on  Libanus  in  the 
clefts  and  fissures,  which  ai-e  exposed  to  the  north ;  it  is  often  brought 
down  into  the  neighboring  cities,  and  mingled  with  the  drink  of  the 
inhabitants,  in  order  to  render  it  more  cool  and  refreshing,  Prov.  25: 
12.  The  highest  peak  of  Antilibanus  was  called  by  the  Hebrews, 
Hermon ;  by  tlie  Sidonians,  Sirion ;  and  by  the  Amorites,  Senir, 
Deut.  3:  9.  In  later  times  these  three  names  were  given  to  three 
separate  summits,  1  Chron.  5:  23.  The  part  towards  Damascus  was 
called  Amana,  n;rx ,  from  which  flow  the  two  rivers  Amana  and 
Pharphar,  2  Kings  5:  12.  The  pine  and  the  fir  flourish  on  Antiliba- 
nus. The  height  of  these  mountains  is  about  9000  feet.  They  ex- 
hibit a  grand  and  imposing  appearance  ;  many  of  the  images,  which 
occur  in  the  Scriptures,  are  drawn  from  them.  Isr^  10:  34.  29:  17. 
35:  2.  . 

II.  Carinel.  This  is  a  mountainous  ridge,  which  begins  to  rise 
about  thirteen  miles  south  of  Ptolemais,  in  the  vicinity  of  a  large 
bay  formed  by  the  sea.  It  stretches  south  11 J  miles,  and  is  40 
miles  in  circumference,  according  to  D'Arvieux  nearly  GO.  The 
northern  and  eastern  summits  are  higher  than  the  southern  and 
western.  The  northern  summit  or  ridge  projects  into  the  sea,  the 
southern  recedes,  and  leaves  a  plain  on  the  shore  in  the  form  of  a 
half  circle.  The  name  itself  is  an  indication  of  the  fruitfulness  ot 
these  ridges,  and  of  the  valleys,  which  they  form ;  for  ?-:n?  is  a 
ccnti-action   for   ';:x    c-s,  which  means   the   garden  of   God,  or  a 


14  §  14,    FACE    OF    THE    COUNTUY,    MOU.NTAINS. 

very  pleasant  region.  The  tops  of  these  mountains  Jire  crowdei.1 
with  oaks  and  firs,  tlie  valleys  with  laurels  and  olives ;  nor  is  there 
any  deficiency  of  fountains  and  rivulets,  so  grateful  to  the  inhahitants 
of  the  east.  Carmcl  has  been  to  the  Hebrew  proph(!ts  the  source  of 
many  poetical  images,  Isa.  29:  17.  02:  15.  35:  2.  Mich.  7:  14.  Jer, 
48:  33.  Its  many  caves  are  worthy  of  notice,  many  of  which  existed 
in  ancient  times :  also  the  paths  leading  through  continuous  clefts  in 
th(.'  rocks,  where  one  may  easily  and  effectually  hide  himself,  Amos 
9:  3.  2  Kings  2:  25.  4:  25.  There  was  another  mount  Carmel,  with 
a  city  of  the  same  name,  in  the  tribe  of  Judah,  1  Sam.  25:  5.  27:  3. 
2  Sam.  3:  3. 

III.  T'ahor,  "^-.z^^,  Jzru^vQior,  a.  singular  mountain  of  an  oblong 
shape,  in  the  direction  from  north  to  south,  eleven  iniles  east  of  Car- 
mel, and  about  nine  west  of  the  Jordan,  on  the  northern  side  of  the 
})lain  of  Jezrcel  or  Ezdrelom.  It  is  estimated  to  be  nearly  a  mile 
hi^^h,  and  a  journey  of  three  hours  in  circumference  at  the  bottom. 
On  the  top  of  the  mountain  is  a  plain  of  an  oblong  figure,  like  the 
mountain  itself,  and  three  thousand  paces  in  circuit.  On  this  plain 
there  was  formerly  a  city,  probably  the  same  with  the  city  Tabor  in 
the  tribe  of  Zebulun,  mentioned  1  Chron.  5:  77,  and  which,  in  Josh. 
21:  34,  is  simply  called  nr,-;^ ,  a  city.  It  is  not  the  same  with  the  Ta- 
bor, mentioned  1  Sam.  H):  3,  which  was  two  miles  distant  from  Jeru- 
salem. 

TV.  The  Mountains  of  Israel,  also  called  the  Mountains  of  Ephruim, 
occupied  nearly  the  centre  of  the  whole  country.  To  the  south  of 
them  were  the  Mountains  of  Jadah.  Both  ridges  are  fruitful,  except- 
ing those  parts  of  the  mountains  of  Israel,  v.-hich  approach  the  district 
of  the  Jordan,  and  those  also,  which  extend  from  the  mount  of  Olives 
to  the  plains  of  Jericho.  These  tracts  are  rough  and  uneven,  and 
abound  in  hiding-places  for  robbers,  Luke  10:  30.  The  highest  peak 
in  the  mountains  of  Israel  or  Ephraim,  seem  to  be  what  was  formerly 
called  the  Eock  Eimnion,  Judg.  20:  45 — 47,  but  is  now  called  Qua- 
rantaria.  The  mountains  Ebal  and  Gerizim  are  celebrated.  They 
are  separated  from  each  other  merely  by  an  intervening  valley,  the 
former  being  to  the  north,  the  latter  to  the  south  of  Shechem,  Josh. 
8:  30 — 35.  Deut.  xxvii.  In  the  mountains  of  Judah  are  numerous 
and  large  caves,  of  which  Adullam,  C|-;; ,  is  the  most  celebrated, 
1  Sam.  21:  1,  2.  Comp.  also  Gen.  23:V,  19.  Josh.  10:  IG.  There 
was  also  a  city  of  the  name  of  Adullam,  Josh.  15:  35. 


§  15.    PLAINS.  lO 

V.  The  mov.ntains  of  Gilead,  ~rr:, .  They  are  situated  east  of  the 
Jordan,  and  extend  from  Antilibanns  or  mount  Ilermon  into  Arabia 
Petrea.  Tlie  northern  part  is  called  Bashan,  and  was  celebrated  for 
its  oaks  and  pastures.  The  middle  was  denominated  Gilead  in  the 
stricter  sense.  In  the  southern  part  were  the  mountains  Abarim, 
^■n^v.  •  Among  these,  in  the  region  of  Jericho,  arose  the  mountain 
Pheor  or  Pb.egor,  also  Xebo,  from  the  summit  of  which,  called  Pis- 
gah,  the  whole  land  of  Canaan  is  visible.  Deut.  ?>:  27.  o2:  48 — 50. 
34:  1,  2.  comp.  Matt.  4:  8. 

§  15.  Plaixs.     n:--2,  nbsd,  r,:i-^v,  ^■.:;'^-:. 

The  most  celebrated  are.  I.  The  shore  of  the  Z>Iediterraneaa 
from  the  river  of  Egypt  to  mount  Carmel.  The  tract  from  Gaza 
to  Joppa  is  simply  called  n'^^'i" ,  tlte  2j^<'>''-  In  this  plain  were  the 
five  principal  cities  of  the  Philistines,  viz.  Gaza,  Askelon,  Azotus, 
Gath,  and  Ekron  or  Accaron.  The  region  reaching  from  Joppa 
to  Carmel,  which  is  somewhat  hilly,  was  called  SJtctron.  This  is  to 
be  distinguished  from  a  place,  likewise  called  Sharon,  situated  be- 
tween Tabor  and  lake  Gennesareth ;  and  from  a  third  place  also  of 
the  same  name,  east  of  the  Jordan  in  the  tribe  of  Gad,  celebrated  for 
its  jsastures. 

II.  The  plain  of  Jezreel,  h^V'-'p ,  E^dntj).co[f,  [ntya,  nedior,  extends 
from  west  to  east,  through  the  middle  of  Palestine,  beginning  at  the 
^Mediterranean,  and  the  mountain  Carmel,  and  terminating  at  the 
egress  of  the  Jordan  from  lake  Gennesareth.  Its  length  is  from 
twenty-tliree  to  twenty-eight,  and  its  breadth  from  nine  to  thirteen 
miles.  The  eastern  part  is  called  Sharon;  tlie  western,  the  plain  of 
Megiddo,  '"-;■;  rr"2 .  See  Judges  4:  1  et  seq.  G:  33.  7:  8.  1  Sam. 
29:  1.  11.  2  Kings  23:  29.  2  Chron.  35:  22.  1  Maccab.  4:  49. 

III.  Tlie  region  or  district  of  Jordan,  """^ri  "22  or  n-~^;,  // 
TTtQiyconO';  Tov  'JnoSiiiov  or  //.''/'«  rrtdior,  includes  the  shore  on  both 
sides  of  the  Jordan  from  the  lake  Gennesareth  to  the  Dead  Sea. 
Its  breadth  from  west  to  east  is  thirteen  miles,  its  length  from 
north  to  south,  according  to  the  corrected  reading  of  Josephus, 
Bell.  Jud.  L.  IV.  c.  8.  §  2.  is  138  miles,  which  is  too  great  a  length 
to  correspond  with  the  distance  between  lake  Gennesareth  and 
the  Dead  Sea.  ■  Modern  travellers  make  the  length  about  56  miles. 
This  region  may  be  divided  into,  I.  T/ie  plain  of  Jericho,  'rni  J^;"ktj 


16  §   IG.    FORESTS. 

which  is  watered  and  fertiUzed  by  a  small  river,  and  is  eiglit  miles 
in  length,  and  two  and  a  quarter  in  breadth.  II.  The  Valley  of 
Salt,  reaching  to  the  Dead  Sea.  2  Kings  14:  7.  1  Chron.  18:  12. 
2  Chron.  25:  11.  III.  27<e  plains  of  Moab  beyond  Jordan,  inb 
2n't^  ,  also  SXTa  ri"l2"]:i" ,  in  which  the  Hebrews  pitched  their  tents, 
Num.  2G:  3.  These  plains  are  called.  Num.  25:  1,  and  Josh.  2:  1. 
3:  1,  Shittim,  tr^'^^Ti.  i)R3,  or  the  valley  of  Acacia.  A  variety  of 
words  are  applied  to  level  places  or  valleys,  whose  diti'erent  shades 
of  meaning  cannot  now  be  accurately  determined.  Vn:,  however, 
is  a  valley,  Avhich  lias  a  torrent  flowing  through  it  in  the  winter ; 
">:. ,  "la ,  i^'15 ,  is  a  valley  without  any  such  torrent ;  p":^  is  perhaps  a 
deep  valley,  as  n^'ira  is  a  broad  valley  or  jdain.  Of  these  valleys, 
that  of  Ilinnom  C'.-ri  ""S  or  ni- n  "5  -5 ,  near  the  southern  wall  of  Jeru- 
salem, is  particularly  worthy  of  mention  for  two  reasons.  The  one, 
that  it  separated  Judah  from  the  tribe  of  Benjamin ;  the  other,  be- 
cause in  a  certain  part  of  it  was  TEFi  Topheth  2  Kings  23:  10,  where 
infants  were  burnt  to  the  idol  Moloch,  Jer.  7:  31. 

§  16.  Forests,  e'^I^"?- 

Forests  are  mentioned  in  Joshua  17:  15,  and  in  many  other  pas- 
sages. They  are  mentioned  so  frequently  as  to  convince  us,  that  the 
Hebrews  anciently  were  not  often  compelled,  like  the  modern  inhabi- 
tants of  Palestine,  to  burn  the  excrements  of  animals  for  fuel ;  al- 
though it  may  have  sometimes  been  the  case,  as  is  probable  from 
Ezek.  4:  15.  The  forests  which  are  spoken  of  with  the  greatest 
praise  in  the  Bible  are,  I.  The  cedar  forest  on  mount  Lebanon,  see 
§  14.  I.  also  1  Kings  7:  2.  2  Kings  19:  23.  Hos.  14:  G— 8.  II.  The 
forest  of  pines  and  frs  on  Antilihanus,  which  was  first  reduced  into 
the  possession  of  the  Hebrews  by  David.  2  Sam.  8:  5,  6.  1  Chron. 
18:  4.  III.  The  forest  of  oalcs  on  mount  Bashan.  Zech.  11:  2. 
IV.  The  forest  of  Ephraim,  wdiich  the  Ephraimites  began  to  cut 
down  so  early  as  the  time  of  Joshua,  see  ch.  17:  15,  but  of  which 
there  were  some  remains  as  late  as  the  time  of  David,  2  Sam.  18:  G, 
8,  17.  A  part  of  it  seems  to  have  been  the  wood  near  the  city  of 
Bethel,  mentioned  2  Kings  2:  24. 

V.  A  forest  on  the  boundary  line  between  Judah  and  Benjamin, 
near  the  city  Baalah,  which  was  thence  called  Kirjath  Jearim, 
c^n:-;  r.-'-ip,  or  the  city  of  the  forest,  Jos.  15:  9,  10,  GO.  Ezra  2:  25. 


§  17.    DESEUTS.  17 

Neh.  7:  29.  VI.  The  forest  Chareth  r.^n,  and  the  forest  Cliorsha 
iTinh .  The  latter  was  very  large,  in  the  tribe  of  Judah  and  the 
wilderness  of  Ziph,  1  Sam.  22:  5.  23:  14—16.  VH.  The  shrub 
fields  on  tlie  shores  of  lake  Merom  and  the  Jordan,  called  '"xa 
'vPyn  the  pride,  and,  sometimes  in  the  English  translation,  the  swell- 
ing of  the  Jordan.  Zech.  11:  3.  Jer.  12:  5.  49:  19.  50:  44.  VIII. 
The  forest  Joardes,  east  of  the  Jordan,  mentioned  by  Josephus  as 
having  been  cut  down  by  the  Romans,  see  his  Jewish  War,  B.  VIL 
chap.  6.  §  5.  IX.  The  forests  on  the  top  of  Carmel,  and  on  the 
sides  of  mount  Tabor. 

If  at  tlie  present  period  forests  are  rarely  to  be  met  with  iu  Palestine,  we 
must  remember  that  not  only  many  of  them  were  cut  do^-n  by  the  Hebrews 
themselves,  but  that  they  were  often  destroyed  also  by  the  enemies,  who  at 
different  times  laid  waste  Judea.  We  should  not  be  surprised,  therefore,  if 
wood  should  be  wanting  for  fuel,  though  not  much  is  required  in  that  warm 
climate,  and  that  the  dried  excrements  of  quadrupeds  should  be  used  in  its 
stead. 


§  17.  Deserts. 

T^e  Deserts  ti-isi.ri,  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  ai-e  uncultivated 
tracts  of  earth  of  two  kinds;  some  mountainous,  but  not  destitute 
of  water;  others  are  plains,  covered  with  sterile  sands,  in  which 
fountains  are  very  rare,  and  still  fewer  are  those,  which  afford 
water  fit  to  drink.  They  scarcely  make  their  way  out  of  the 
thirsty  earth,  and  are  soon  absorbed  again.  These  plains  produce, 
notwithstanding,  a  scanty  herbage,  upon  which  the  sheep,  goats, 
and  camels  feed.  The  sands,  which  are  scorched  by  the  heat  of 
the  sun,  are  very  light ;  and  are  borne  about  by  heavy  winds,  like 
the  waves  of  the  sea.  One  whirlwind  piles  them  up  in  immense 
heaps  and  leaves  them  standing;  the  succeeding  one  takes  them 
and  carries  them  to  another  place.  In  these  deserts  there  were 
formerly  villages  and  towns.  Josh.  15:  61,  62.  1  Sam.  23:  19.  They 
were  not  standing  in  the  days  of  Jerome,  (Prolog,  in  Comment.  Amos). 

The  mountain  deserts  are  not  of  so  dreary  and  unproductive  a 
character.  These  deserts  obtained  names  from  the  places,  near 
which  they  were  situated.  The  most  celebrated  is  the  Great  Desert, 
which  according  to  Jerome,  (Prolog,  in  Comment.  Amos,)  com- 
mences at  the  city  of  Tecoa,  which  was  six  miles  south  of  Bethlehem. 
2* 


18     §  18.  THE  JORDAN,  LAKE  MEROM,  AND  GENNESARETH. 

It  extends  through  Arabia  Deserta  as  far  as  the  Persian  Gulf,  and 
north  along  the  Euphrates  beyond  the  city  of  Bir.  This  large  tract 
is  called  in  the  Bible  the  Desert  of  Judah,  because  it  commences 
within  the  limits  of  that  tribe,  Josh.  19:  34.  Ps.  63:  1.  2  Chron.  20: 
■20.  JlEsft.  3:  1.  Mark  1:  4.  Jolm  10:  40.  The  Desert  of  Engedi  is 
on  the  western  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  connects  M'itli  the  desei't 
of  Ziph.  Both  have  lofty  mountains  and  many  caves.  More  to  the 
south  is  the  desert  of  Maon  '|'"1X"9 ,  the  desert  of  Carmcl  Avith  a  city  of 
the  same  name,  the  desert  of  Tecoa,  H^ipn ,  also  with  a  city  of  the 
same  name ;  all  of  which  are  parts  of  the  desert  of  Judah.  The 
Desert  of  Jericho  is  that  chain  of  mountains,  which  separates  the 
mount  of  Olives  from  the  city  of  Jericho.  The  Desert  of  Beth  Avert 
seems  to  be  pan  of  mount  Ephraim,  which  exhibits,  as  Josephus  him- 
self observes,  in  the  part  towards  the  Jordan,  a  bald  and  rough  ap- 
pearance.   Josh.  18:  12. 

§  18.  The  Jordan,  lake  Merom  and  Gennesareth. 

The  only  river  in  Palestine  of  any  considerable  size  is  the  Jor- 
dan, which,  as  was  first  discovered  under  the  tetrarchate  of  Philip, 
has  its  source  from  lake  Pliiala,  at  the  foot  of  mount  Libanus.  Hav- 
ing first  measured  from  this  lake  a  subterranean  journey  of  thirteen 
miles  and  three  quarters,  it  bursts  forth  from  the  earth  with  a  great 
noise  at  Paneas,  otherwise  called  Cesarea  PhiHppi,  see  Josephus' 
Jewish  War,  B.  I.  ch.  21.  B.  III.  ch.  10.  It  then  advances  about 
thirteen  miles  further,  and  discharges  its  waters  into  lake  Merom  or 
Samochonitis. 

Lake  Merom  in  the  spring,  when  the  water  is  highest,  is  seven 
miles  long  and  three  and  a  half  broad,  but  the  marshes  extend  to 
Daphne,  where  the  Jordan  issues  from  it.  In  the  summer  it  is  noth- 
ing but  a  marsh ;  in  some  parts  indeed  it  is  sowed  with  rice,  but  com- 
monly it  is  covered  with  shrubs  and  rushes,  which  afford  a  hiding 
place  to  wild  beasts,  Jewish  War,  B.  IV.  ch.  1.  §  1. 

The  Jordan,  after  it  has  left  lake  Merom,  flows  on  thirteen  miles, 
and  enters  Gennesareth,  which  is  also  called  the  sea  of  Galilee  or 
Tiberias.  The  waters  of  this  lake,  which  is  sixteen  miles  long  and 
five  broad,  are  pure  and  sweet,  and  it  abounds  in  fish,  Strabo,  p.  714. 
It  is  surrounded  with  fruitful  hills  and  mountains,  from  which  many 
rivulets  descend. 


§  19.    THE    DEAD    SEA.  19 

The  breadth  of  the  Jordan,  at  its  egress  from  the  hike  Gennesa- 
reth,  is  from  150  to  200  feet,  and  it  is  7  feet  in  depth.  With  many 
•windings  it  runs  through  the  pL^in,  uliich  is  denominated,  from 
the  river  itself,  the  Region  of  the  Jordan.  From  the  Avest  it  re- 
ceives five  tributaries,  which  are  not  much  known ;  from  the  east  it 
receives  the  Jabbok,  the  Jaezei",  the  Kerith,  and  the  Acacia  torrent, 
so  called  from  the  valley  of  the  same  name.  The  Jordan  owes 
its  origin  to  the  perpetual  snows  of  Antilibanus;  consequently,  in 
the  time  of  harvest,  which  commences  in  the  latter  half  of  April, 
when  it  is  swollen  by  the  melted  snows  of  that  mountain,  it  dashes 
on  rapidly  and  fills  the  whole  of  its  upper  channel,  Jos.  3:  15.  4:  18. 
1  Chron.  12:  15,  for  the  channel  of  the  river  in  the  vicinity  of  Jeri- 
cho, the  place,  of  which  we  are  speaking,  is  double.  The  lower 
one  is  ordinarily  from  70  to  80  feet  broad,  through  which  the  water 
flows  the  whole  year;  it  is  10  or  12  feet  deep,  and  the  distance  from 
the  upper  edge  of  the  channel  bank  to  the  surface  of  the  water  is 
from  4  to  8  feet.  The  other  channel,  called  the  upper  one,  is 
broader  than  the  lower,  varying  from  2  to  600  paces,  and  is  filled 
in  the  beginning  of  summer  by  the  swelling  of  the  Avaters,  as  just 
observed.  Travellers  have  commonly  visited  the  Jordan  either 
before  or  after  this  time ;  hence  they  say  nothing  of  its  rise. 
Mirike,  however.  Travels,  p.  119,  testifies,  tluit  he  found  the  upper 
channel  still  wet  and  slippery.  Many  are  inclined  to  suppose,  that 
the  river  has  hollowed  the  first  channel  so  deep,  that  it  now  never 
passes  it. 

§  19.  The  Dead  Sea.   na'iyn  d;;. 

The  Jordan  empties  its  waters  into  the  Dead  Sea,  sometimes  call- 
ed the  Eastern  Sea,  sometimes  the  sea  of  Siddim,  sometimes  the  sea 
of  the  Plain ;  because  it  occupies  the  plain  of  Siddim,  in  which  the 
cities  of  Sodom,  Gomorrah,  Admah,  Zeboim,  and  Zoar,  were  situated, 
Deut.  3:  17.  Gen.  18:  20.  19:  24  et  seq.  Joel  2:  20.  Zech.  14:  8. 
As  the  Jordan,  before  the  celebrated  destruction  of  this  plain,  dis- 
charged itself  in  the  same  place  that  it  now  does,  the  conclusion  is  a 
necessary  one,  that  the  lake,  which  then  existed,  was  subterranean, 
comp.  Gen.  14:  3.  It  was  covered  with  a  crust  of  earth,  which  was 
sustained  by  the  Asphaltus,  a  pitchy,  bituminous  substance,  which 
emerged  from  the  bottom  of  the  lake,  and  collected  during  a  long 


2")  §  10.    THE    DEAD    SEA. 

course  of  years  in  large  masses.  The  Asphaltus  arises  from  the 
lake  to  this  clay,  tloals  on  its  surface,  and  occasionally  explodes, 
Isa.  34:  9,  10.  Wisd.  10:  7.  Jude  7.  Hence  it  has  obtained  the 
name  of  the  lake  Asphaltites.  This  statement  is  confirmed  by 
Gen,  14:  10,  where  mention  is  made  of  slimepits,  through  Avhich 
the  Asphaltus  or  bitumen  penetrated  from  the  subterranean  water. 
This  bitumen,  being  at  length  set  on  fire  by  the  lightning,  burnt, 
and  the  earth  by  which  it  was  covered,  being  deprived  of  its  sup- 
port, sunk  in  the  waters,  and  the  lake  made  its  appearance.  Gen.  19: 
24. 

The  lake  is  said  to  be   67   miles  from  north  to  south,  and  17  in 
its  greatest  breadth  from  west  to  east.     Its  waters  are  a  little  im- 
pregnated with  alum,  and  very  much  so  with  salt ;  hence  it  is  called 
the  Salt  Sea,  Gen,  14:  4,  and  because  it  preserves  nothing  alive  in 
it,  it  is  also  called  the  Dead  Sea,     Whatever  is  immersed  in  its  wa- 
ters and  taken  out  again,  is  covered  with  a  crust  of  salt;   which 
seems  to  have  been  the  destiny  of  Lot's  wife,  unless  indeed  the 
discourse  be  merely  of  a  monument  heaped  up  of  incrusted  salt, 
Gen.  19:  26.     The  shores,  excepting  the  north-western,  are  moun- 
tainous.     On    the    north-west    is    a   plain,  impregnated    with  salt, 
barren,  scorched,  and  covered  with  cinders.     This  fact  explains  to 
us  the  origin  of  the  custom  of  sprinkling  salt  upon  desert  places, 
unless  reference  be  had  in  the  custom  to  other  salt  valleys,  of  which 
there  are  numbers    in   the   East,  Deut.  29:  23.   Judg.  9:  45.      In 
this    plain    grows    the  solanum  melangenae    p^n,    also   called   the 
vine  of  Sodom,  which  bears  what  have  been  denominated  the  ap- 
ples and  also  the  grapes  and  clusters  of  Sodom,  otherwise  called 
the  bitter  and  poisonous  grapes  and  clusters.     They  are  said  to  be 
beautiful  outside,  but  within,   corruption  and  ashes,  Deut.  32:  32. 
In  the  spring,   when  the  Jordan  rises,  the  lake  itself  is  swollen. 
The  inhabitants,  therefore,  dig  pits  on    the    shore,  which  receive 
the  waters  of  the  lake;  the  water  in  the  pits  stagnates  after  the 
fall  of  the  lake,  goes  off  gradually  in  vapor  and  leaves  a  bed  of  salt, 
which  sort  of  salt  is  used  by  the  whole  of  that  region,  Zeph.  2:  9. 
Ezek.  47:  11. 

The  other  rivers,  which  empty  into  the  Dead  Sea  are,  I.  from 
the  west,  Kidron,  y^mdoQog  tcov,  Kedgav,  John  18:  1,  which  arises 
in  a  valley  of  the  same  name  between  Jerusalem  and  the  mount  of 
Olives;  its  channel  is  dry,  except  in  the  winter.     Its  direction  is 


§  20.    OTHER    RIVERS.  21 

first  south,  then  east,  through  the  steep  cliffs  of  the  desert  Engedi, 
where  it  receives  some  accession  by  means  of  the  torrents  from 
the  mountains,  and  then  descends  into  the  Dead  Sea.  II.  Near 
the  southern  extremity  flows  in  tlie  Saphia  or  Saphria,  a  conside- 
rable stream.  ITT.  On  the  eastern  shore,  nearly  in  the  centre, 
is  the  mouth  of  the  torrent  Zerea,  and  a  little  north  of  it,  lY.  is  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Arnon,  which  has  its  rise  in  the  valleys  of  mount 
Gilead,  from  the  torrents  of  that  mountain.  It  flows  first  in  a  south- 
ern direction  and  then  west,  so  as  to  form  with  the  Dead  Sea,  the 
Jordan,  and  the  Jobbak,  a  peninsula.  The  channel  of  this  river,  as 
we  have  already  said,  separated  on  the  east  the  Gadites  and  the  Reu- 
benites  from  the  Ammonites,  and  on  the  south  the  Reubenites  from 
the  Moabites. 

§  20.  Other  Rivers. 

Of  the  other  rivers  and  torrents,  which  are  somewhat  celebrated, 
may  be  mentioned,  I.  The  Belus,  n-n-^-J  rrrb ,  a  small  river,  ac- 
cording to  Pliny,  only  4  miles  in  length ;  it  arises  in  the  mountains 
of  the  tribe  of  Asher  and  empties  into  the  Mediterranean  about  two 
furlongs  south  of  Ptolemais.  The  sand  of  its  banks  has  been  much 
used  in  the  manufecture  of  glass,  and  it  is  said,  "  that  the  making  of 
glass  first  originated  from  this  river." 

n.  The  EasHOX.  It  arises  from  the  foot  of  mount  Tabor,  where 
the  Tabor  unites  with  the  mountain  called  Little  Hermon ;  it  then 
divides  into  two  branches.  The  smaller  share  of  the  waters,  that 
descend  from  these  mountains,  flows  east  through  the  valley  of  Jez- 
reel  into  lake  Gennesareth.  The  remainder,  whicli  forms  the  larger 
body  of  the  two,  runs  west  through  the  valley  of  Jezreel,  and,  after 
being  increased  by  the  accession  of  many  small  streams,  enters 
the  sea  near  Carmel.  The  last  mentioned  branch  of  the  river  was 
called  Megiddo,  and  anciently  divided  the  tribe  of  Issachar  from  the 
tribe  of  Zebulun. 

in.  The  Brook  of  Reeds,  n:;^  bn: ;  it  is  dry  except  in  the  win- 
ter. In  its  course  from  east  to  west,  it  formerly  separated  the  tribe 
of  Epbraim  from  that  of  Manasseh,  Jos.  17:  8,  9,  It  enters  the  Medi- 
terranean south  of  Cesarea. 

IV.  The  Brook  Eshkol  ;  it  rises  in  the  mountains  of  Judah  and 
enters  the  Mediterranean  at  Askelon.  It  seems  to  be  the  same  with 
the  brook  Sorek,  Num.  13:  24.  Jud.  IG:  4. 


22  §  21.    ON    THE    CLIJIATE    OF    PALESTINE. 

V.  The  Brook  Besor;  it  enters  the  sea  at  Gaza. 

Note. — It  may  be  remarked  here,  that  ^"3  signifies  a  river, 
brook,  or  torrent,  which  flows  in  the  winter,  thougli  it  may  be  per- 
fectly dry  in  the  summer ;  while  ^n  signifies  a  large  stream,  and  if 
it  have  tlie  article  pyefixed,  almost  always  means  the  Euphrates. 

§  21.  On  the  Climate  of  Palestine. 

The  state  of  the  atmosphere  in  this  climate  is  different  in  different 
places,  but  it  is  not  so  changeable,  as  in  some  parts  of  Europe.  "We 
shall  state  its  variations  during  the  six  divisions  of  the  oriental  year, 
mentioned  Gen.  8:  22,  which  have  been  perpetuated  to  this  day 
among  the  Arabians,  see  Golii  Lex.  Ai'ab.  p.  934. 

During  the  first  part  of  the  year,  which  is  called  "ii::j5  or  the  har- 
vest, and  which  extends  from  the  middle  of  April  to  the  middle  of 
June,  the  sky  is  serene,  the  atmosphere  in  the  latter  part  of  April  is 
warm,  sometimes  oppressively  so,  excepting  in  the  valleys  and  on  the 
shores  of  the  sea,  where  it  is  temperate.  The  heat  continues  to  in- 
crease, and  to  become  more  unpleasant  towards  the  latter  part  of  this 
division  of  the  seasons. 

During  the  second  part  of  the  year,  which  is  called  y^^ ,  the  time 
of  fruits  or  summer,  extending  from  the  middle  of  June  to  the  middle 
of  August,  the  heat  is  so  severe,  that  the  effect  of  it  is  felt  through 
the  night,  and  the  inhabitants  sleep  under  the  open  sky. 

The  third  season,  extending  from  the  middle  of  August  to  the 
middle  of  October,  is  called  en  or  the  hot  season ;  because  in  the 
commencement  of  it  the  heat  continues  very  severe,  although  it  soon 
begins  to  abate. 

From  the  time  of  harvest  or  the  middle  of  April  to  the  middle  of 
September,  there  is  neither  rain  nor  thunder,  Prov.  2G:  1.  1  Sam. 
12:  17.  Jerome  on  Amos  4:  7.  Sometimes  in  the  beginning  of  the 
harvest  or  the  latter  half  of  April,  a  cloud  is  perceived  in  the  morn- 
ing, which,  as  the  sun  rises,  gradually  disappears,  Hos.  G:  4.  But  in 
the  months  of  May,  June,  July  and  August,  not  a  cloud  is  seen,  and 
the  earth  is  not  wet,  except  by  the  dew,  which  is,  therefore,  every 
where  used  as  a  symbol  of  the  divine  benevolence.  Gen.  27:  28.  49: 
25.  Deut.  32:  2.  33:  13.  Job  29:  19.  Mic.  5:  7.  The  dew,  copiou? 
a5  it  is,  affords  no  support  in  the  severe  heat  of  summei',  except  tc 


§  21.    ox    TIIK    CLIJIATE    OF    PALESTINE.  23 

the  Stronger  kind  of  herbs ;  the  smaller  and  Jess  vigorous,  unless 
watered  from  some  rivulet  or  by  human  art  and  labor,  wither  and 
die,  Ps.  32:  4.  If  at  this  season  of  the  year,  a  spark  or  brand  fall 
among  the  dry  herbs  and  grass,  a  wide  conflagration  commences, 
especially  if  brambles,  shrubs,  or  a  forest  be  near,  Ps.  83:  14.  Isa.  9: 
IS.  Jer.  21:  14.  comp.  Exod.  22:  G.  Joel  1:  19.  Jer.  9:  12.  The 
country  generally  presents  a  squalid  appearance,  for  the  fountains 
and  brooks  are  dried,  and  the  ground  is  so  hard,  that  it  splits  open 
into  fissures.  These  effects  are  accelerated,  if  the  east  wind  hap- 
pens to  blow  a  few  days,  Avhich  is  not  only  destructive  to  the  vines 
and  harvest-fields  on  land,  but  to  the  vessels  at  sea  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean, Hos.  13:  15.  Jon.  4:  8.  Job  14:  2.  15:  2.  Isa.  40:  7.  Gen. 
41:  6,  23'.  Ezck.  17:  10.  19:  12.  27:  26.  Ps.  48:  7.  103:  15.  Acts 
27:  14.  Every  wind  is  called  by  the  orientals  """ir,  an  east  wind, 
which  blows  from  any  point  of  tlie  compass  between  the  east  and 
north,  and  between  the  east  and  south ;  see  Shaw's  Travels,  p.  285. 
and  Prosper  Alpinus  de  Medicina  Egyptiaca,  near  the  beginning. 
The  breeze,  which  blows  a  few  hours  before  the  setting  of  the  sun  in 
that  climate,  is  called  among  the  Persians  to  this  time,  as  in  Gen.  3: 
7,  the  breeze  of  the  day,  i.  e.  the  cooling  or  refreshing  breeze  of  the 
day ;  see  Chardin  Yoy.  T.  IV.  p.  8. 

During  the  fourth  part  of  the  year,  which  is  called  ""T ,  or  seed- 
time, i.  e.  from  the  middle  of  October  to  the  middle  of  December, 
the  appearance  of  the  sky  is  various,  sometimes  dark  and  cloudy, 
but  calm ;  and  sometimes  rainy.  In  the  latter  part  of  October,  be- 
gin the  first  or  autumnal  rains,  so  necessary  for  the  sower.  The 
atmosphere  still  continues  warm,  and  at  times  it  is  very  hot;  but 
the  weather  gradually  grows  colder,  and  towards  the  end  of  thi;. 
division  of  the  seasons,  the  snows  fall  on  the  mountains.  The 
brooks  are  still  dry,  and  the  water  in  the  rivers  is  shallow.  In 
the  second  half  of  November  the  leaves  fall  from  the  trees. 
Some,  who  are  less  robust,  find  the  need  of  a  fire,  which  they  con- 
tinue almost  till  April,  Jer.  36:  22 ;  others  do  without  one  the  whole 
winter. 

The  fifth  part  of  the  year,  t^-n ,  extending  from  the  middle  of 
December  to  the  middle  of  February,  constitutes  the  winter. 
The  snows,  which  are  then  not  unfrequent,  scarcely  continue 
through  the  day,  except  on  the  mountains ;  the  ice  is  thin  and 
melts   as    soon    as    the   sun   ascends    to    any   considerable   height. 


24  §  22.    FERTILITY    OF    THK    SOIL. 

The  north  winds  are  chill,  and  the  cold,  particularly  on  the  moun- 
tains, which  are  covered  with  snow,  is  intense.  The  roads  are  slip- 
pery, and  travelling  is  both  tedious  and  dangerous,  particularly 
through  the  declivities  of  the  mountains,  Jer.  13:  16.  23:  12.  Si- 
racli  43:  22.  Matt.  24:  20.  When  the  sky  is  serene  and  tranquil 
and  the  sun  is  unclouded,  the  heat  in  the  valleys  and  plains  is  some- 
times great,  as  Josephus  expressly  testifies  in  regard  to  the  plain  of 
Cesarea  near  the  sea.  Thunder,  lightning,  and  hail,  are  frequent ; 
the  brooks  are  filled ;  the  rivers  are  swollen ;  the  fields  are  cov- 
ered with  flowers.  As  January  departs  and  February  enters,  the 
grain-fields  flourish ;  the  trees  put  forth  their  foliage  ;  the  amyg- 
dalus,  the  earliest  tree  of  the  forest,  is  in  bloom  about  the  middle  of 
February. 

Finally,  the  sixth  part  of  the  year,  from  the  middle  of  Februai-y 
to  the  middle  of  April,  is  called  "I'D  or  cold,  because  in  the  com- 
mencement of  it  the  weather  is  still  cold,  though  it  soon  grows 
warm  and  even  hot.  The  rains  still  continue,  but .  are  diminished ; 
thunder  and  lightning  and  hail  are  frequent,  though  they  cease  to- 
wards the  end  of  this  season.  The  rain  during  this  season  is  called 
the  latter  rain. 

The  first  rain,  or  autumnal,  and  the  latter,  or  vernal,  are  necessary 
to  the  fertility  of  the  earth,  and  greatly  to  be  desired,  Lev.  2G:  4. 
Deut.  8:  7.  11:  14,  17.  Isa.  30:  23.  Jer.  3:  3.  5:  24.  Ilosea  G:  3. 
Joel  2:  3.  Zech.  10:  1.  Job  29:  23.  Prov.  16:  15.  25:  14.  .James  5: 
7.  Rains  in  those  regions  are  cold,  and  are  announced  by  previous 
Avhirlwinds,  raising  the  dust,  which  are  expressed,  by  Arabic  words, 
which  mean  messengers,  and  good  messengers  or  tidings,  Koran  7:  55. 
77:  1 — 3.  By  the  Hebrews  they  are  sometimes  called  tlie  word 
or  the  command  of  God,  'ii  n'n'cx,  'I'l  i:'!  Ps.  147:  15,  18.  The 
north  and  west  wind  in  particular  indicate  rain,  1  Kings  18:  42 — 
45.  Prov.  25:  23.  If  the  evening  be  red,  the  morrow  is  expect- 
ed to  be  serene ;  if  the  morning  be  red,  rain  is  expected.  Matt. 
16:2. 


§  22.  Fertility  of  the  Soil. 

The  fertility  of  soil,  so  celebrated  by  Moses,  is  confirmed  by  the 
testimony  of  all,  who  have  visited  this  region.  Even  the  unculti- 
vated and  desert  tracts    are    not   destitute  of  rich  spots,  although 


§  22.    FERTILITY    OF    THE    SOIL.  25 

they  have  comparatively  but  a  small  claim  to  the  praise  of  fertili- 
ty. If  the  untilled  and  waste  places  at  the  present  day  afford  no 
very  prepossessing  appearance,  it  ought  to  be  remembered,  that 
they  were  predicted  by  Moses,  Deut.  29:  22  et  seq.,  and  that  the 
country  has  been  laid  waste  successively  by  Assyrians,  Chaldeans, 
Syrians,  Romans,  Saracens,  the  European  crusaders,  the  Turks, 
and  Moguls ;  and  that  it  now  groans  under  the  dominion  of  the 
Turks,  who  neither  protect  the  agriculturist  from  the  incursions 
of  the  Arabs,  nor  afford  him  any  encouragement,  but  the  contrary. 
And  yet  it  is  the  unanimous  testimony  of  travellers  in  regard  to 
this  counti-}',  that,  where  it  is  cultivated,  it  is  exti'emcly  fertile. 
It  produces  all  sorts  of  fruit-trees ;  and  Aines  are  not  wanting,  al- 
though the  Mahometans  do  not  drink  wine.  There  are  abun- 
dance of  domesticated  animals,  of  wild  beasts  and  birds.  Josephus, 
Jeicish  War,  B.  III.  c.  3.  §  3,  praises  Perea,  (which  at  the  present 
time  is  a  desert,)  for  its  vines  and  its  palm  trees ;  and  particularly 
celebrates  the  region  near  the  lake  Gennesareth,  also  the  plain  of 
Jericho,  which  are  now  uninhabited  and  desolate,  B.  Ill,  c.  10.  §  8. 
B.  IV.  c.  8.  §  3.  Indeed,  we  are  informed  by  Josephus,  that  in 
Galilee  there  were  20-4  cities  and  towns,  that  the  largest  of  the  cities 
had  150,000,  and  the  smallest  towns  15,000  inhabitants.  Hence 
we  can  account  for  it,  that  Josephus  himself  in  this  small  province, 
short  of  40  miles  long  and  30  broad,  collected  an  army  of  nearly  an 
100,000  men.  J.  War.  B.  11.  c.  20.  §  6.  As  so  many  people  were 
collected  in  such  a  small  extent  of  country,  it  is  clear,  that  the  arts 
and  commerce  must  have  been  patronized,  and  consequently  the 
sciences;  which  leaves  us  to  conclude,  that  the  miracles  of  Jesus 
were  performed  in  a  country,  where  they  could  be  examined  and 
fairly  discussed.  The  reproach,  which  is  cast  upon  Galilee  in  John 
7:  52,  has  no  reference  to  the  character  of  its  soil  or  climate,  but  only 
to  the  fact,  that  the  prophet  or  Messiah  was  not  expected  from  that 
part  of  Palestine. 

]S:oTE. — There  is  an  intimation  in  Deut.  8:  9,  that  there  were 
nmies  in  Palestine,  but  we  do  not  any  where  learn,  that  they  were 
wrought  by  the  Hebrews.  The  author  of  the  book  of  Job  men- 
tions mines,  in  the  commencement  of  his  28th  chapter,  but  it  is 
not  certain,  that  he  lias  reference  to  Palestine ;  and  a  very  general 
mention  is  made  of  them  in  Ps.  95:  4.  Isa.  51:  1.     It  is  a  well-known 

3 


26  §  23.    CALAMITIES  TO  WmCII  TALES /INE  IS  SUBJECT. 

fact  that  mines,  at  a  comparatively  recent  period,  Avere  wrought 
at  Sarepta,  a  city  of  Phenicia.  Scanty  as  our  information  is  in  re- 
gard to  their  mines,  there  is,  nevertheless,  reason  to  believe,  that 
the  Hebrews  understood  metallurgy,  or  the  art  of  smelting  ores; 
for  we  find  mention  made  of  an  iron  furnace,  ^.p2ti  i"3,  Deut. 
4:  20.  1  Kings  8:  51.  Jer.  11:  4;  otherwise  called  the  furnace  of 
silver  ore,  i.  e.  a  furnace  for  refining  silver  ore,  rjS3  C-i-D  "iO, 
Ezek.  22:  18 — 22;  called  also  the  gold  furnace,  atjT  'lis,  i.  e.  a 
furnace  tor  refining  gold,  Prov.  17:  3.  27:  21.  The  word  5"D  or 
;-& ,  a  metallurgical  expression,  means,  (1.)  a  sort  of  unrcfned  ore, 
which,  when  melted,  is  employed  in  glazing  earthen  vessels,  Prov. 
26:  23 ;  (2.)  it  means  also  alloy  or  metal  of  a  meaner  sort,  which, 
by  melting  them  together,  was  artificially  combined  with  gold  and 
silver,  Ps.  119:  119.  Prov.  25:  4.  Isa.  1:  22,  25.  Ezek.  22:  18, 
19. 

"  Fullers'  soap,"  r""': ,  which  was  employed  not  only  in  washing 
garments,  but  in  cleansing  gold  and  silver  from  the  dross,  was  well 
known,  Mai.  3:  2.  Jer.  2:  22. 

§  23.  Calamities  to  "which  Palestine  is  subject. 

I.  It  is  often  afflicted  with  the  pestilence,  which  enters  from 
Egypt  and  other  countries,  and  is  frequently  spoken  of  in  the 
Bible. 

II.  Earthquakes  are  common ;  see  Abdollatif.  Dendwurd.  Ae- 
gypt.  p.  335  et  seq.  The  city  of  Jerusalem  rarely  received  any 
detriment  from  this  source,  Ps.  46:  3  et  seq.  The  earthquakes, 
by  whicli  the  country  with  the  exception  of  Jerusalem,  was  so 
often  shaken  and  laid  waste,  were  a  source  of  images  to  the 
prophets,  by  which  any  scenes  of  destruction  and  overthrow  were 
represented,  Ps.  60:  2,  3.  Isa.  29:  6.  54:  10.  Jer.  4:  24.  Hag.  2:  6, 
22.  Matt.  24:  7. 

III.  Thunder,  lightning,  hail,  inundations,  and  severe  winds  hap- 
pen in  the  winter,  Isa.  11:  15.  Pliny,  Histor.  Nat.  II.  49.  Shaw's 
Travels,  p.  289.  From  these  operations  of  nature,  the  prophets 
borrowed  many  figures,  Ps.  18:  8—15.  29:  1—10.  42:  7.  Isa.  5:  30. 
8:  7,  8.  11:  15."  28:  2.  29:  6.  24:  18.  Matt.  7:  25. 

IV.  Vast  bodies  of  migrating  locusts,  n2";x ,  called  by  the  Orien- 
tals the  armies  of  God,  lay  waste  the  country.     They  observe  as 


§  23.    CALAMITIES  TO  -SVHICn  PALESTINE  IS  SUBJECT.  27 

regular  order,  when  tliey  march,  as  an  army.     At  evening  they 
descend  from  their  flight,  and  form,  as  it  were,  their  camps.     In  the 
morning,  when  the  sun  has  risen  considerably,  they  ascend  again,  if 
they  do  not  find  food,  and  fly  in  the  direction  of  the  wind,  Prov.  30: 
27.  Nah.  3:  16,  17.     They  go  in  immense  numbers,  Isa.  46:  23,  and 
occupy  a  space  of  10  or  12  miles  in  length,  and  4  or  5  in  breadth, 
and  are  so  deep  that  the  sun  cannot  penetrate  through  them ;  so  that 
they  convert  the  day  into  night,  and  bring  a  temporary  darkness  on 
the  land,  Joel  2:  2,  10.  Exod.  10:  15.     The  sound  of  their  wings  is 
terrible,   Joel   2:   2.      When   they    descend   upon   the   earth,   they 
cover  a  vast  tract  a  foot  and  a  half  high,  Joel  1:  5.  2:  11.  Judg.  G: 
5.    7:  12.    Exod.  10:  15.     If  the  air  is  cold  and  moist,  or  if  they 
be    wet   with   the    dew,   they   remain   where   they   happen    to   be 
till  they  are   dried  and  warmed  by  the  sun,  Nah.  3:  17.      They 
decamp  at  length  in  good  order  and  march  almost  in  a  direct  line 
north.     Nothing  stops  them.     They  fill  the  ditches  which  are  dug 
to  stop  them,  with  their  bodies,  and  extinguish  by  their  numbers 
the  fires   which    are    kindled.      They  pass    over  walls   and   enter 
the  doors  and    windows    of  houses,  Joel  2:  7—9.      They  devour 
everything  which  is  green,  strip  off  the  bark  of  trees,  and  even 
break  them  to  pieces  by  their  weight,  Exod.  10:  12,  15.   Joel  1: 
4,  7,  10,  12,'  16,  18,  20.     2:  3.      They  make  a  loud  noise  when 
eating,  Jer,  51:  14.      The  greatest   part  of  the    evil  is,  that  the 
first  army  of  locusts  is  likely  to  be  succeeded  by  another,  a  third, 
and  a  fourth,  which  consume  all  that  is  left,  and  leave  the  ground 
in  appearance,  as  if  it  had  been  burnt  over  with  fire.     When  they 
have  consumed  everything,  they  fly  away  in  the  direction  of  the 
wind,  leaving  behind  them  not   only  their   foetid   excrements,  but 
their  eggs,  buried  in  the  ground,  from  which  is  produced,  in  the 
following   spring,  a  much   more   numerous  progeny  of  these  evil 
invaders.     They  are  borne,  at  length,  over  the  sea,  an  element  with 
which  they  have  not  formed  an  acquaintance.     They  descend  up- 
on it,  as  they  do  upon  the  land,  and  are  drowned.     They  are  driven 
by  the  waves    upon    the    shore,  where    they   putrefy,  and    render 
the  air  so  corrupted,  as  to  breed  the  pestilence,  Exod.  10:  13 — 20. 
Joel  2:  20.     These  locusts  are  much  longer  than  those  among  us, 
being  5  or  6  inches  long,  and  an  inch  and  a  half  thick.     The  form 
of  the  head  is  like  that  of  a  horse.     Hence  they  are  often  com- 
pared to  horses.      In  some  instances,  it  is  like  the  human  head, 


28  §  24.    DIVISION    OF   PALESTINE 

Rev.  9:  7.  Their  teetli  are  sharp  and  are  compared  to  those  of 
lions,  Joel  1:  5.  2:  4.  There  are  different  species  of  them;  eight  or 
nine  occur  in  the  Bible. 

V.  Famine  is  a  consequence  of  tlie  devastations  of  the  locusts, 
and  of  the  defect  of  the  first  and  latter  rain.  Famines  have  been  so 
severe,  that,  in  besieged  cities,  the  inhabitants  have  been  reduced 
to  the  necessity  not  only  of  eating  animals  not  fit  to  be  eaten,  but 
human  bodies.  Dent.  28:  22 — 49l.  2  Sam.  xxi.  2  Kings  6:  25,  28. 
25:  3,  etc. 

VI.  The  evil  of  the  greatest  magnitude  is  the  wind,  called  by  the 
Arabs  Samoom,  by  the  Turks  Samyel,  and  by  tlie  Hebrews  ^tvh\ , 
Ps.  11:  6,  n:i  n--!,  Jer.  4:  11,  "^.ra  nn,  Isa.  4:  4,  ri-Jj^  rny;:: ,  Isa.  27: 
8.  It  blows  in  Persia,  Babylonia,  Arabia,  and  the  deserts  of  Egypt, 
in  the  months  of  June,  July,  and  August :  in  Nubia,  in  March  and 
April,  September,  October  and  November.  It  continues  not  longer 
than  7  or  8  minutes ;  but  it  destroys  in  a  moment  every  person, 
whom  it  passes,  who  stands  erect.  They  fall  dead,  and  lie  like  one 
sleeping.  If  a  person  takes  hold  of  their  hand,  to  arouse  them,  it 
falls  off.  The  body  soon  after  turns  black.  This  wind  does  not  ex- 
tend high  in  the  air,  nor  descend  below  the  altitude  of  two  feet  from 
the  earth.  Hence  travellers,  when  they  see  it  approaching,  common- 
ly fall  prone  upon  the  ground ;  place  their  feet  in  the  direction  of  the 
wind,  and  apply  their  mouths  as  firmly  as  possible  to  the  earth, 
breathing  as  little  as  they  can,  lest  they  should  receive  into  their 
lungs  any  of  the  passing  Samoom.  The  indications  of  the  Samyel's 
approach  are  distant  clouds,  slightly  tinged  with  red,  in  appearance 
something  like  the  rainbow  ;  also  a  rushing  noise ;  of  the  last  circum- 
stance, however,  some  persons  do  not  make  mention. 

In  houses  and  cities,  its  power  is  not  felt.  Animals,  thougli  ex- 
posed to  it,  do  not  perish,  but  they  tremble  through  all  their  limbs, 
and  instinctively  thrust  down  their  heads.  The  Arabians  sometimes 
use  the  word  Samoom  in  a  broader  sense,  to  denote  any  hot  wind, 
which  continues  for  a  long  time.  In  a  similar  way  the  Hebrews  use 
the  word  ="^-;^,  copap.  Ps.  103:  15,  IG,  etc. 

§  24.  Division  of  Palestine  among  the  Israelites. 

The  Hebrews,  having  taken  the  country  by  arms,  divided  it 
among  the  twelve  tribes.     Tlie  posterity  of  Joseph,  it  is  true,  had 


AMONG    THE    ISRAELITES.  29 

been  divided  into  two,  those  of  Ephriiiin  and  Manasseh,  but  tlie 
tribe  of  Levi  received  only  48  cities  for  its  portion,  Avhich  left 
twelve  tribes,  among  whom  the  main  body  of  the  country  was  to  be 
divided. 

The  region  beyond  the  Jordan  was  assigned  by  Moses  to  the 
tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad,  and  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh,  Deut. 
3:  12—27.  Jos.  12:  1—6.  13:  8—33.  The  southern  part  of  this 
tract  was  allotted  to  Reuben :  it  was  bounded  on  the  east  and  south 
by  the  river  Anion,  on  the  borders  of  which  river  were  situated 
the  Ammonites  to  the  eas;  and  the  Moabites  to  the  south ;  the 
western  limit  was  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Jordan.  The  tract  of 
country  called  Gilead,  in  the  more  limited  sense  of  the  word,  ex- 
tending north  of  Reuben  to  the  lake  Gennesareth,  became  the  por- 
tion of  the  tribe  of  Gad.  The  remainder,  which  was  the  northern 
portion  on  the  further  or  eastern  side  of  the  Jordan,  fell  to  the  half 
tribe  of  Manasseh. 

The  remaining  nine  and  a  half  tribes  took  up  their  abode  on 
this,  i.  e.  the  western,  side  of  the  Jordan.  The  territory  allotted 
to  Judah  was  the  tract,  Avhich  runs  from  the  southern  boundary 
of  Palestine  in  a  northern  direction,  as  far  as  the  entrance  of  the 
Jordan  into  the  Dead  Sea,  the  valley  of  Hinnom,  and  the  northern 
limits  of  the  city  Ekron,  Jos.  15:  1 — 15.  As  this  poition,  in  a 
subsequent  division  of  the  country,  was  too  large,  a  tract  was  set 
off  on  the  western  side  of  it  towards  the  Mediterranean,  the  south- 
ern part  of  which  was  allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Simeon,  and  the 
northern  to  that  of  Dan.  The  limits  of  these  two  tribes  are  not 
defined ;  the  cities  merely,  which  they  obtained,  are  mentioned. 
Jos.  15:  2—12.  19:  1—9,  40—47.  This  part  of  Palestine 
was  divided,  according  to  the  face  of  the  country,  into  2J3  or 
the  southern  district,  nbs'i'ti  or  the  Plain  bordering  on  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea,  the  mountain  or  the  hill-country  of  Judah,  and 
the  Desert  of  Judah,  Jos.  11:  16.  Luke  1:  39.  To  these  the  pro- 
phet Jeremiah  adds  the  following  geographical  divisions,  viz.  the  land 
of  Benjamin,  and  the  Country  round  about  Jerusalem,  but  he  has 
reference  to  a  period  after  tha  separation  of  Israel,  Jer.  32:  44.  33: 13. 

[The  canton,  allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  lay  between  the 
tribes  of  Judah  and  Joseph,  contiguous  to  Samaria  on  the  north,  to 
Judah  on  the  south,  and  to  Dan  on  the  west,  which  last  parted  it  from 
the  Mediterranean.]  Home's  Introduc.  A'^ol.  III.  p.  1 2. 


30  §  25.    DIVI5IOX    OF   PALESTINE 

The  tribe  of  Ephraim  received  the  tract,  extending  to  the  north  of 
Benjamin  as  far  as  the  Brook  of  Reeds,  Jos.  16:  1 — 4,  8.  17:  7 — 10. 
By  the  same  lot,  the  second  half  of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh  received 
its  portion,  the  limits  of  which  cannot,  therefore,  be  accurately  defined, 
Jos.  16:  4.  17:  9.  It  is  clear,  however,  that  the  tribe  of  Manasseh 
come  north  of  Ephraim  and  the  Brook  of  Reeds,  and  though  on  the 
east  it  fell  short  of  the  Jordan,  that  it  extended  on  the  west  as  far  as 
the  Mediterranean,  Jos.  17:  10. 

The  tribe  of  Issachar,  which  was  situated  north  of  the  half  tribe 
of  Manasseh,  obtained  for  its  inheritance  the  plain  of  Jezreel.  It  ex- 
tended south  along  the  Jordan  as  far  as  the  tribe  of  Ephraim. 

Its  northern  limit  was  mount  Tabor,  but  it  does  not  appear  to  have 
reached  to  the  Mediterranean,  Jos.  17:  10.  19:  17 — 23. 

The  canton  of  Asher  extended  from  Carmel  or  the  boundary  line, 
by  which  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh  was  limited  on  the  west,  in  the 
first  instance  in  a  nortbern  direction  along  the  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  then  along  the  borders  of  Pheniqia  to  the  city  Apheca, 
Jos.  19:  24—31. 

The  tribe  of  Zebulun  was  situated  east  of  Asher  and  north  of  Issa- 
char, and  extended  as  far  as  the  egress  of  the  Jordan  from  lake  Gen- 
nesareth,  Jos.  19:  10—15.  Matt.  4:  13. 

The  remainder  of  Palestine  was  allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Naph- 
tali ;  this  canton  was  bounded  by  the  tribes  of  Asher  and  Zebulun, 
the  lake  Gennesareth,  the  Jordan,  and  the  northern  line  of  the 
whole  kingdom,  where,  however,  a  colony  of  Danites  took  up  their 
residence  in  the  city  of  Lais,  afterwai-ds  called  Dan,  Jos.  19:  32 — 39. 
Judg.  xviii. 

After  the  death  of  Solomon  a  contention  arose,  and  the  whole 
country  was  divided  into  the  kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel.  The 
boundary  line  between  them  was  the  northern  hmit  of  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin. 

§  25.  DiTisiox  OF  Palestine  in  the  time  of  Christ. 

Li  the  time  of  Christ  the  country  on  the  western  side  of  the  Jordan 
was  divided  into  three  principal  provinces. 

I.  Galilee.  By  this  name,  which  occurs  a  number  of  times  in 
Joshua,  and  at  a  later  period  very  often,  is  meant  the  territory, 
which  is   surrounded   by  Phenicia,   Syria,  Jordan,  the   lake    Gen- 


IX    THE    TIJtE    OF    CHRIST.  31 

nesareth,  and  the  plain  of  Jezreel.  It  is  in  the  north  of  Palestine, 
and  was  divided  into  lower  or  southern,  and  northern  or  upper  Gali- 
lee. The  latter  section  was  denominated  Galilee  of  the  Gentiles, 
Fahlaia  rav  iOv(a-v,  n-jisr}  is-^h,  Jos.  12:  23.  20:  7.  Matt.  4:  15. 

II.  Samap.ia  ;  it  was  situated  nearly  in  the  centre  of  Palestine, 
but,  though  it  ran  across  the  country,  it  did  not  extend  down  to  the 
Mediterranean.  It  reached  from  Ginea  and  Scythopolis  on  one  side, 
to  Acrabatene  and  Annuath  on  the  other,  John  iv. 

III.  JuDEA,  which  comprehended  Idumea  as  far  as  the  town  of 
Jardan  in  Arabia  Petrea,  and  also  the  shore  of  the  Mediterranean  as 
far  as  Ptolemais,  was  surrounded  by  Samaria,  the  Jordan,  the  Dead 
Sea,  Arabia  Petrea,  and  the  JMediterranean.  Josephus,  Jew.  War, 
Bk.  III.  ch.  3. 

In  Perea  or  the  country  beyond  the  Jordan,  that  is,  on  the  eastern 
side  of  it,  were  eight  provinces  or  cantons. 

I.  Perea,  in  the  more  limited  signification  of  the  word,  viz.  the 
southern  part  of  the  whole  district,  extending  from  the  river  Amon 
to  the  river  Jabbok. 

II.  GiLEAD,  situated  north  of  the  Jabbok. 

III.  Decapolis,  or  the  district  of  ten  cities,  which  were  inhabited 
chiefly  by  the  heathen  or  gentiles.  Their  names  were  as  follows : 
Scythopolis,  which  lies  west  of  the  Jordan,  Hippos  and  Gadara,  Pel- 
la,  Philadelphia,  Dion,  Canath,  Gerasa,  liaphana,  and  perhaps  Da- 
mascus ;  in  the  enumeration  of  the  ten  cities  of  this  district,  however, 
ancient  historians  are  not  agreed,  see  Pliny  H.  N.  Lib.  V.  c.  18. 
Mark  5:  1.  Luke  8:  26.  Matt.  8:  28. 

IV.  Gaulonitis,  a  tract  extending  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
lake  Gennesareth  and  the  Jordan  as  far  as  Hennon. 

V.  Batanea,  the  ancient  Bashan,  though  somewhat  diminished 
in  its  limits.  It  lies  to  the  east  of  Gaulonitis  and  the  north  of 
Gilead. 

VI.  AuRANiTis,  formerly  Chauran  or  Chavran.  'jnin ,  Ezek.  47: 
16 — 18,  also  called  Itux-ea,  was  situated  to  the  north  of  Batanea  and 
to  the  east  of  Gaulonitis,  Luke  3:  1. 

VII.  Trachonitis,  to  the  north  of  Auranitis  and  to  the  east  of 
Paneas  otherwise  called  Cesarea  Philippi,  by  which  it  was  separated 
from  Galilee ;  it  was  celebrated  for  its  caves,  which  were  inhabited 
in  the  time  of  Herod. 

Vni.  Abilene,  on  the  northern  limits  of  this  territory,  situated 


32  §  26.    THE    EARLIEST    SHELTERS. 

between  Baalbec  and  Damascus  from  lat.  33°  30'  to  33°  40' ;  it  was 
called  also  Abilene  Lysanias,  from  the  robber  Lysanias,  who  pur- 
chased it  from  the  Romans.  Luke  3:  1. 


CHAPTER  II. 

OF    DWELLINGS. 

§  2G.  The  earliest  shelters  were  shady  trees  and  cayes. 

As  men  in  the  primitive  condition  of  society  Avere  unacquaint- 
ed with  the  arts,  they  were  not  of  course  in  a  condition  to  erect 
houses ;  they  lived,  consequently,  under  the  open  sky.  In  un- 
pleasant weather,  whether  hot  or  rainy,  they  sought  for  a  shelter 
under  shady  trees,  in  the  clefts  of  rocks,  and  such  caves  as  they 
happened  to  discover.  Nor  are  we  to  suppose,  that  shelters  of 
this  kind  were  altogether  inadequate.  The  inhabitants  of  mount 
Taurus  even  to  this  day,  in  a  climate  much  more  severe  than  that 
of  Palestine,  live  in  caves,  as  also  do  the  wandering  shepherds  of 
Arabia  Petrea,  either  in  caves  and  the  clefts  of  rocks,  or  beneath  the 
shade  of  trees. 

§  27.  The  more  recent  Troglodytes  or  dwellers  in  Cayes. 

Caves  are  not  only  numerous  in  the  East,  but  many  of  them  are 
both  large  and  dry.  They  formed  convenient  dwelhngs,  being 
warm  in  the  winter  and  cool  in  the  summer.  Hence  in  a  com- 
paratively recent  age,  when  dwelhngs  of  a  different  kind  were 
commonly  resorted  to,  the  caves  were  still  preferred  by  many, 
especially  by  those,  who  had  emigrated  to  distant  regions.  The 
dwellers  in  caves  whom  we  find  mentioned,  at  quite  a  late  period, 
were  robbers,  who  had  abandoned  the  restraints  of  society,  and 
were  the  latest  occupants  of  these  abodes.  The  inhabitants  of  caves 
and  mountains  commonly  occur  in  the  Old  Testament  under  the 
desit^nation  of  Horites ;  in  regard  to  whom  we  are  informed  more 
particularly, 


§  28.    TABERNACLES.  33 

I.  Of  the  ixhabitaxts  of  ^iouxt  Seir  ;  they  cliiefly  occupied 
the  mountains  of  Seii',  but  were  found  dwelling  as  fai'  as  Paran  in 
Arabia  Petrea,  Gen.  14:  6.  21:  21.  Deut.  2:  12,  22.  Num.  10:  12. 
Gen.  3G:  20—30. 

n.  Of  the  Rephaijis,  who  in  addition  to  their  caverns  had  some 
fortified  cities,  and  were  divided  into  three  tribes,  as  follows :  (1.) 
The  Emims,  who  dwelt  in  the  region  which  the  Moabites  afterwards 
occupied,  Deut.  2:  11,  12.  (2.)  The  ZAMZU^ninis,  men  of  large 
stature,  living  in  the  region,  which  was  afterwards  possessed  by  the 
Ammonites.  (3.)  The  Rephaims,  or  giants  strictly  so  called,  who 
lived  in  the  country  of  Bashan,  were  also  of  large  stature,  and  were 
driven  out  by  the  Hebrews,  Deut.  2:  10—23.  3:  3— IG. 

III.  Of  the  Troglodytes,  or  as  the  Hebrews  denominated 
them,  the  sons  of  the  caves,  n"'*:^  '}z ,  called  in  the  English  version 
Anakims,  Deut.  1:  28.  2:  10.  9:  1,  2.  The  three  tribes,  into  which 
they  were  divided  were,  (1.)  the  Nephilim,  Num.  13:  33.  (2.)  The 
CLANS  OF  Achi3IAX,  Sheshai,  and  Talmai,  Num.  .13:  22,  23.  Jos.  14: 

15.  (3.)  The  Ajn'AKIms,  inhabiting  Debir,  Anab,  and  the  mountains 
of  Judah,  Jos.  11:  21,  22.  (4.)  The  Anakims  around  Gaza,  Gath, 
and  Ashdod,  1  Sam.  17:  4. 

Note. — The  caves,  of  which  we  have  spoken,  when  they  had 
become  less  frequently  selected  for  the  abodes  of  the  living,  were 
employed  as  sepulchres  for  the  dead,  Gen.  xxiii.  In  times  of  perse- 
cution and  war  also,  those,  which  were  not  converted  into  ceme- 
teries, nor  occupied,  as  they  sometimes  were,  by  hordes  of  robbers, 
became  a  refuge  to  the   oppressed   and   the   vanquished,   Jos.   10: 

16.  Judg.  15:  8.  20:  45.  1  Sam.  13:  6.  22:  1  et  seq.  In  these 
caves,  the  necromancers  sometimes  practised  their  inauspicious  arts, 
and  the  beasts  of  the  forest  found  a  dwelling  place,  1  Sam.  28: 
8—24. 

§  28.  Tabernacles. 

As  caves  could  not  always  be  readily  found,  and  as  it  was  some- 
times great  labor  to  excavate  one,  men  were  compelled  by  the 
exigencies  of  their  situation,  to  form  some  other  sort  of  residence. 
The  shady  trees  and  tall  shrubs,  whose  tops  approached  each  other 
and   were   twisted   together,   suggested   the   plan   of  cutting   down 


34  §  29.    ON    TENTS. 

large  bnmclies,  fixing  them  into  the  ground  in  parallel  lines,  binding 
them  together  at  the  top,  and  covering  them  with  leaves,  herbs, 
reeds,  branches,  and  even  broad  flat  stones,  in  order  to  shield  them- 
selves from  the  cold,  the  heat,  and  the  dew.  Thus  they  built  taber- 
nacles, huts,  or  lodges,  in  Ileb.  nr^ .  The  Romans  called  them  Map- 
palia.  They  were  small  and  low  in  the  beginning,  so  that  a  person 
could  not  stand  erect,  but  was  obliged  either  to  lie  dowit  or  to  sit,  but 
afterwards  were  built  higher. 

The  use  of  these  tabernacles  did  not  cease,  even  after  the  erec- 
tion of  more  stable  and  convenient  dwellings.  They  were  fre- 
quently made,  sometimes  from  necessity,  sometimes  for  convenience, 
and  sometimes  for  pleasure,  and  are  to  this  day  erected  in  the  sum- 
mer among  tlie  wandering  tribes  or  Nomades  of  Mesopotamia.  A 
collection  of  such  tabernacles  is  called  in  Heb.  rhin  and  rrn'^:: . 
The  word  rn'ii  is  used,  however,  for  uncovered  sheep-cotes,  towers, 
castles,  and  turrets.  Gen.  33:  17.  Ps.  27:  5.  Jon.  4:  5.  Matt. 
17:  4.  Gen.  25:  16.  Ezek.  25:  4.  1  Chron.  G:  54.  Num.  31:  10. 
Cant.  8:  9. 

§  29.  On  tents. 

As  tabernacles,  which  could  not  readily  be  moved  from  place  to 
place,  and  from  a  want  of  materials  could  not  every  where  be  built, 
were  made  partly  of  sHns,  the  design  arose  of  erecting  a  shelter 
wholly  of  skins  extended  round  a  long  pole,  and  so  light,  as  to  be 
easily  moved  from  one  place  to  another.  It  was  tents  of  this  kind, 
we  may  suppose,  which  Jabal  invented,  Gen.  4:  20.  In  the  progress 
of  years  they  were  no  longer  covered  with  skins,  but  with  various 
kinds  of  cloth,  particularly  linen.  The  Nomades  of  the  east  still  use 
them.  They  pitch  them  in  any  place,  which  appears  suitable,  but 
they  give  the  preference  to  a  spot  near  some  shady  tree,  Gen.  18:  4. 
Judg.  4:  5. 

§  30.  Formation  of  tents. 

The  first  tents  which  were  made,  were  undoubtedly  round  in  their 
construction,  and  small  in  size ;  afterwards  they  were  made  larger 
and  oblong.  The  Nomades  of  Arabia  Petrea  have  two  kinds,  the 
one  larger,  the  other  smaller.  Gen.  33:  17. 


§  30.    FOR.MATIOX    OF    TEXTS.  ,35 

They  call  the  former  kind,  in  distinction  from  the  smaller 
ones,  haiton  or  houses.  The  smaller  tents  are  sustained  by  three 
poles  only,  and  covered  with  a  fabric,  -woven  of  wool  and  camel's 
hair ;  the  large  ones  are  sustained  sometimes  by  seven,  and  some- 
times by  nine  poles.  The  three  longest,  of  these  poles,  whether 
seven  or  nine  ih  number,  are  erected  in  the  middle,  and  on  each 
side  of  the  middle  row  are  placed  two  or  tln-ee  others  parallel,  though 
shorter  much  than  tliose  between  them ;  they  are  covered  with  a 
black  cloth  made  of  goat's  hair.  The  pole  in  the  middle  is  taller 
than  any  of  the  rest,  tliough  it  rarely  exceeds  eight  or  ten  feet.  The 
Arabians  take  a  pleasure  in  pitching  their  tents  on  hills,  in  such  a 
way,  as  to  form  a  sort  of  circular  encampment.  When  thus  pitched, 
being  of  a  dark  hue,  they  exhibit  a  bcaiiti'ful  appearance  to 
the  distantly  approaching  travellers.  Cant.  1:  5.  The  flocks  and 
cattle  during  the  night  are  driven  into  the  space  in  the  centre 
of  the  encampment  called  "i^n,  and  guarded  by  dogs.  Job  30:  1. 
Some  one  of  the  shepherds  keeps  watch  also  during  the  night,  a 
duty,  Avhich  is  performed  alternately,  Isa.  5G:  9 — 11.  The  tent 
of  the  Emir  is  pitched  in  the  centre  of  the  others,  which  are  about 
thirty  paces  distant,  and  is  boih  larger  and  higher.  The  Emir  has 
a  number  of  tents  in  addition  to  the  one  appropriated  to  himself; 
viz.  one  for  the  females  of  his  family,  one  for  his  servants,  and 
a  third,  covered  with  green  cloth  for  the  reception  of  those,  who 
wish  to  see  him  on  business  or  come  to  render  him  their  homage. 
On  the  same  principle  are  arranged  the  tents  of  the  subordinate 
Emirs  when  in  the  company  of  a  superior  Emir  or  chief,  at  some 
distance,  it  is  true,  but  as  D'Arvieux  testifies,  not  exceeding  4J 
miles. 

§  31.  Interxal  structure  of  texts. 

The  larger  kind  of  tents  are  divided  by  curtains  into  three  parts, 
as  was  done  also  in  the  holy  tabernacle.  In  the  external  divi- 
sion or  apartment  the  servants  lodge,  and  during  the  night  the 
young  animals  also,  to  prevent  their  sucking  the  dam.  In  the  sec- 
ond apartment  are  the  males,  but  if  the  tent  be  smaller  than  usual, 
all  the  males  of  the  tent,  together  with  the  animals  just  men- 
tioned, are  lodged  together.  The  third  or  interior  apartment, 
called  rrsj?,  is  allotted   to   the   women,  Num.  25:  8.      The  more 


36  §  32.  HOUSES. 

weaUhy  assign  the  external  apartment  to  the  servants  alone,  ex- 
eluding  animals ;  and  the  Emirs,  as  already  stated,  have  sej^arate 
tents  both  for  the  servants  and  the  females,  Gen.  24:  67.  The 
Nomades,  who  are  less  jealous,  than  the  inhabitants  of  the  cities, 
watch  the  other  sex  less  scrupulously,  Gen.  12:  15.  18:  6 — 9.  34: 
1,2. 

The  bottom  of  the  tent  is  either  covered  with  mats  or  with  carpets 
according  to  the  wealth  of  the  possessor,  and  upon  these  they  are  in 
the  habit  of  sitting.  The  more  wealthy  of  the  Nomades,  especially 
the  Emirs,  possess  in  addition,  coverlets,  pilloAvs,  etc.  made  of  valua- 
ble materials ;  these  are  piled  up  in  one  corner  of  the  tent  by  day, 
and  brought  upon  the  bottom  of  it  at  night.  The  utensils  of  the 
Nomades  are  few ;  they  have  vessels  of  shell  and  brass,  viz.  pots, 
kettles,  and  cups  of  brass  covered  elegantly  with  tin,  also  leathern 
bags.  Their  hearth  is  on  the  ground.  It  consists  of  three  stones, 
placed  so  as  to  form  a  triangle.  In  the  middle  of  them  is  a  small 
excavation  of  the  earth,  where  the  fire  is  kindled ;  the  vessels  are 
placed  over  it  upon  the  stones.  The  table,  if  so  it  may  be  called, 
from  which  they  eat,  is  nothing  more  than  a  round  skin  spread  upon 
the  bottom  of  the  tent.  Clothing  and  military  arras  are  hung  upon 
nails  in  the  poles  of  the  tent. 

§  32.  Houses. 

In  the  progress  of  time,  as  tabernacles  became  larger  and  were  de- 
fended against  the  injuries  of  the  weather  by  broad  stones  and  earth 
heaped  up  against  them,  it  was  found,  that  dwellings  could  be  made 
of  stones  alone  and  moist  earth  or  clay.  A  want  of  stones  in  some 
places  gave  occasion  for  the  formation  of  tiles,  which  were  made  by 
reducing  a  body  of  clay  to  shape  and  hardening  it  in  the  sun  or  burn- 
ing it  in  the  fire.  These  ancient  attempts  are  mentioned,  Gen.  11:  3, 
6:  16.  In  Deut.  8:  12,  mention  is  made  of  elegant  houses,  and  in 
27:  2,  4,  the  use  of  limestone  is  spoken  of,  as  if  it  were  common  and 
well  known. 

§  33.  Size  of  houses. 

Houses  at  first  were  small,  afterwards  larger;  especially  in 
extensive  cities,  the  capitals  of  empires.      The  art  of  multiplying 


§  Si.  FORM  AND  KOOF  OF  HOUSES.  o7 

Stories  in  a  building  is  very  ancient,  as  we  may  gather  from  the 
construction  of  Noah's  ark  and  the  tower  of  Babeh  The  LOuses  in 
Babylon,  according  to  Herod.  Lib.  I,  §  180,  were  3  and  4  stories 
high,  and  those  in  Thebes  or  Diospolis  in  Egypt,  4  or  5  stories ;  con- 
sult Diod.  Sic.  Lib.  L  c.  45.  They  appear  to  have  been  low  in  Pa- 
lestine in  the  time  of  Joshua ;  an  upper  story,  although  it  may  have 
existed,  is  not  mentioned,  till  a  more  recent  age.  Jeremiah  praises 
houses  of  good  form  and  architecture,  and  calls  them  r'--^^^ ,  r-z ,  Jer. 
22:  14.  The  houses  of  the  rich  and  powerful  in  the  time  of  Christ 
were  splendid,  and  were  built  according  to  the  rules  of  Grecian  ar- 
chitecture. 


§34.    F0R3I   AND    ROOF    OF   HOUSES. 

Many  of  the  larger  houses  were  tetragonal  in  form,  and  enclosed  a 
square  area.  They  were  lately  denominated  by  a  word  of  Persian 
origin  r;— 3 ,  ^anvg,  a  palace,  which  according  to  Jerome,  in  whose 
time  it  was  still  used,  signifies  enclosed  houses,  built  with  turrets  and 
walls.  The  roofs  of  the  houses  were  flat,  such  as  are  still  seen  in  the 
East.  They  were  formed  of  earth  heaped  together,  or  in  the  houses 
of  the  rich,  of  a  firmly  constructed  flooring,  made  of  coals  broken  up, 
stones,  ashes,  chalk  and  gypsum,  reduced  to  a  solid  substance  by  the 
application  of  blows.  The  declivity  of  the  roof  from  the  centre  to  the 
extremity  is  very  small,  hardly  an  inch  in  10  feet.  On  those  roofs, 
which  are  covered  with  earth,  herbs  sometimes  spring  up,  and  spears 
of  wheat  and  barley,  but  they  soon  perish  with  the  heat  of  the  sun. 
The  orientals  often  ascend  these  roofs,  to  enjoy  a  purer  air,  to  secure 
a  wider  prospect,  or  to  witness  any  event  which  happens  in  the 
neighborhood.  In  the  summer  they  sleep  upon  them,  but  not  with- 
out a  covering.  They  even  erect  tents  and  tabernacles  upon  them ; 
they  also  spread  their  flax  and  cotton  there  to  be  dried  by  the  sun. 
They  ascend  their  roofs,  moreover,  to  talk  with  a  person  privately, 
to  witness  a  public  solemnity,  to  mourn  publicly,  and  to  announce 
anything  to  the  multitude,  to  pray  to  God,  and  to  perform  sacrifices. 
2  Sam.  11:  2,  6,  7.  Is.  22:  1.  Matt.  24:  17.  :Mark  13:  15.  2  Sam.  16: 
22.  Jos.  2:  G.  1  Sam.  9:  25.  Judg.  IG:  26,  27.  Is.  15:  3.  Jer.  19:  13. 
48:  38.  Matt.  10:  27.  Acts  10:  9.  The  roofs  are  surrounded  by  a 
breast-work  or  wall,  to  prevent  one  from  falling,  which  is  as  high  as 
the  breast.  On  the  side  next  a  neighbor's  house,  it  is  lower,  in  order 
4 


38  §  35.    OF    THE    GATE,   FOKCH,   ETC. 

that,  if  the  houses  are  near  and  of  the  same  altitude,  the  occupants 
may  pass  from  one  to  the  other.  The  railing  or  wall  of  the  roof, 
n-p-J-q ,  was  requu-ed  bj  a  law  of  Moses,  Deut.  22:  2.  It  was  this 
railing  which  the  men  demolished,  Mark  2:  4.  Luke  5:  19,  that  they 
mio'ht  let  the  paralytic  down  into  the  court  or  area  of  the  house. 


§  35.  The  gate,  porch,  area  or  court,  female  apartments. 

The  gate  or  door,  opening  to  the  streets,  is  in  the  middle  of  the 
front  side  of  the  house.  Hence  in  Ai-abic  it  is  called  ia^L  or  the 
centre.  The  gates  not  only  of  houses,  but  of  cities,  were  customarily 
adonied  with  the  inscription,  which  according  to  Deut.  6:  9.  11:  20, 
was  to  be  extracted  from  the  law  of  Moses :  a  practice  in  which  may 
be  found  the  origin  of  the  viodern  Mezuzaw,  or  piece  of  parchment, 
inscribed  with  Deut.  6:  5 — 9.  11:  13 — 20,  and  fastened  to  the  door- 
post. The  gates  were  always  shut,  and  one  of  the  servants  acted  the 
part  of  a  porter.  Acts  12:  13.  John  18:  16,  17. 

The  space  immediately  inside  of  the  gate  is  called  the  porch, 
is  square,  and  on  one  side  of  it  is  erected  a  seat  for  the  accommo- 
dation of  those  strangers,  who  are  not  to  be  admitted  into  the  in- 
terior of  the  house.  Li  this  porch,  or  contiguous  to  it,  are  the 
stairs  which  lead  to  the  upper  stories  and  the  roof  of  the  house,  Matt. 
24:  16,  17. 

From  the  porch  we  are  introduced,  through  a  second  door, 
into  the  quadrangular  area  or  Court,  which  is  denominated 
~in,  ^'S'n,  70  fit'aov,  the  centre,  2  Sam.  17:  18.  Luke  5:  19. 
The  court  is  commonly  paved  with  marble  of  various  kinds.  Li 
the  centre  of  it,  if  the  situation  of  the  place  admits,  there  is  a 
fountain.  The  court  is  generally  surrounded  on  all  sides,  some- 
times, however,  only  on  one,  with  a  cloister,  peristyle,  or  covered 
walk,  T\^'^ ,  over  which,  if  the  house  have  more  than  one  story,  is 
a  gallery  of  the  same  dimensions,  supported  by  columns,  Heb. 
Qi"!^:2:',  and  protected  by  a  balustrade,  S^^^b,  to  j^i'event  one 
from  falling,  2  Kings  1:  2.  Hence  occur  so  many  allusions  to  col- 
umns, Ps.  75:  3.  Prov.  9:  1.  Gal.  2:  9.  1  Tim.  3:  15.  Large  com- 
panies are  received  into  the  court,  as  at  nuptials,  circumcisions,  etc. 
Esther  1:  5.  Luke  5:  19.  On  such  occasions,  a  large  veil  of  thick 
cloth  is  extended   by  ropes  over  the  whole  of  it  to  exclude   the 


§  oG.    CHAMBERS    AXD    OTHER    APARTJIEXTS.  39 

heat  of  the  sun ;  which  is  practised  at  the  present  day,  Ps.  101:  2. 
The  veil  or  curtain  of  the  ai'ea  is  called  in  the  New  Testament 
Gzr/i;,  Luke  7:  6.  Mark  2:  4. 

The  back  part  of  the  house  is  allotted  to  the  women,  called  in 
Arabic  the  Harem,  and  in  Hebrew  by  way  of  eminence  li-:-i>^  or 
-(■••^-n  the  palace.  The  door  is  almost  always  kept  locked,  and  is 
opened  only  to  the  master  of  the  house,  2  Kings  15:  25.  Prov.  18:  IS). 
White  eunuchs  guard  the  door  externally,  but  maids  and  black  eu- 
nuchs only  are  permitted  to  serve  within.  The  latter  are  great  fa- 
vorites with  their  masters,  Isa.  o'2:  14.  Jer.  13:  23.  2  Kings  15:  25. 
The  Harem  of  the  more  powerful  is  often  a  separate  building,  1 
Kino-s  7:  8.  2  Chron.  8:  11.  Esth.  2:  3.  Behind  the  Harem  there  is 
a  garden,  into  which  the  women  enjoy  the  pleasure  of  looking  from 
their  small  but  lofty  apartments.  In  the  smaller  houses,  which  are 
not  made  in  a  quadrangular  form,  the  females  occupy  the  upper 
story.  This  is  the  place  assigned  them  a^o  by  Homer  in  the  Iliad 
and  Odyssey. 

§  36.  Chambers  and  other  apartments. 

The  chambers  are  large  and  spacious,  and  so  constructed,  as  to  ex- 
tend around  the  whole  of  the  open  court  or  area.  The  doors  of  the 
chambers,  r-nrs ,  nrS ,  open  in  the  first  story  into  the  cloisters,  in  the 
second  into  the  gallery.  The  ceiling  is  flat ;  some  say  arched,  but 
arches  do  not  appear  to  have  been  known  at  a  very  early  period. 
We  search  in  vain  for  arches  among  the  ruins  of  ancient  edifices ; 
perhaps  they  have  perished  with  years,  but  they  do  not  remain.  We 
infer  therefore  that  -^  in  Ezek.  16:  24,  31,  39,  cannot  with  certainty 
be  translated,  arch  or  vault. 

The  Hebrews  at  a  very  ancient  date  had  not  only  summer  and 
winter  rooms,  but  palaces,  Judg.  3:  20.  1  Kings  7:  2 — 6.  Amos  3: 
15.  Jer.  36:  32.  The  houses,  or  palaces  so  called,  expressly  made 
for  summer,  were  very  large,  and  in  point  of  altitude  did  not  yield 
much  to  our  cliurches. 

The  lower  stories  were  frequently  under  ground.  The  front 
of  these  buildings  faced  the  north,  so  as  to  secure  the  advantage  of 
the  breezes,  which  in  summer  blow  from  that  direction.  They 
were  paved  with  marble,  and  when  it  could  be  done,  had  a  fountain 
in  the  centre  of  the  court,  in  order  to  render  them  still  more  cool 


40  §  oG.    CIIAIIBERS    AND    OTHER   APARTMENTS. 

They  were  supplied  with  a  current  of  fresh  air  by  means  of  venti- 
lators, which  consisted  of  perforatif  ns  made  through  the  upper  part 
of  the  northern  wall,  of  considerable  diameter  externally,  but  dimin- 
ishing, in  size,  as  they  approached  the  inside  of  the  wall.  There 
was  another  kind  of  ventilator,  which  arose  from  the  centre  of  the 
roof,  was  ten  cubits  broad,  and  looked  like  a  turret.  It  was  liollow 
and  open  to  the  north,  and  so  constructed  as  to  convey  the  cool  air 
into  the  chambers  and  rooms  below.  Summer  houses  and  chambers 
are  called  in  Scripture,  c'^W'^'a  ^^^Y<  'i^tl  ^'^'2^  ^'l\'i  j  J"^^g-  3:  20,  24. 
Jer.  22:  14. 

One  apartment  Avorthy  of  notice  extends  from  the  interior  of  the 
front  side  into  the  court,  sometimes  a  considerable  distance  beyond 
the  galleries  and  cloisters.  Its  roof  is  supported  by  two  columns 
only,  and  the  front  of  it  has  no  wall,  in  order  to  leave  the  prospect 
more  free.  In  this  apartment  princes  receive  ambassadors,  transact 
business,  and  dispense  justice.  The  temple  of  Dagon,  which  was  de- 
stroyed by  Samson,  was  similar,  as  far  as  concerned  the  columns, 
in  its  construction.  It  was  here  that  the  Saviour  seems  to  have  had 
his  trial,  Judg.  16:  26.  Matt.  26:  69.  Luke  22:  61,  62,  compare  also 
1  Kings  7:  7.  Esther  5:  1.  In  the  winter  rooms  and  houses,  the 
windows  face  the  south,  in  order  to  render  them  more  warm.  They 
are  not  furnished  Avith  stoves  and  fire-places  as  among  us.  The  coals 
juid  wood  are  heaped  into  a  pot,  which  is  placed  in  a  hollow  place 
left  for  that  purpose  in  the  centre  of  the  paved  floor.  The  smoke 
escapes  through  the  windows.  This  method  of  keeping  fires  is  still 
practised  in  the  East,  Isa.  44:  16.  47:  14.  Sometimes  the  fire  is 
])laced  directly  in  the  hollow  place  or  hearth  in  tlie  middle  of  tlie 
floor,  Jer.  36:  22. 

All  the  rooms  of  the  upper  story  may  be  called  nf^v  and  vTTttiocor, 
but  these  words  apply  more  appropriately  to  the  chamber  over  the 
porch.  It  opens  by  a  door  directly  upon  the  roof,  being  commonly 
a  story  higher  than  the  rest  part  of  the  house.  It  is  a  place  for  re- 
tirement, devotion,  etc.  Strangers  are  frequently  lodged  in  it,  1 
Kings  17:  19.  2  Kings  4:  10.  23:  12.  Acts  9:  37—39. 

j^Tq-tp^ — There  is  no  mention  made-  of  kitchens,  or  places  for 
cooking,  Heb.  rV?-r=~: ,  except  in  Ezek.  46;-  23,  24.  Chimneys, 
for  the  emission  of  smoke,  were  not  known  to  tlie  Hebrews.  Those 
of   modern    construction    are    the    invention    of    the    14th  century. 


§  37.    DOORS,  AND    .-METHODS    OF    SECURING    THE.M.  41 

The  Hebrew?,  however,  hke  the  modern  orientals,  had  openint^s 
in  their  houses,  bj  which  the  smoke  might  escape.  The  word  naix 
is  rightly  explained  by  Jerome,  in  Hosea  13:  3,  as  an  opening  in  the 
walls  for  letting  out  smole,  although,  in  other  passages,  it  signifies  an 
opening  of  any  kind  whatever,  and  especially  a  window. 


§  37.  Doors  ;  and  methods  of  securing  them. 

The  doors  were  valves,  Heb.  rb^r ,  c^rb^ .     They  were  suspended 
and  moved  by  means  of  pivots  of  wood,  which  projected  from  tlie 
ends  of  the  two  folds  both  above  and  below.      The  upper  pivots, 
which  were  the  longest,  were  inserted  in  sockets  sufSciently  large  to 
receive  them  in  the  lintel ;  the  lower  ones  were  secured,  in  a  corres- 
pondent manner  in  the  threshold.     The  pivots  or  axles  are  called 
rSriB;  the  sockets,  in  which  they  are  inserted,  C^")"!:;,  Prov.  2G:  14. 
The  doors  were  fastened  by  a  lock,  b^irj-g ,  Sol.  Song  5:  5,  or  by  a 
bar.  Job  38:  10.  Deut.  3:  5.  Judg.  16:  3.     The  bars  were  commonly 
of  Avood.     Those  made  of  iron  and  brass  were  not  used,  except  as  a 
security  to  the  gates  of  fortified  places,  or  of  valuable  repositories,  Isa. 
45:  2.     The  lock  was  nothing  more  than  a  wood  slide,  attached  to 
one  of  the  folds,  which  entered  into  a  hole  in  the  door-post,  and  was 
secured  there  by  teeth  cut  into  it,  or  catches.     Two  stiings  passed 
through  an  orifice  leading  to  the  external  side  of  the  door.     A  man 
going  out,  by  the  aid  of  one  of  these  strings  moved  the  slide  into  its 
place    in    the    post,  where  it  was  fastened  so  among    the    teeth  or 
catches,  as  not  to  be  drawn  back.     The  one  coming  in,  Avho  wisiied 
to  unlock,  had  a   wooden  key,  sufficiently  large,  and  crooked  like   a 
sickle.     It  was  called  ""S^:,  Judg.  3:  25.      He  thrust  the  key  througli 
the  orifice  of  tlie  door,  or  key-hole,  lifted  up  the  slide  so  as  to  extri- 
cate it  from  the  catches,  and  taking  hold  of  the  other  string,  drew  it 
back,  and  thus  entered.     Keys  were  not  made  of  metal  except  for 
tlie  rich  and  powerful,  and  these  were  sometimes  adoi-ned  witii  an 
ivory  handle.     A  key  of  this  kind,  in  the  days  of  the  Hebrev.-  mon- 
archs,  was  assigned  to  the  steward  of  the  royal  palace,  as  a  mark  of 
his  office ;  he  carried  it  on  his  shoulder,  Isa.  22:  22.     The  kev-hole 
was  so:netinies  so  large,  as  to  admit  a  person's  finger  through  it  and 
enable  Iiim  to  lift  the  slide ;    in  that  case  he  stood  in  no  absolute 
need  of  a  key  to  enter,  Sol.  Song  5:  4. 
4* 


42  §  39.    MATERIALS    FOK   BUILDING. 


§  38.  Windows;  ti'^itti,  ni2'^n,  ",'"^n. 

They  look  from  the  front-  chambers  into  the  court,  from  the 
female  apartments,  into  the  garden  behind  the  house.  Occasion- 
ally the  traveller  sees  a  window,  which  looks  towards  the  street, 
but  it  is  guarded  by  a  trellis,  and  is  thrown  open  only  on  the  pub- 
lic festivities,  Judges  5:  28.  Prov.  7:  6.  2  Kings  9:  30.  Sol.  Song  2: 
9..  The  Avindows  are  large,  extending  almost  to  the  floor.  Persons 
sitting  on  the  floor  can  look  out  at  them.  They  are  wide,  not  set 
with  glass,  but  latticed,  Ti^P,  ^^'^'^  ^  ^^^.'^^r  ^"  ^''^  winter  they 
are  pi'otected  by  very  thin  veils,  or  by  valves,  through  which  the 
light  is  admitted  by  means  of  aii  orifice,  2  Kings  13:  17.  1  Kings 
7:  17.  Sol.  Song  2:  9.  Over  the  windows  are  nails  fostened  into 
the  walls.  They  are  adorned  with  beautiful  heads,  and  not  only 
sustain  curtains  by  the  aid  of  a  rod  extended  from  one  to  the  other, 
but  are  of  themselves  considered  a  great  ornament.  Hence  the 
propriety  of  those  illustrations  drawn  from  nails,  Isa.  22:  23.  Zeeh. 
10:  4.  Eccles.  12:  11. 


§  39.  Materials  for  building. 

Although  the  materials  for  the  construction  of  edifices  were 
originally  stone  and  mud,  the  inhabitants  of  the  East  at  a  very  early 
period  made  use  of  tiles,  and  do  to  this  day.  Tliey  are  called 
in  Scripture  U-^r^^ ,  tn52^ ,  from  the  white  clay  of  which  they  were 
made.  They  Avere  of  different  sizes,  somewhat  larger  tlian  those 
among  us.  Commonly  they  were  hardened  by  the  heat  of  the 
sun  merely;  but  when  intended  for  splendid  edifices,  as  in  Gen.  11: 
3,  they  Avere  burnt  by  fire.  ',2^^  a  brich-UIn,  occurs  2  Sam.  12: 
31.  Nahnm  3:  14.  Jer.  43:  3.  The  walls  of  the  common  dwell- 
ing-houses Avere  erected  of  tiles  dried  in  the  sun  upon  a  founda- 
tion of  stone,  but  Avhere  the  ground  Avas  solid,  a  basement  of  this 
kind  Avas  sometimes  omitted,  Matt.  7:  25.  DAvelling-houses,  made  of 
tiles  dried  in  the  sun,  seldom  endure  longer  than  one  generation. 
They  fill  the  streets  Avith  mud  in  Avet  Aveather,  and  Avith  dust 
Avhen  it  is  dry,  Isa.  5:  24.  10:  6.  Zech.  9:  3.  Vehement  storms, 
especially,  injure  them  very  much,  Matt.  7:  25.  Ezek.  12:  5 — 7 
13:11,  M. 


§  39.    MATERIALS    FOR    BUILDING.  43 

In  Palestine  tlie  bouses  were  everywhere  built  of  stones,  of 
wbich  there  were  great  numbei's  in  that  region.  Hence  Moses,  Lev. 
14:  33 — 57,  enacted  his  law  in  respect  to  the  leprosy  of  houses. 
From  the  indications  of  it,  which  are  mentioned,  and  also  from  the 
name  r'lN'?^  »''?'!!^  >  <'''  ^^'^  corrosive  leprosy,  it  would  seem,  that  it 
could  be  no  other,  than  nitrous  acid,  which  dissolves  stones,  and 
communicates  its  corrosive  action  to  those  which  are  contiguous. 
Wherever  this  disease  makes  its  appearance,  its  destructive  effects 
are  discovered  upon  tlie  surface  of  the  wall,  it  renders  the  air  of  the 
room  corrupt,  and  is  injurious  both  to  the  dress  and  the  health  of  the 
inhabitants.  The  Hebrews  probably  supposed  it  to  be  contagious, 
and  hence  in  their  view  the  necessity  of  those  severe  laws,  which 
were  enacted  in  reference  to  it. 

Palaces  vrere  constructed  of  hcAvn  stones,  T"^'}  ^}^^ ,  some- 
times with  stones  sawed,  J^'iS^aa  Tii-i-n:^  2''-.3i<,  sometimes  with 
polished  marble.  They  were  all  called,  niTj  ina,  1  Kings  6:  36.  7: 
9,  11,  12.  Ezek.  40:  42.  1  Chron.  22:  2.  Isa.  9:  10.  Amos  5:  11. 
Sol.  Song  5:  15. 

The  Persians  took  great  delight  in  marble.  To  this  not  only 
the  ruins  of  Persepolis  testify,  but  the  book  of  Esther,  where 
mention  is  made  of  white  marble,  "rr  or  'r* r ,  of  red  marble.  "■! , 
of  black  marble,  """b,  of  the  party-colored  or  veined  marble, 
'^ir\2 .  The  splendor  and  magnificence  of  an  edifice  seems  to  have 
been  estimated  in  a  measure,  by  the  size  of  the  square  stones,  of 
which  it  was  constructed,  1  Kings  7:  9 — 12.  The  foundation 
stone,  Avhich  was  probably  placed  at  the  corner  and  thence  called 
the  corner  stone,  was  an  object  of  particular  regard,  and  Avas  se- 
lected with  great  care  from  among  the  others,  Ps.  118:  22.  Isa. 
28:  16.  Matt.  21:  42.  Acts  4:  11.  2  Tim.  2:  19.  1  Pet.  2:  6.  Eev. 
21:  14. 

The  square  stones  in  buildings,  as  far  as  we  can  ascertain  from 
the  ruins,  which  yet  remain,  were  held  together,  not  by  mortar  or  ce- 
ment of  any  kind,  except  indeed  a  very  little  might  have  been  used, 
but  by  cramp  irons.  The  tiles  dried  in  the  sun  were  at  first  united 
by  mud  placed  between  them,  '■i":'n ,  afterwards  by  lime,  Tib ,  mixed 
with  sand,  >in ,  to  form  mortar,  db_'Z .  The  last  sort  of  cement  was 
used  with  burnt  tiles,  Lev.  14:  41,  42.  Jer.  43:  9. 

The  walls  even  in  the  time  of  Moses  were  commonly  incrusted 
with   a   coat   of  plaster,  Lev.   14:  41,  42,  45,  and  at  the  present 


44  §  40.    IIOL'SEIIOLD    FURNITURE    AND    UTF.NSII.S. 

day  in  the  P^ast,  the  incrustations  of  this  kind  are  of  the  finest  exe- 
cution ;  such  ■was  that  in  the  paLice '  of  the  Babylonian  king,  Dan. 
5:  5.  "Wood  was  used  in  the  construction  of  doors  and  gates,  of 
the  fokls  and  lattices  of  windows,  of  the  flat  roofs,  and  of  the 
wainscoting,  with  which  the  walls  Avere  ornamented.  Beams  were 
inlaid  in  the  walls,  to  which  the  Avainscoting  was  fastened  by  nails 
to  render  it  more  secure,  Ezra  G:  4.  Houses  finished  in  tliis  man- 
ner were  called  --rrp-  ='r2,  Hagg.  1:  4.  Jer.  22:  14,  ceiled  houses 
and  ceiled  chambers.  They  were  adorned  with  figures  in  stucco, 
with  gold,  silver,  gems,  and  ivory.  Hence  the  expressions,  l"{n, 
■'PSjVJ,  "";;="" 5  '"ivory  houses,"  "ivory  palaces,"  and  "chambers 
ornamented  with  ivory,"  1  Kings  22:  39.  2  Chron.  3:  G.  Ps.  45:  8. 
Amos  3:  15. 

The  wood  which  Avas  most  commonly  used,  Avas  the  sycamore, 
c^TSp^w";  (it  Avill  last  a  thousand  years ;)  the  acacia,  r-::r ;  the  palm, 
"irn,  for  columns  and  transverse  beams;  the  fir,  =-r"-r;  the 
olive  tree,  ""^'J ,  '''^v  ;  cedars,  S'T^x  ,  Avhich  Avere  peculiarly  esteemed, 
1  Kings  G:  18.  7:  3,  7,  11.  The  most  precious  of  all  Avas  the  Al- 
mug  tree,  so  called  liy  an  Arabian  name,  though  the  Avood  itself 
seems  to  have  been  brought  through  Arabia  from  India,  1  Kings  10: 
11,  12.  2  Chron.  2:  8.  9:  10,  21.  Trees  not  Avell  known,  perhaps  a 
species  of  the  oak,  in  Heb.  """n  "i"",i"J<ri,  and  t~J"".~ ,  occur,  Isa.  41:  19. 
44:  14.  GO:  10. 

§  40.  Household  furniture  and  utensils. 

These  in  the  most  ancient  periods  Avere  both  fcAV  and  simple. 
A  hand-mill,  and  some  sort  of  an  oven  to  bake  in,  could  not  of  course 
be  dispensed  Avith,  Lev.  2G:  26.  Deut.  24:  6.  Subsequently  domestic 
utensils  Avere  multiplied  in  the  form  of  pots,  kettles,  leathern  bottles, 
plates,  cups,  and  pitchers. 

The  floors  Avere  covered  Avith  mats  of  carpets,  and  supplied  also 
for  the  pui-poses  of  rest  with  a  sort  of  mattresses  of  thick,  coarse  ma- 
terials, called  nr-i-^b,  Judg.  4:  18. 

The  bolsters,  ri'-.nsc*: ,  Avhich  Avere  more  valuable,  Avere  stuff- 
ed Avith  Avool  or  some  soft  substance,  Ezek.  13:  18,  21.  Tlie 
poorer  class  made  use  of  skins  merely,  for  the  purposes  to  A\hich 
these  mattresses  and  bolsters  Avere  applied.  The  mattresses 
Avere  deposited  during  the  day  in  a  box  beside    tlie    wall.       Beds 


§  40.    IIOU5KIIOI.D    FURMTUmC    AND    UTKNsII.S.  4^ 

supported  by  posts  are  not  known  in  the  East,  the  beds  or  mattress- 
es being  thrown  upon  the  floor.  It  is  common,  however,  in  villages, 
if  we  may  credit  Aryda,  to  see  a  gallery  in  one  end  of  the  room, 
three  or  four  feet  high,  where  the  beds  are  placed.  "What  is  now 
called  the  Divan,  and  in  Scripture,  n::^,  UJn^; ,  and  2r^"-c,  is  an 
elevation  running  round  three  sides  of  the  room,  three  feet  broad 
and  nine  inches  high.  In  the  bottom  of  it  is  a  stuffed  cushion 
throughout ;  on  the  back  against  the  wall  are  placed  bolsters,  covered 
with  elegant  cloth.  Here  the  people  sit  cross-legged,  or  with  their 
knees  bent,  on  account  of  the  small  elevation  of  the  Divan.  At 
the  corners  commonly,  at  one  always,  there  are  placed  two  or  three 
of  the  bolsters  mentioned,  made  of  the  richest  and  softest  materials. 
This  is  accounted  the  most  honorable  position,  and  is  occupied  by 
the  master  of  the  house,  except  when  he  yields  it  to  a  stranger  of 
distinction. 

The  Hebrews  appear  to  have  had  another  sort  of  beds,  which 
occur  sometimes  under  the  names,  'w':.^:,  ^>^'^,  ^^''t'?'  ^"'^  ^'"^ 
said  to  have  been  adorned  with  ivory,  an  ornament  of  which  the 
Divans  just  described  were  not  susceptible.  These  beds  resembled 
the  Persian  settees,  (sofas  so  called.)  having  a  back  and  sides, 
six  feet  long,  three  broad,  and  like  the  Divans  about  nine  inclies 
hif^h.  They  were  furnished  also  with  bolsters.  The  sofas,  as 
will  be  readily  imagined,  were  susceptible  of  ornamental  ivory  on 
the  sides  and  back,  and  also  on  the  legs,  by  which  they  were  su])- 
ported,  and  although  those  who  sat  in  them  were  under  the  ne- 
cessity of  sitting  cross-legged  or  with  their  knees  bent,  they  were 
of  such  a  length  as  to  answer  all  the  purposes  of  beds,  Amos  6:  4. 
Ps.  41:  3.  132:  3.  Those,  who  were  more  dehcate,  had  a  veil  or 
caul  15=-? ,  y.oavaTzuov,  which  when  disposed  to  sleep,  they  spread 
over  the  face  to  prevent  the  gnats  from  infesting  them,  2  Kings  8: 15. 
The  poor,  as  is  common  in  Asia  at  this  day ;  and  in  the  older  and 
more  simple  times,  the  powerful  as  well  as  the  poor ;  when  travel- 
ling, slept  at  night  with  their  heads  supported  by  a  rock,  and  with 
their  cloaks  folded  up  and  placed  under  them  for  a  pillow,  Gen.  28: 
11,  18,  22. 

To  prevent  as  much  as  possible  the  mats  and  carpets  from  be- 
ing soiled,  it  was  not  lawful  to  wear  shoes  or  sandals  into  the  room. 
They  were  left  at  the  door.  Hence  it  was  not  necessary,  that  the 
room  should  often  be   swept.  Matt.   12:   44.      Lamps,  i: ,  /.vyroi'. 


46  §  41.    VILLAGES,  TOWNS,  CJTIES. 

were  fed  with  the  oil  of  olives,  and  were  kept  burning  all  night, 
Job  18:  5,  6.  21:  17.  Prov.  13:  9.  20:  20.  24:  20.  31:  18.  We  may 
infer  from  the  golden  lamp  of  the  Tabernacle,  that  those  of  the  opulent 
were  rich  and  splendid.  Flambeaus,  fiinisb ,  were  of  two  kinds. 
The  one  were  pieces  of  old  linen  twisted  firmly  together  and  dipped 
in  oil  or  bitumen,  which  were  sometimes  wholly  consumed  by  the 
flame,  Judg.  15:  4.  The  others  were  small  bars  of  iron  or  brass, 
inserted  into  a  stick,  to  which  pieces  of  linen  dipped  in  oil  were  fas- 
tened. But  lest  the  oil  should  flow  down  upon  the  hand  of  him,  who 
carried  them,  a  small  vessel  of  brass  or  iron  surrounded  the  bottom 
of  the  stick,  Matt.  25:  3. 

§  41.  Villages,  Towns,  Cities. 

A  number  of  tents  or  cottages,  collected  together,  ^vere  called 
villages,  t;i"iE3 ,  '^£3,  l'^£3,  also  towns  and  cities,  t'^'n^S  ^^*,  ^"^'J, 
•i''^p.  When  a  number  of  families  saw  that  their  situation  was 
not  secure,  they  begun  to  fortify  themselves.  Cain  set  the  exam- 
ple ;  who  surrounded  with  a  ditch,  or  a  sort  of  hedge  a  few  cottages 
situated  perhaps  on  a  hill,  and  raised  a  sort  of  scaffolding  within,  in 
order  to  aid  him  in  reaching  his  enemies  Avith  stones.  Hovrever  this 
may  be,  undoubtedly  something  of  this  kind  was  the  origin  of  fortified 
cities.  In  process  of  time  the  hedge  was  converted  into  a  wall,  the 
ditch  became  both  wider  and  deeper,  and  the  scaffold  increased  into  a 
tower.  Great  advancement  was  made  in  the  art  of  fortification  even 
in  the  time  of  Moses,  Num.  13:  25 — 33.  But  still  greater  at  a  sub- 
sequent age.  It  seems  that  the  cities  in  Palestine  in  the  time  of 
Joshua  were  large,  since  12,000  men  were  slain  in  the  city  of  Ai, 
Avhich  is  said  to  have  been  a  small  city.  The  Hebrews  in  the  time 
of  David,  who  were  exceedingly  increased  in  point  of  numbers,  must 
have  had  large  cities.  Jerusalem  in  particular  could  not  have  been 
otherwise  than  extensive,  since  such  myriads  of  people  assembled 
there  on  festival  day.  For,  though  many  dwelt  in  tents  and  many 
met  with  a  hospitable  reception  in  the  neighboring  villages,  yot  vast 
multitudes  were  received  into  the  city.  The  extent  of  the  cities 
of  Galilee  in  the  time  of  Christ  is  made  known  to  us  by  Joseplms, 
J.  War,  B.  III.  3,  2 ;  and  at  that  period,  as  we  may  gather  from  the 
number  of  the  Paschal  lambs,  slain  at  one  time,  3,000,000  people 
were  wont  to  assemble  at  Jerusalem  at  the  feast  of  the  passover. 


§  41.    VILLAGES,  TOWXS,  CITIES.  47 

It  is  clear  from  this,  that  the  site  of  Jerusalem  Miiich  at  this  time 
occupied  an  extent  of  3-3  stadia,  was  crowded  with  houses,  and 
those  of  many  stories.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  towns  are  called 
r.'n'V  and  C"~^",  and  fortified  cities,  ~^:~3,  in  the  Talmud,  an- 
swering to  tlie  distinctions  in  the  Xew  Test,  of  Tio/.cii  y.ocifiojro- 
}.£ii.  The  streets,  c-p'r,  pVw,  ■|''"n,  r'''S'r>,  in  the  cities  of  Asia 
are  merely  from  three  to  six  feet  broad.  The  object  of  this  is,  that 
the  shades  whicli  they  cast,  may  counteract  in  some  degree  the  heat 
of  the  sun. 

That  many  of  them  formerlj'  were  much  larger,  is  evident  from 
the  fact,  that  chariots  Avere  driven  through  them,  which  is  not  done 
at  the  present  day.  Josephus  also  makes  a  division,  both  of  streets 
and  gates,  into  larger  and  smaller.  The  larger  streets  are  distin- 
guished by  a  separate  name,  zrn  and  r".::r,"; .  A  paved  street  is  a 
rare  sight  in  the  East,  at  the  present  day ;  although  formerly,  at  least 
in  the  time  of  Herod,  tliey  were  by  no  means  uncommon.  The  mar- 
ket-places were  near  the  gates  of  the  city,  sometimes  within,  some- 
times without,  where  the  ditferent  kinds  of  goods  were  exposed  to 
sale,  sometimes  under  the  open  sky,  sometimes  in  tents,  2  Chron.  18: 
9.  32:  6.  Neh.  8:  1,  3.  2  Kings  7:  18.  Job  29:  7.  This  was  the  case 
at  a  very  early  period ;  but  Josephus  teaches  us,  that  later  down,  in 
the  time  of  Christ,  they  were  similar  to  those,  which  at  the  present 
day  are  common  in  the  East,  being  large  streets,  covered  with  an 
arch,  through  Avhich  the  light  was  admitted  by  the  means  of  orifices. 
These  large  streets,  or  Bazars  as  they  are  termed,  which  are  fur- 
nished with  gates,  and  shut  up  during  the  night,  are  occupied  on  both 
sides  with  the  store-houses  of  merchants.  In  the  large  cities  there 
are  many  broad  streets  of  this  kind,  and  commonly  a  separate  one  for 
each  different  species  of  merchandize ;  in  these  streets  also  are  the 
shops  of  artificei's. 

The  houses  in  oriental  cities  are  rarely  contiguous  to  each  other, 
and  for  the  most  part  have  large  gardens  attached  to  them.  If 
therefore,  Nineveh  and  Babylon  are  said  to  have  occupied  an  almost 
incredible  space,  we  must  not  suppose  that  it  was  occupied  throughout 
by  contiguous  houses.  Indeed  it  is  the  testimony  of  ancient  liisto- 
rians,  that  nearly  a  third  part  of  Babylon  was  taken  up  with  fields 
and  gardens. 

Aqueducts  are  very  ancient  in  oriental  cities ;  Josephus,  Antiq. 
B.  IX.  1-1.  §  2.     We  find  mention  made  of  aqueducts  at  Jerusalem, 


48  §  42.    OF    THE    NOMADES. 

2  Cliroii.  32:  30.  2  Kings  20:  20.  I.<a.  7:  3,  e>i)ecially  of  one  called 
nr'T-b^in  TiZ^z  rx'ri,  the  aqueduct  of  the  upper  pool  or  ditch,  which 
implies,  that  there  Avas  another  one  more  known,  probably  the  one, 
whose  distinguished  I'uins  are  seen  to  this  day  from  Jerusalem  to 
Bethlehem.  The  one  first  mentioned,  some  of  the  ruins  of  which 
still  remain,  conveyed  the  waters  from  the  river  Gihon  into  Jerusa- 
lem. These,  as  Avell  as  all  the  other  aqueducts  of  Asia,  were  erected 
above  the  surfkee  of  the  earth  and  were  carried  through  valle}s,  over 
arches  and  columns.  From  this  circumstance  it  appears,  that  the  an- 
cients did  not  know,  that  water  enclosed  in  this  maimer  will  of  itself 
f^ain  the  elevation  from  v.hich  it  falls.  Aqueducts  were  not  unfre- 
quent,  but  cisterns  were  found  everywhere. 

XoTE. — The  people  of  the  East  metapliorically  ascribe  the  char- 
acter of  females  to  cities.  They  represent  them  as  the  mothers  of  the 
inhabitants ;  they  speak  of  them,  as  wires  of  the  kings ;  when  they 
revolt  against  their  sovereign,  they  are  adulterous,  etc.  2  Sam.  20: 
19.  2  Kings  19:  21.  Ps.  137:  8.  Is.  23:  12.  47:  1—8.  54:  3.  62:  4. 
66:  9.  Jer.  3:  8—14.  20:  5—8.  13:  26.  31:  4.  Lam.  1:  1—8,  17. 
Nahum  3:  5,  6.  Ezek.  16:  14.  23:  29. 


CHAPTER  III. 


§  42.  Of  the  Nomades. 


The  Nomades  are  a  very  ancient  people.  Gen.  3:  18,  21.  4:  2,  19. 
20.  11:  2.  They  are  numerous  even  at  this  day,  and  occupy  large 
tracts  of  land.  Nor  is  it  wonderful ;  for  their  mode  of  life  has  many 
things  to  recommend  it,  especially  freedom,  and  facilities  for  the  ac- 
quisition of  riches.  These  shepherds  of  the  desert  wander  about 
without  any  fixed  habitation.  They  despise  and  neglect  all  other 
business,  but  that  of  tending  their  flocks.  Still  they  are  not  mean 
and  Uncultivated,  but  are  polite,  powerful,  and  magnanimous.  Such 
were  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob,  and  their  posterity  also,  till  they  con- 
quered the  land  of  Canaan.  They  possess  vast  flocks  and  a  great 
number  of  servants.  The  masters  always  go  armed,  and  spend  their 
time  in  hunting,  in  the  oversight  of  their  af!liirs,  in  wars  and  preda- 


§  43.    PASTUKKS.  4i) 

toiy  excursions.  Part  of  t'ne  servants  are  armed,  in  order  to  keep 
from  the  flocks  robbers  and  wikl  beasts.  Pari  have  only  a  staff' 
rr^-z ,  b;5"c  ,  and  a  pouch,  which  were  anciently  the  Avhole  property  of 
travellers,  and  those  who  were  not  rich,  except  that  instead  of  a  pouch 
they  carried  a  somewhat  larger  sack,  'p^prs ,  2  Kings  4:  42.  1  Sam. 
17:  40—43.  Ps.  23:  4.  Mic.  7:  14.  Matt.  10:  10.  Luke  9:  3.  10:  4. 

Note. — If  in  the  Bible  kings  are  called  shepherds,  we  are  not  to 
conclude,  that  the  title  is  degrading  to  them ;  on  the  contrary  it  is 
sublime  and  honorable.  For  the  same  reason,  that  it  was  applied  to 
earthly  monarchs,  it  was  applied,  to  God,  who  was  the  king  of  the 
Hebrews,  and  as  the  shepherd  is  to  his  flock,  so  was  He  the  guide 
and  protector  to  his  children  Israel,  see  Ps.  23:  1 — 4.  Isa.  40:  11.  G3: 
11.  Jer.  10:21.  23:1.  31:10.  50:  6.  51:23.  Mic.  5:  5.  Nalmm  3:18. 
Ezek.  34:  2—28.  37:  24.  Zech.  11:  15.  In  the  Old  Testament  this 
tropical  expression,  viz.  a  shepherd,  constantly  indicates  kings,  but  in 
the  New  Testament  the  teachers  of  the  Jews,  those,  who  presided  in 
the  synagogues,  were  denominated  shepherds.  The  notions  of  the 
Jews  in  this  instance  seems  to  have  coincided  with  those  of  the  Stoics, 
who  would  have  it,  that  wise  men  alone,  those  qualified  to  be  teach- 
ers, were  true  kings.  The  appellation  of  shepherds,  however,  used 
by  the  former,  is  the  more  modest  of  the  two,  though  the  same  in  sig- 
nificancy.  The  use  of  the  word  to  denote  religious  teachers  was  re- 
ceived and  transmitted  in  the  Christian  church,  and  to  this  day  v,e 
speak  of  the  pastors  or  shepherds  of  a  religious  society,  Eph.  4:  11. 
3Iatt.  9:  36.  John  10:  12—14.  Heb.  13:  20.  1  Pet.  2:  25.  5:  4. 

§  43.  Pastures. 

The  pastures  of  the  JVomadcs  were  the  deserts  or  wilder- 
nesses, which  have  already  been  mentioned,  r,i5«. ,  ii^z,  r'lri'n, 
ym,  iS'l"?  tico,  Job  5:  10.  Mark  1:  45.  These  vast  tracts  of  land 
could  not  be  monopolized  by  any  individual,  but  were  open  to  all  the 
shepherds  alike,  unless  some  one  had  by  some  "means  acquired  in 
them  a  peculiar  right.  Such  an  unappropriated  pasture  was  the  part 
of  Canaan,  where  Abraham  dwelt,  and  where  Isaac  and  Jacob  suc- 
ceeded him.  The  Israelites  from  Egypt  appear  also  to  have  gone 
there  with  their  flocks,  till  they  were  debarred  by  the  increased  num- 
ber of  the  Canaanites.     The  pastures,  Avhich  were  the  property  of 

5 


50  §  44.    EMIGRATIONS    OF   THE    XOMADES. 

separate  nations,  came  in  the  progress  of  time  occasionally  into  con- 
tention. This  was  the  case  in  regard  to  Canaan,  which  the  Hebrews 
were  eventually  under  the  necessity  of  reoccupying  by  arms.  After 
the  occupation  of  Palestine,  there  lay  open  to  the  Hebrews  not  only 
the  vast  desert  of  Judah,  but  many  other  deserts  or  uncultivated 
places  of  this  kind.  This  accounts  for  what  we  may  gather  from 
Scripture,  that  the  Hebrews  were  among  the  richest  of  the  Nomades, 
or  people,  who  kept  flocks  in  the  wilderness,  2  Sam.  17:  27  et  seq. 
19:  32.  1  Sara.  xxv.  1  Chron.  27:  29—31.  comp.  Isa.  Go:  10.  Jer. 
50:  19. 

§  44.  Emigrations  of  the  Nomades. 

These  shepherds  occupy  almost  the  same  positions  in  the  dc?- 
erts  every  year,  ri^J^n .  In  the  summer  they  go  to  the  north,  or 
on  to  the  mountains,  in  the  winter  to  the  south,  or  the  valleys. 
When  about  to  emigrate,  they  pluck  up  their  tents,  pile  them  uj)- 
on  the  beasts  of  burden,  and  go  with  them  to  the  place,  destined 
for  their  subsequent  erection.  The  flocks  live  both  night  and  day 
under  the  open  sky.  Hence  their  avooI,  being  unexposed  to  the 
exhalations  of  sheep-cotes,  but  always  being  in  the  open  air,  is  finer 
than  usual.  The  flocks  become  acquainted  with  the  path,  which. 
they  yearly  travel,  and  afford  but  little  trouble  to  those  who  conduct 
them.  Still  they  are  guarded  by  hired  servants,  and  by  the 
sons  and  daughters  of  their  owners,  even  by  the  daughters  of  the 
Emii-3  or  chiefs,  who  to  this  day  perform  for  strangers  those  friend- 
ly offices,  which  are  mentioned,  Gen.  24:  17 — 20.  comp.  Gen.  29: 
9,  Exod.  2:  16.  The  servants  are  subject  to  the  steward,  who  is 
himself  a  dependent,  though  he  has  the  title  "of  r.'^a  '"T ,  tlie  scnioi- 
of  the  house.  He  numbers  the  sheep  at  evening,  perhaps  also  in 
the  morning.  Gen.  24:  2.  Jer.  33:  13.  If  animals  or  their  young 
are  lost,  the  steward  is  obliged  to  make  compensation.  Some 
limitations,  however,  are  assigned,  Gen.  31:  38.  Exodus  22:  12. 
comp.  Amos  3:  12.  The  hired  servants  sometimes  received  a 
portion  of  the  young  of  the  flock,  as  their  reward.  Gen.  xxx.  The 
servants,  Avho,  as  well  as  the  cattle,  are  sometimes  comprehend- 
ed under  the  Avord,  nsp^,  inhabited  tents  in  the  winter,  but  often 
dwelt  in  tabernacles  in  the  summer.  The  masters  on  the  contrary 
dwelt   in   tents   the   whole   year,   except    when    occasionally   they 


§  45.  rouxTAixs  and  cistkrns.  51 

retreated  into  the  neigliboring  cities,  Gen.  19:  1.  2G:  1.  12:  10, 
20.  33:  17.  Lev.  23:  43.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  tents,  was  erected  a 
sort  of  watch  tower,  iTni::,  nnr  P'lri'a,  from  which  the  approach  of 
enemies  could  be  discerned  afar  off.  Mie.  4:  8. 


§  45.    FOUXTAIXS    AND    CiSTERNS. 

"Water,  wliich  was  very  scant}-  in  the  deserts,  and  yet  was  very 
necessary  to  large  flocks,  was  very  highly  valued  and  very  frugally 
imparted.  Job  22:  7.  Num.  20:  17—19.  Deut.  2:  G— 28.  Hence  the 
Noraades,  in  those  tracts,  through  wliich  they  yearly  travel,  dig  wells 
and  cisterns  at  certain  distances,  which  they  have  the  art  of  con- 
cealing in  such  a  manner,  that  another,  wlio  travels  the  same  way, 
Avill  not  discover  them,  nor  steal  away  the  waters.  In  this  way  perhaps 
they  may  be  said  to  take  possession  of  certain  districts  and  to  render 
them  their  own  property,  as  was  done  by  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob, 
in  respect  to  Palestine.  Hence  the  contentions  respecting  Avells  were 
of  great  moment.  Gen.  21:  25.  26:  13 — 22.  Different  receptacles  of 
water  are  mentioned. 

I.  Fountains,  d";^  ""^^■^  ?  T".  •  These  are  the  source  of  running 
waters,  and  are  common  to  all.  If  they  flow  all  the  year  round, 
they  are  called  by  the  Orientals,  CiianiN  tr;q ,  or  niD^N3 ,  never-failing 
or  faithful  fountains :  if  they  dry  up  in  the  summer,  they  are  denomi- 
nated n-'ars  or  deceitful,  Job  6:  15—22.  Isa.  33:  16.  Jer.  15:  18. 
IVells,  "1X2 ,  riiixa ,  are  receptacles  of  water,  from  which  there  is  no 
stream  issuing.  They  belong  to  those  persons,  who  found  or  dug 
them  first.  Sometimes  they  are  owned  by  a  number  of  shepherds 
in  conmion,  who  come  to  them  on  appointed  days  with  their  flocks, 
in  an  order  previously  settled  upon,  descend  a  number  of  steps, 
which  lead  to  the  surfiice  of  the  water,  receive  the  water  into  small 
buckets,  il:'i,and  pour  into  troughs,  niaxd^,  for  the  flock.  The 
flocks  ai-e  admitted  to  drink  in  a  regular  order,  Gen.  29:  3 — 12.  24: 
11 — 15.  Exod.  2:  16.  Judg.  5:  11.  The  waters  of  wells  and  foun- 
tains are  called  living  waters,  ni'sn  Ci"]^,  and  are  very  much  es- 
teemed. Lev.  14:  5,  50.  Num.  19:  17.  Hence  they  are  made  a  sym- 
bol of  prosperity,  and  God  himself  is  compared  to  a  fountain  of  liv- 
ing waters,  Isa.  43:  19,  20.  49:  10.  Jer.  2:  13.  Ts.  87:  7.  Joel  3:  18. 
Ezek.  47:  1  et  seq.  Zech.  14:  18. 

II.  Cisterns,  ninia,   rrixa,   *ii3,   -ixa.      They  were  the  pro- 


52  §  4G.    THE    FLOCKS    OV    THE    NOJIADES. 

perty  of  those  by  ■whom  they  were  made,  Num.  21:  22.  Under  this 
name  occur  large  subterranean  vault?,  often  occupying  an  acre  in 
extent,  but  which  open  by  a  small  mouth.  They  are  filled  with  rain 
water  and  snow  during  tlie  winter,  and  are  then  closed  at  the  mouth 
by  large  flat  stones,  over  which  sand  is  spread  in  such  a  way,  as  to 
prevent  its  being  easily  discovered.  In  cities  the  cisterns  were  works 
of  much  labor,  for  they  were  either  hewn  into  rocks  or  surrounded 
with  subterranean  walls,  and  covered  with  a  firm  incrustation.  "We 
gather  this  from  their  ruins,  and  not  a  few  of  tliem  remain.  But  if 
by  chance  the  waters,  which  the  shepherd  has  treasured  up  in  cis- 
terns, are  lost  by  means  of  an  earthquake  or  some  other  casualty,  or 
are  plundered  by  a  thief,  both  he  and  his  flocks  are  exposed  to  de- 
struction ;  an  event,  which  liappens  not  unfrequently  to  travellei's, 
who  hasten  to  a  fountain,  but  find  its  waters  gone.  For  this  reason 
a  failure  of  water  is  used  in  Scripture,  as  an  image  of  any  great  ca- 
lamity, Isa.  41:  17,  18.  44:  3.  There  is  a  large  deposition  of  mud  at 
the  bottom  of  these  cisterns,  so  that  he  who  falls  into  them,  when 
they  are  empty  of  water,  perishes  by  a  miserable  death,  Gen.  37:  22 
ff.  Jer.  38:  G.  Lam.  3:  53.  Ps.  40:  2.  69:  15.  Cisterns,  notwith- 
standing, Avere  used,  when  empty,  as  prisons :  prisons  indeed,  which 
were  constructed  under  ground,  received  the  same  name,  Gen.  39: 
20.  40:  15. 

§  46.  The  Flocks  of  the  Nojiades. 

These  are  goats  and  sheep,  and  they  have  great  numbers  of  them. 
They  are  called  by  the  Hebrews,  collectively,  "i<:i ,  but  sejKiratchj,  nr 
Jer.  49:  29.  Ezek.  25:  5.  The  sheep  are  horned,  and  commonly 
ivMte,  Ps.  147:  16.  Isa.  1:  18.  Dan.  7:  9.  Black  ones  are  very  rare, 
fi'n;  some  are  covered  with  small  spots,  C^'-.'pS,  some  with  larger 
ones,  t!"^5<b:2 ,  others  are  streaked,  C"'i!i'ia ,  and  others  again,  called 
C'l^ipr ,  are  distinguished  by  variegated  hoofs,  or,  as  some  .:-ay,  by 
circular  streaks  round  the  body,  like  rings,  Gen.  30:  32 — 34.  31:  10 
— 12.  The  sheep,  mentioned  in  Ezek.  27:  18,  whose  wool  is  of  a 
bright  brown,  inclining  to  a  gray,  ^Trs.  Ti^ ,  are  found  in  Caramania. 

Further ;  there  are  three  different  breeds  of  sheep  in  the  East. 
I.  The  common,  of  which  we  have  specimens  every  day  among 
ourselves.  II.  The  deformed  breed,  with  short  legs,  macerated  body, 
and  rough  wool,  called    in    Arabic  nakad,  and    in    Hebrew  'I'^'i' 


§  46.    THE    FLOCKS    OF    THF    NO.MAUES.  53 

m.  A  breed  larger  than  ours,  and  of  very  fine  wool.  Of  this  class 
of  sheep,  there  are  U\o  kinds,  the  one,  having  immense  tails  about 
four  feet  long,  and  five  inches  thick,  n^^x ,  the  other,  having  short 
tails,  and  large  clumps  of  fat  on  the  haunches.  Sheep  are  profit- 
able to  their  owners  for  their  milk,  S^n,  their  flesh,  "ib2,  and  par- 
ticularly for  their  wool,  'nr:^ ,  which  is  shorn  twice  a  year.  A  sheep 
hardly  worth  a  florin  will  return  a  thousand  to  its  owner,  and 
many  thousands  of  them  are  owned  by  a  single  shepherd  in  the 
vast  deserts  of  the  East,  Job  1:  3.  1  Sam.  25:  3,  4.  1  Chron,  5: 
18 — 21.  The  annual  increase  of  the  flock  is  the  greater  on  this 
account,  that  the  sheep  frequently  bear  twins,  Uant.  6:  6.  They 
bring  forth  twice  a  year,  viz.  in  the  spring  and  autumn,  going  with 
young  only  five  months ;  but  the  spring  lambs  are  esteemed  pre- 
ferable to  those  of  the  autumn.  The  lambs  of  a  year  old  are 
called  c^'vs ,  13 ,  O'l^'ns ,  baa .  "We  may  infer  from  what  has  been 
stated,  which  indeed  is  the  fact,  that  their  sheep,  which  are  the 
source  of  so  much  emolument  to  the  Nomades,  are  very  dear  to 
them.  They  give  them  titles  of  endearment,  and  the  ram,  that  is 
called  out  by  its  master,  marches  before  the  flock ;  hence  the  rulers 
of  the  people  are  everywhere  called  leaders  of  the  flocl:,  Jer.  25:  34, 
35.  50:  8.  Isa.  14:  9.  Zech.  10:  3.  The  Ai-abians  have  certain 
terms,  by  which  they  can  call  the  sheep,  either  to  drink  or  to  be 
milked.  The  sheep  know  the  voice  of  the  shepherd,  and  go  at  his 
bidding,  John  10:  3,  14.  Sometimes  a  lamb  is  taken  into  the  tent, 
and  tended  and  brought  up  like  a  dog.  Such  an  one  is  called  in 
Heb.  ?pVx  "C'ss ,  and  in  Arabic  by  a  word  which  means  an  inmate, 
-2  Sam.  12:  3.'  Jer.  11:  19. 

Before  the  shearing,  the  sheep  are  collected  into  an  uncovered 
enclosure,  surrounded  by  a  wall,  JTn'ir;,  r'l'is ,  also  rr;: ,  nx2,  «i5P.//, 
John  10:  11,  16.  The  object  of  this  is,  that  the  avooI  may  be  ren- 
dered finer  by  the  sweating  and  evaporation,  which  necessarily  result 
from  the  flock's  being  thus  crowded  together.  These  are  the  sheep- 
folds  mentioned  in  the  folloAving  as  well  as  in  other  places,  Xum.  32: 
16.  24:  36.  2  Sam.  7:  8.  Zeph.  2:  6.  There  is  no  other  kind  than 
this,  used  in  the  East.  Sheep-shearings  were  great  festivals,  1  Sam. 
25:  2,  4,  18,  36.  2  Sam.  13:  23. 

Goats,  as  well  as  sheep,  are  comprehended  under  the  collective 
noun,  "^u ,  but  are  properly  called  "■•'" ,  from  VJ  ,  a  she-goat.  The 
he-goat  is  called  r-;ri,   s^'r-ti   i^^'b,   and  "■■"'3:5.      They  are  of  a 


54  §  47.    ANIMALS    OF    THE    OX-KIXD. 

black  color,  sometimes  party-colored.  They  live  under  the  open  sky. 
with  the  exception  only,  that  the  kids  are  sometimes  taken  into 
the  tent,  to  keep  them  from  sucking  the  dam.  They  compensate 
their  owners  with  their  milk,  more  precious  than  any  other,  Prov.  27: 
27 ;  with  their  flesh,  which  in  the  East  is  highly  esteemed ;  and  with 
their  hair,  of  which  the  Arabian  women  make  cloth,  to  cover  their 
tents  with.  Of  the  skins  bottles  are  made,  n'lriN ,  t^bai ,  ^23 ,  'ixs ,  nx;n . 
When  they  are  used  to  hold  water  or  other  liquids,  the  hairy  side  of 
the  skin  is  external,  with  the  exception,  that  in  wine-bottles,  the  hairy 
side  is  always  turned  in  and  the  other  out. 

From  the  skins  of  kids  small  bottles  are  made,  which  answer  the 
purpose  of  flasks.  It  is  uncertain  what  that  preparation  by  the 
means  of  smoke  Avas,  which  is  mentioned,  Ps.  119:  83.  Perhaps 
it  was  the  same  with  what,  the  ambassador  from  Vienna  informs 
us,  is  practised  at  this  day  among  the  Calmucks,  who,  by  means 
of  smoke,  prepare  very  durable  and  transparent  skins,  and  make 
from  them  small,  but  elegant,  flasks  and  bottles.  The  goats  of 
Ancyra,  with  hair  resembling  silk,  commonly  called  earners  hair, 
appear  to  have  been  known  to  the  ancient  Hebrews ;  and  Schultz, 
in  Paulus'  Collection  of  Travels,  VII.  108 — 110,  says,  that  he  saw 
flocks  of  these  goats  descending  from  the  mountains  in  the  vicinity 
of  Acco  and  Ptolemais,  which  exemplifled  the  descriptions  in  Cant. 
4:  1,  2.  6:  5. 

Note. — It  is  not  necessary  to  enumerate  the  different  species  of 
wild  goats.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  geese,  hens,  and  swine  were 
not  known  among  the  domestic  animals  of  the  Nomades.  At  a  some- 
what recent  period,  hens  in  some  places  were  raised  by  the  Hebrews ; 
for  ^.I'l ,  a  hen,  '  that  does  not  hatch  its  eggs,'  is  spoken  of  by  Jere 
miah,  17:  11 ;  and  in  the  time  of  Christ,  wdien  Peter  denied  his  mas- 
ter, the  cock  crew  in  Jerusalem.  No  hearing  is  to  be  given  to  those 
Talraudists,  who,  though  they  lived  nearly  200  years  after  Christ, 
took  it  upon  themselves  to  deny  the  existence,  at  any  time,  of  fowls 
of  this  kind  in  that  city. 

§  47.  Animals  of  the  Ox-kind. 

These  animals   are   called  collectively  ij^S ,  but  separately  v)iSX , 

iVi,    CjiSi^X  ,    ti-ird  ;      those    under    three    years,    T\'h^v     C^^;? 


§  47.    ANIMALS    OF    THE    OX-KIND.  55 

nb;:;;  and  those  over  three  years,  -.2,  r.'Z,  ="~^,  r-,-5,  also 
c-i-i-^rx,  ^vhich  last,  however,  is  properly  an  epithet  of  strength. 
These  animals  are  smaller  in  oriental  countries  than  among  us, 
and  have  certain  protuberances  on  the  back  directly  over  the  fore- 
feet. They  are  useful  chiefly  in  agriculture ;  but  they  ai'e  not  ex- 
cluded from  the  possessions  of  the  Nomades,  Gen.  24:  25.  Job  1:  3. 
Herdsmen  v^-ere  held  in  lower  estimation,  than  the  keepers  of  flocks, 
but  they  possessed  the  richest  pastures  in  Bashan,  Sharon,  and 
Achior.  Hence  the  oxen  and  bulls  of  Bashan,  which  were  not 
only  well  fed,  but  strong  and  ferocious,  are  used  as  the  symbols  of 
ferocious  enemies,  Ps.  22:  12.  G8:  31.  Isa.  34:  7.  Deut.  33:  17. 
Prov.  14:  4.  Heifers  were  symbolic  of  matrons,  Amos  4:  1.  Hoseu 
4:  15,  IG.  10:  11.  Jer.  4G:  20.  The  horns  of  oxen  and  bulls,  also 
of  goats,  are  used  tropically  to  express  power,  Ps.  75:  10.  89:  17,  24. 
92:  10.  Amos  6:  13.  Jer.  48:  25.  Lam.  2:  3.  Ezek.  29:  21.  Dan.  7: 
7,  8,  24.  8:  3 — 5.  Luke  1:  69.  If  the  horns  are  represented  as 
made  of  brass  or  iron,  they  indicate  very  great,  and  as  it  were,  insu- 
perable power,  1  Kings  22:  11.  1  Chron.  18:  10.  Mic.  4:  13— IG. 
Hence  the  ancient  coins  represent  kings  with  horns,  and  OJie  of  the 
titles  which  the  Arabians  attach  to  the  great,  especially  to  the  war- 
like son  of  Philip,  is,  Itonied. 

Oxen  not  only  submitted  to  the  yoke,  and  were  employed  in 
drawing  carts  and  plouglis ;  but  the  Xomades  frequently  made  use 
of  them  to  transport  goods  on  their  backs,  as  they  did  on  camels. 
The  milk  of  the  cows  was  found  a  nutritive  drink.  Gen.  18:  8. 
Of  this  the  people  made  cheese,  nrrr.,  --''.^~,  r'lsd.  2  vSam.  17:  29. 
What  is  called  -bn  ''^'"n,  1  Sam.  17:  18,  were  slices  of  coagulated 
milk,  which  had  been  strained  through  a  leathern  strainei*,  and  after 
it  had  grown  hard,  cut  into  pieces,  as  it  was  found  necessary  to  use 
them.  Anciently  butter  was  not  much  used,  but  instead  of  it,  oil 
of  olives,  which  was  applied  not  only  to  vegetables,  but  also  to  other 
kinds  of  fruit.  In  the  Bible  there  is  no  mention  made  of  butter, 
rs'iri ,  which  in  the  Vulgate  and  other  translations  is  rendered  but- 
ter, was  used  as  a  drink,  Judg.  5:  25,  and,  therefore,  must  have 
been  milk  in  some  shape  or  other.  Honey  and  milk  were  accounted 
great  dainties,  but  a  great  plenty  of  them  was  an  indication,  that  a 
wide  destruction  of  the  people  had  preceded.  On  account  of  which 
diminution  of  the  inhabitants,  large  and  rich  pastures  were  every- 
where to  be  found ;  so  that  abundance  of  milk  was  the  natural  con- 


OQ  §  48.    OF   ASSES. 

sequence,  and  swarms  of  bees,  more  numerous  than  usual,  enjoyed  a 
more  free  and  undisturbed  oj^portunity  to  gather  their  honey,  comp. 
Isa.  7:  15. 

Note. —  Wild  animals  of  the  ox-kind  are  not  mentioned  in  the 
Bible.  The  animals,  which  are  called  "I'l'^n^ ,  and  iX"i ,  cn ,  are  a 
species  of  the  gazelle  or  wild  goat,  which,  because  they  bear  some 
resemblance  to  them,  are  called  by  the  Arabs,  wild  oxen. 

§  48.   Of  Asses. 

Asses,  £"';"""" ,  Ti~ri .  She  Asses,  r'"irN  ,  "j'lrx .  The  latter  are 
considered  the  most  valuable  on  account  of  the  colts,  "I'^r ,  C";;^;; , 
and  in  the  enumeration  of  animals,  they  are  mentioned  separately. 
The  Nomades  possess  great  numbers  of  these  animals,  and,  in  the 
East,  if  rightly  trained  up,  they  are  not  only  patient  and  dijigent. 
but  active,  beautiful  .in  appearance,  and  ignoble  in  no  respect. 
They  are  esteemed  very  highly,  and  their  name  is  used  tropically  in 
the  Scriptures,  for  active  and  industrious  men,  Gen.  49:  14.  Their 
color  is  red,  inclining  to  a  brown,  to  which  the  name  ".'ii-  is  an  allu- 
sion. Some  are  party-colored,  Judg.  5:  10.  r"i"i'in-J,  unless  [ler- 
chance,  such  are  painted ;  for  the  Orientals  to  this  day  are  in  the 
habit  of  painting  their  horses  and  oxen.  Thej-  are  employed  in 
ploughing,  in  drawing  cai'ts,  and  in  turning  mills,  to  whicli  ]\Iatt.  18:  G. 
is  an  allusion.  Moses,  Dent.  22:  10,  passed  a  law,  that  the  ass  and 
ox  should  not  be  used  together  in  ploughing.  Commonly  tlie  asses 
bear  their  burden,  Avhether  men  or  packages,  on  their  backs  ;  a  mode 
of  service  to  which  they  are  peculiarly  fitted. 

Anciently  princes  and  great  men  rode  on  asses.  Gen.  22:  .3,  5. 
Num.  22:  21,  30.    Jos.  15:  18.    Judg.  1:  14.    5:  10.    10:  4.    12:  14. 

1  Sam.  25:  20,  23.    2  Sam.  17:  23.    19:  2G.    1  Kings  2:  40.    13:  13. 

2  Kings  4:  22,  24.  Zech.  9:  9.  Matt.  21:  1—7.  Luke  19:  29— 3C. 
John  12:  12 — 16.  Horses  were  destined  almost  exclusively  for 
war ;  and  all  classes,  in  time  of  peace,  made  u^e  of  asses  for 
the  purposes  of  conveyance,  the  great  as  well  as  those  in  ob- 
scure life.  They  wei'e  guided  by  a  rein  placed  in  the  mouth, 
in  Hebrew  "n'T^n  c::n,  translated  to  saddle  the  ass,  Gen.  22:  3. 
Num.  22:  21.  Judg.  19:10.  2  Sam.  IG:  1.  17:  23.  The  saddle 
was  merely  a  piece  of  cloth,  thrown  over  the  back  of  the  animal, 


§  49.  CAJiEi.s.  57 

on  which  the  rider  sat.  The  servant  followed  after  Avith  a  staff, 
when  tlie  ass  had  no  rider,  and  applied  it  when  there  was  necessity, 
to  quicken  the  celerity  of  his  movements,  Judg.  19:  3.  2  Kings  4:  24. 
Prov.  2G:  3. 

Note  I. — Mules,  ci'".*.D ,  T^b  ,  ai-e  spoken  of  in  the  age  of  David, 
1  Chron.  12:  40.  Ps.  32:^9.  2'Sam.  18:  9,  10.  13:  25.  1  Kings  1:  33. 
Probably  they  were  known  much  earlier,  even  in  the  time  of  Moses. 
The  word  -"'t:.';'.  Gen.  36:  24,  is  not  to  be  translated  mules,  as  is  com- 
monly done,  but  "  icarm  haths"  Mules  appear  to  have  been  brought 
to  the  Hebrews  from  other  nations,  and  in  the  recent  periods  of  their 
history,  wc  find,  that  the  more  valuable  ones  came  from  Togarmah 
or  Armenia,  Ezek.  27:  14.  The  n'O'^ri w'nx ,  or  great  mules  of  Per- 
sia, celebrated  for  their  swiftness,  the  mothers  of  which  were  mares, 
are  mentioned,  Esth.  8:  10. 

XoTE  II. — There  are  great  numbers  of  wild  asses  in  the  East. 
Two  species  are  worthy  of  observation,  the  one  called  Dsigetai ;  the 
other,  Kulan.  The  latter  are  supposed  to  have  sprung  from  domes- 
tic asses,  who,  as  occasions  had  presented,  acquired  their  freedom. 
They  are  a  fearful  animal,  and  swift  in  fliglit,  but  can  be  tamed,  if 
taken  when  young,  Job  11:  12.  24:  5.  39;  5 — 8.  Dan.  5:  21. 
That  the  Hebrew  word  N-jS  means  the  Dsigetai,  and  the  word  ^'.ir , 
the  Kulan  species,  can  neither  be  reconciled  with-  the  use  of  the 
Arabic,  nor  with  Job  39:  5.  They  must  be  considered  merely  as 
separate  names  for  the  same  species.  These  animals  are  of  a  fine 
figure  and  rapid  in  motion ;  they  frequent  desert  places  and  flee  far 
from  the  abodes  of  men.  The  females  herd  together,  and  are  headed 
by  a  male.  When  the  latter  is  slain,  the  former  are  scattered  and 
wander  about  separately,  Hos.  8:  9.  They  feed  on  the  mountains 
and  in  salt  valleys.  Job.  39:  8.  Their  organs  of  smelling,  which  are 
very  acute,  enable  them  to  scent  waters  at  a  great  distance.  Hence 
travellers,  who  are  destitute  of  water,  are  accustomed  to  follow  ihem, 
Ps.  104:  11.  Is.  32:  14.  Jer.  14:  G. 

§  49.  Camels,  n'^Hr. ,  "--cr. . 

They  arc  of  two  kinds.  The  one  is  the  Turkish  or  Bactrian, 
distinguished  by  two  protuberances  on  the  back.  This  kind  is 
Urge  and   strong,  carrying  from   eight  to  fifteen   hundred  pounds, 


58  §49.    CAMELS. 

but  is  impatient  of  the  heat.  The  other  kind,  called  the  dromedary 
or  Arabian  camelj  has  but  07ie  bunch  on  the  back,  is  more  rapid 
in  its  movement,  and  endures  the  heat  better,  than  the  large  camel. 
It  is  denominated  in  Heb.  -=2  .  ir*:^,  and  r',l2"]3.  Is.  60:  6.  66:  20. 
Jer.  2:  23. 

Camels  require  but  little  food,  and  endure  thirst  from  sixteen  to 
forty  days.  They  are  particularly  fitted  for  those  vast  deserts,  which 
are  destitute  of  -water;  are  kept  in  great  numbers  by  the  Nomades, 
and  the  Arab  is  esteemed  of  a  secondary  rank,  -vvho  is  not  the  pos- 
sessor of  them,  Gen.  24:  10,  64.  31: 17.  1  Chron.  5: 19—21.  Jer.  49: 
29.  comp.  1  Sam.  30:  17.  1  Kings  10:  2.  Is.  30:  6.  Ezek.  25:  4. 
Tliey  are  used  for  the  transportation  of  every  description  of  packages, 
and  burdens  of  every  sort.  Gen.  37:  25.  Judg.  6:  5.  1  Chron.  12:  40. 
2  Chron.  14:  15.  2  Kings  8:  9.  Is.  30:  6.  Men  rode  upon  them  very 
often,  1  Sam.  30:  17.  AYhen  they  are  loaded,  and  set  out  upon 
a  journey,  they  follow  one  after  another,  seven  together.  The  second 
is  fastened  to  the  first  by  a  woollen  string,  the  fourth  to  the  third, 
and  so  on.  The  servant  leads  the  first  one,  and  is  informed  by  the 
tmkling  of  a  bell,  attached  to  the  neck  of  the  last  one,  whether  they 
all  continue  their  march.  The  seven  camels  thus  connected  together, 
are  called  f?":a  n^'E'r,  which  is  badly  rendered  by  the  Vulgate, 
<■<■  inundatio  camelorum"  Is.  60:  6.  The  riders  either  ride  as  on  a 
horse,  with  the  feet  suspended,  the  one  on  one  side  and  the  other  on 
the  other ;  or,  when  two  go  together,  sit  upon  baskets,  which  are 
thrown   across  the    animal,  so  as  to  balance   each   other.      Some- 

s  ' 
times  they  travel  in  a  covered  vehicle,  ^2,  ^^-^5  which  is  se- 
cured on  the  back  of  the  camel,  answers  the  purpose  of  a  small 
house.  It  ii  often  divided  into  two  apai'tments,  and  the  trav- 
eller, who  can  sit  in  either  of  them,  is  enabled  also  to  carry  some 
little  furniture  with  him.  These  conveyances  are  protected  by 
veils,  which  are  not  rolled  up,  except  in  front ;  so  that  the  i)erson 
within  has  the  privilege  of  looking  out,  while  he  is  himself  con- 
cealed. They  are  used  chiefly  by  the  women,  rarely  by  the  men. 
Gen.  31:  17.  If  the  rider  wishes  to  descend,  the  camel  does  not 
kneel  as  on  other  occasions,  but  the  rider  takes  hold  of  the  servant's 
staff'  and  by  the  aid  of  it  alights.  Gen.  24:  64.  The  camels,  on  which 
the  rich  are  carried,  are  adorned  with  splendid  chains  and  crescents, 
=-;-TO.  Jud-.  8:21,  26. 


§  50.  noKSES.  59 

The  Komades  understand  Low  to  turn  to  profitable  purpose  all 
the  parts  of  animals  of  this  kind.  They  drink  the  milk,  though  it  is 
thick.  "When  it  has  become  acid,  it  inebriates,  Judg.  4:  19.  5:  25. 
They  feed  upon  the  flesh,  a  privilege  which  was  interdicted  to  the 
Hebrews,  Lev.  11:  4.  The  hair,  which  is  shed  every  year,  was 
manufactured  into  coarse  cloth,  and  constituted  the  clothing  of  the 
poorer  class  of  people.  Matt.  3:  4.  In  the  Ai-abic  language,  there 
are  many  allusions  made  to  camels,  and  tropes  drawn  from  this 
source  possess  as  much  dignity,  as  those  drawn  from  oxen  do  in  the 
Hebrew.  Proverbs,  founded  in  the  qualities  of  the  camel,  occur  in 
Matt.  19:  24.  23:  24. 

§  50.   Horses. 

O'O,  -■=■;},  ~'2"i,  ■c:'^3  or  'd'^s,  sometimes,  -r.t!,  1  Sam.  8:  11. 
2  Sam.  1:  6.  8:  4  10:'  18.  1  Cliron.  18:  4.  Is.  21:  7.  28:  28.  The 
word  t:"i-!'i::x,  when  applied  to  horses,  is  merely  an  epithet  of 
strength.  It  is  applied  in  the  same  way  to  oxen  also.  The  Noma- 
des  of  recent  ages  place  much  more  value  on  these  animals,  than 
those  did  of  an  earher  period.  T\'e  find  horses  first  in  Egypt,  Gen. 
47:  17.  49:  17.  Exod.  9:  3.  14:  6—28.  Job  39:  19.  That  country 
was  always  celebrated  for  them,  1  Kings  10:  28.  Is.  31:  1.  3G:  9. 
Ezek.  17:  15.  Joshua  encountered  chariots  and  horsemen  in  the 
north  of  Palestine,  chap.  11:  4 — 9.  He  rendered  the  horses  useless, 
which  he  took,  by  cutting  the  hamstrings ;  since  they  would  have 
been  but  of  little  profit  in  the  mountains  of  Palestine,  comp.  Judg.  4: 
15.  5:  22,  28.  Not  long  after,  the  Philistines  conducted  chariots 
into  battle,  Judg.  1:  19.  1  Sam.  13:  5. 

Anciently  horses  were  used  exclusively  for  the  purposes  of  war, 
Prov.  21:  31.  Hence  they  are  opposed  to  asses,  which  were  used 
in  times  of  peace,  Zech.  9:  9.  The  Hebrews  first  attended  to 
the  raising  of  horses  in  the  reign  of  Solomon.  The  hundred, 
which  were  reserved,  2  Sam.  8:  4.  1  Chron.  18:  4,  were  destined 
for  the  use  of  David  himself,  whose  example  was  imitated  by 
Absalom,  2  Sam.  15:  1.  The  Psalmist  frequently  alludes  to 
the  mode  of  governing  horses  and  to  equestrian  armies,  Ps.  32: 
9.  6G:  12.  33:  17.  76:  6.  147:  10.  Solomon  carried  on  a  great 
trade  in  Egyptian  horses.  They  were  brought  from  Egypt  and 
from  Nip ,  nVp ,  perhaps  Kua  situated  in   Africa,   1   Kings   10:  28. 


60  §  51.   DOGS. 

2  Cliron.  1:  IG,  17.  A  horse  was  estimated  at  about  150,  and  a 
chariot  at  GOO  shekels.  In  the  time  of  Ezekiel,  the  Tj'rians  pur- 
chased horses  in  Togarmah  or  Armenia.  Tlie  Plebrews,  after  the 
time  of  Solomon,  were  never  destitute  of  chariots  and  cavahy.  The 
rider  used  neither  stirrup  nor  saddle,  but  sat  upon  a  piece  of  c'otli, 
thrown  over  tlie  back  of  tlie  liorse.  The  women  rarely  rode  horses, 
but  whenever  they  had  occasion  to,  they  rode  in  the  same  manner 
with  the  men.  Horses  v.-ere  not  shod  with  iron  belbre  the  ninth 
century;  hence  solid  hoois  were  esteemed  of  great  conse(juence, 
Amos  6:  12.  Is.  5:  28. 

The  bridle,  ^Z".j  ^^"'-^  '^''^  cavesson,  •~"i,  were  used  both  for  horses 
and  mules.  Vs.  32:  9. 

§  51.  Dogs,  -■=;?,  -"^2. 

The  Nomades  found  use  for  them  in  guarding  and  in  driving 
their  flocks.  Frequent  as  these  animals  are  in  oriental  cities, 
they  are  universally  abhorred,  with  the  exception  of  the  hunt- 
ing dogs.  Hence  to  be  called  a  dog  is  a  cutting  reproach, 
full  of  bitter  contempt,  Job  30:  1.  1  Sam.  17:  43.  2  Sam.  3:  8. 
2  Kings  8:  13.  Prov.  2G:  11.  comp.  Luke  IG:  21.  2  Peter  2:  22. 
The  appellation  of  dead  dog,  indicates  imbecility,  1  Sam.  24:  14. 
2  Sam.  9:  8.  IG:  9.  The  reward  of  prostitution  is  called,  by  way 
of  contempt,  dogs  lure,  "33  l"^""?,  Dent.  23:  18.  The  Jews  in 
the  time  of  Christ  were  accustomed  to  call  the  Gentiles  dogs. 
The  Saviour  in  order  to  abate  the  severity  of  the  appellation  used 
the  diminutive  ■/.vvaQta,  Matt.  15:  22 — 28.  Im})udent  and  con- 
tentious men  are  sometimes  called  dogs,  Matt.  7:  G.  Phil.  3:  2. 
Gal.  5:  15.  In  the  East,  dogs,  with  the  exception  of  those  em- 
ployed in  hunting,  have  no  masters,  wander  free  in  the  streets, 
and  live  upon  the  offals,  which  are  cast  into  the  gutters.  Being 
often  at  the  point  of  starvation,  they  devour  corpses,  and  in  the 
night  attack  even  living  men,  Ps.  22:  IG,  20.  59:  G,  14,  15.  1  Kings 
14':  11.  IG:  4.  21:  23.  22:  38.  2  Kings  9:  3G.  Jcr.  15:  3.  They 
herd  together  in  vast  numbers ;  whenever  any  tumult  arises  in  the 
night,  they  commence  a  terrific  barking,  and  when  the  people 
mourn  through  the  streets  for  the  dead,  they  respond  to  them  with 
their  howls.  Hence  may  be  explained  Exod.  11:  7,  ■j"'^r;^"l<:= ; 
i2'3  2V:d  comp.  also  Josh.  10:  21. 


§  52.  OF  nuNTixG.  61 

Jackals.     The   wild  or   yellow    clog,    (?o  called  by   Hasselquist,) 

is  denominated  in  Persian  JLa^,   in  Tnrkish  jLars.,  in  Hebrew 

brrj  (?/•  the  fox,  in  Syriac  |i^^,  in  Arab.  v^^Jjsi",  iL'Laj,  Judg. 
15:  14,  Foxes,  however,  properly  so  called,  the  Hebrews  distin- 
guish by  the  name  =irj-?  c-^Prd,  or  little  jackals,  Cant.  2:  15. 
The  jackals  they  call  also  -i^x  and  Disn,  the  former  of  which 
words  is  commonly  translated  dragons  in  the  English  version.  These 
animals  are  three  and  a  half  feet  long,  have  yellow  hair,  a  tail  also 
of  yellow,  with  the  tip  of  brown.  They  go  together  in  lierds,  lie  in 
caves  through  the  day,  and  wander  about  howling  through  the  night. 
They  make  their  way  into  houses  for  the  purpose  of  stealing  food. 
They  have  so  little  cunning  that  Avhen  thieving  in  a  house,  if  they 
hear  one  of  the  herd  howling  out  in  the  fields,  they  immediately  set 
up  a  responsive  cry,  and  thus  betray  to  the  master  of  the  house  their 
predatory  visitation. 

They  are  also  taken  easily  in  other  ways,  Judg.  15:  4.  They  de- 
vour dead  bodies,  Ps.  63:  10.  They  are  ferocious,  but  can  be  kept 
off  with  a  cane.  There  are  vast  numbers  of  these  animals  in  Pales- 
tine, particularly  in  Galilee,  and  near  Gaza,  and  Jaffa,  (Joppa,)  Judg. 
15:  4.  They  do  much  injury  to  the  vines,  though  less  than  the  foxes. 
Cant.  2:  15. 

§  52.  Op  Huxtixg. 

Although  tlie  Nomades  have  many  hunting  dogs,  the  dogs  are  not 
always  able  to  keep  off  the  wild  beasts  from  the  flock,  unless  aided 
by  the  shepherds  themselves.  Hence  arose  hunting  or  the  chase, 
which  is  practised  the  more  readily  from  the  circumstance,  that  the 
meat  of  wild  animals  is  considered  a  great  delicacy.  The  earliest  in- 
habitants of  the  world  were  compelled  to  hunt  in  order  to  secure 
themselves  from  the  attacks  of  wild  beasts,  and  a  great  hunter,  i*:i , 
was  accounted  a  benefactor  of  mankind.  Such  a  benefactor  some  in- 
accurately suppose  iS^imrod  to  have  been,  not  taking  into  considera- 
tion all  the  circumstances.  Gen.  10:  9. 

A  different  state  of  things  existed   in  the   time    of  Moses,  who 

enacted   two  laws  on   the  subject   of  hunting,  the  object  of  which 

was  to  preserve  the  wild  animals  of  Palestine,  Exod.  23:  11.  Lev. 

25:  6,  7.  Deut.  22:  6,  7.     Hunting  in   ancient  times   requhed   both 

6 


G2  §  53.    OF   ROBBERIES. 

speed  and  bravery.  Some  have  slain  lions  without  any  armor,  which 
is  sometimes  done  in  the  East  at  the  present  day.  The  implements 
of  hunting  were  usually  the  same  with  those  of  war;  viz.  nr;^,  the 
bow ;  •,"" ,  the  arrow ;  (hence  the  hunter  Ishmael  was  called  au 
archer,  Gen.  21:  20;)  also,  n-='-i,  a  spear  or  lance;  r-^rn,  a  javehn ; 
nnn ,  a  sword.  Hunters  made  use  of  various  arts  to  secure  their 
object.  They  employed  nets,  rrr'i,  "i^="r>  in  which  lions  were 
taken,  Ezek.  19:  8;  likewise  gins,  -cpS-o,  snares,  t-^ns,  na,  and 
pitfals,  rnr ,  which  were  excavated  especially  for  lions,  in  such  a 
way,  that  there  was  an  elevation  of  solid  ground  in  the  centre. 
In  this  elevation  a  pole  was  fastened,  and  a  lamb  was  confined  to  the 
pole.  The  lion  excited  by  the  prospect  of  a  victim,  rushed  upon  the 
lamb,  but  plunged  headlong  through  the  light  covering,  which  con- 
cealed the  intervening  pitfal,  Ezek.  19:  4.  Birds  were  taken  in 
snares  or  o-ins.  These  instruments  and  modes  of  warfare  are  used 
tropically,  to  indicate  the  wiles  of  an  adversary,  great  danger,  or  im- 
pending^lestruction,  Ps.  9:  16.  57:  6.  94:  13.  119:  85.  Prov.  26:  27. 
Is.  24:l7.  42:22.  Jer.  5:  27.  6:21.  18:22.  48:44.  Luke  21:  35. 
Rom.  11:  9.  Death  is  represented  as  a  hunter,  armed  with  his  net, 
javelin,  or  sting,  witJi  which  he  takes  and  slays  men,  Ps.  91:  3.  Hos. 
13:  14.  1  Cor.  15:  55. 

j^OTE. — For  information,  respecting  other  animals,  mentioned  in 
the  Bible,  see  Bochart's  Ilierozoicon,  RosenmliUer's  edition,  publish- 
ed at  Leipsic  1793 — 1796,  and  Oedmann's  Sammhmc/en  cms  Natur- 
hunde  zur  Erlddrung  der  liciUgen  Sclirift,  1786 — 96. 

§  53.  Of  Robberies,  committed  on  Travellers. 

Probably  from  the  hunting  of  wild  beasts,  the  Xomades  turn- 
ed their  attention  to  the  plundering  of  travellers  ;  an  occupation, 
which  they  follow  to  this  day  in  the  vast  deserts,  nearly  in  the 
same  way  that  pirates  practise  a  similar  vocation  on  the  ocean. 
Their  skill  at  plundering  was  predicted  of  Ishmael  and  his  posterity, 
and  they  have  ever  remarkably  fulfilled  the  prediction,  Gen. 
16:12.  Still  they  do  not  surpass  many  others  of  the  Nomadic 
tribes ;  who  lie  hid  behind  hills  of  sand,  and  wait  for  travellers, 
and  then  plunder  them  to  the  skin,  comp.  Jer.  3:  2.  They  do  not 
slay  any  one,  unless  some  one  or  a  number  of  their  own  party  per- 


§  54.    IHPOUTAXCE    OF   AGRICULTUKE.  63 

islies  first.  Having  robbed  them  of  all  they  possess,  they  commonly 
return  a  garment  to  the  person  plundered,  in  order  that  they  may 
conceal  their  nakedness.  They  also  permit  the  countrymen  or 
friends  of  the  captives,  to  redeem  them.  All  the  Nomades  are  polite 
and  hospitable.  They  receive  strangers  info  their  tents,  and,  without 
any  expectation  of  a  return,  exhibit  to  them  every  office  of  kindness. 
But  they  are  different  men,  if  they  meet  strangers  in  the  wilderness. 
There  are  now,  and  there  always  have  been  Nomades,  who  have  dis- 
approved of  the  proceedings,  of  which  we  have  spoken.  Such  were 
Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob,  and  the  Israelites ;  some  of  whom,  however, 
were  at  times  guilty  of  plundering,  Judg.  9:  25.  Mic.  2:  8. 


OF  THE 


CHAPTER  IV. 
ON    AGRICULTURE 

§  54.  Its  value  and  importance. 

In  the  primitive  ages  of  the  world,  agriculture,  as  well  as  the 
keeping  of  flocks,  was  a  principal  employment  among  men.  Gen.  2: 
15.  3:  17 — 19.  4:  2.  It  is  an  art  which  has  ever  been  a  prominent 
source,  both  of  the  necessaries  and  the  conveniences  of  life.  Those 
nations,  which  practised  it  at  an  early  period,  learnt  its  value,  not 
only  from  their  own  experience,  but  also  from  observing  the  con- 
dition of  the  neighboring  countries,  that  were  destitute  of  a  know- 
ledge of  it,  see  Xenoplion's  Or/.oroii.  L.  V.  §  1—20.  p.  299—355. 
(T.  IV.  ed.  Thieme.)  Impressed  with  the  importance  of  agricul- 
ture, Noah,  after  he  had  escaped  from  the  deluge,  once  more  be- 
stowed upon  it  his  attention ;  and  there  were  some  of  the  Nomades, 
who  were  far  from  neglecting  it,  Gen.  26:  12 — 14.  25:  34.  37:  7. 
Job  1:  3. 

Those  states  and  nations,  especially  Baljylon  and  Egypt,  which 
made  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  their  chief  business,  arose  in  a 
short  period  to  wealth   and    power.      To    these    communities  just 


64  §  55.    LA^,VS  OF  3I0SKS  IX  REGARD  TO  AGRICULTURE. 

mentioned,  which  excelled  in  this  particular  all  the  others  of  anti- 
quity, may  be  added  that  of  the  Hebrews,  \\  ho  learned  the  value  of 
the  art  while  remaining  in  Egypt,  and  ever  after  that  time  were  fa- 
mous for  their  industrv  in  the  cultivation  of  the  earth. 


§  oo.  Laws  of  Moses  in  regard  to  Agriculture. 

I.  Moses,  following  the  example  of  the  Egyptians,  made  agricul- 
ture the  basis  of  the  state.  He,  accordingly,  apportioned  to  every 
citizen  a  certain  quantity  of  land,  and  gave  him  the  right  of  tilling  it 
himself  and  of  transmitting  it  to  his  heirs.  The  person,  who  had 
thus  come  into  possession,  could  7^ot  alienate  the  property  for  any 
longer  period  than  the  year  of  the  coming  jubilee;  a  regulation, 
which  prevented  the  rich  from  coming  into  possession  of  large  tracts 
of  land,  and  then  leasing  them  out  in  small  parcels  to  the  poor ;  a 
practice  which  anciently  prevailed,  and  does  to  this  day,  in  the  East. 
H.  It  was  another  laAv  of  Moses,  that  the  vender  of  a  piece  of  land, 
or  his  nearest  relative,  had  a  right  to  redeem  tlie  land  sold,  whenever 
they  chose,  by  paying  the  amount  of  profits  up  to  the  year  of  jubilee, 
Ruth  4:  4.  Jer.  32:  7.  IH.  Another  law  enacted  by  Moses  on  this 
subject,  was,  that  the  Hebrews,  as  was  the  case  among  the  Egyptians 
after  the  time  of  Joseph,  Gen.  37:  18  et  seq.  should  pay  a  tax  of  two 
tenths  of  their  income  unto  God,  whose  servants  they  were  to  consider 
themselves,  and  "whom  they  were  to  obey  as  their  king.  Lev.  27:  30. 
Deut.  12:  17—19.  14:  22—29.  comp.  Gen.  28:  22.  IV.  The  cus- 
tom of  marking  the  boundaries  of  lands  by  stones,  although  it  pre- 
vailed a  long  time  before.  Job  24:  2,  was  confirmed  and  perpetuated, 
in  the  time  of  Moses,  by  an  express  law ;  and  a  curse  was  pro- 
nounced against  him,  who  without  authority  removed  them. 

These  regulations  having  been  made  in  respect  to  the  tenure, 
incumbrances,  etc.  of  landed  property.  Joshua  divided  the  whole 
country,  which  he  had  occupied,  Jirst,  among  the  respective  tribes, 
and  /lien,  among  individual  Hebrews,  running  it  out  with  the  aid 
of  a  measuring-line.  Josh.  17:  5,  14.  comp.  Amos  7:  17.  Mic.  2:  5. 
Ps.  78:  55.  Ezek.  40:  3.  The  word  ^nn  a  line,  is  accordingly  used 
by  a  figure  of  speech  for  the  heritage  itself,  Ps.  11:  6.  Josh.  17:  5, 14. 
19:9. 

Though  Moses  was  the  friend  of  the  agriculturist,  he  by  no  means 
discouraged  the  keeper  of  the  flock. 


§  57.    MEANS    OP'    INCREASING    FERTILITY.  65 


§  06.  Estimation  in  which  Agriculture  ^^A3  held. 

The  occupation  of  the  husbandman  -n-as  held  in  honor,  not  only 
for  the  profits  Avhicli  it  brought,  but  from  the  circumstance,  that  it 
was  supported  and  protected  by  the  fundamental  laws  of  the  state. 
All  who  were  not  set  apart  for  religious  duties,  such  as  the  priests 
and  the  Levites,  whether  inhabitants  of  the  country,  or  of  towns  and 
cities,  were  considered  by  the  laws,  and  were  in  fact  agriculturists. 
The  rich  and  the  noble,  it  is  true,  in  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  did 
not  alwa^•s  put  themselves  on  a  level  witli  their  servants,  but  none 
were  so  rich  or  so  noble,  as  to  disdain  to  put  their  hand  to  the 
plough,  1  Sara.  11:  7.  1  Kings  19:  19.  comp.  2  Chron.  26:  10.  The 
priests  and  Levites  were  indeed  engaged  in  other  employments,  yet 
they  could  not  withhold  their  honor  from  an  occupation,  which  sup- 
plied them  with  their  income. 

The  esteem  in  which  agriculture  was  held,  diminished  as  luxury 
increased ;  but  it  never  wholly  came  to  an  end.  Even  after  the 
captivity,  when  many  of  the  Jews  had  become  merchants  and  me- 
chanics, the  esteem  and  honor  attached  to  this  occupation  still  con- 
tinued, especially  under  the  dynasty  of  the  Persians,  who  were  agri- 
culturists from  motives  of  religion. 


§  57.  Means  of  increasln-g  Fertility. 

The  soil  of  Palestine  is  very  fruitful,  if  the  dews  and  %-ernal 
and  autumnal  rains  are  not  withheld.  The  country,  in  opposition 
to  Egypt,  is  eulogized  for  its  rains  in  Deut.  11:  10.  The  He- 
brews, notwithstanding  the  richness  of  the  soil,  endeavored  to 
increase  its  fertility  in  various  ways.  They  not  only  divested  it  of 
stones,  but  watered  it  by  means  of  canals,  n^5'?r>j  communicating 
with  the  rivers  or  brooks ;  and  thereby  imparted  to  their  fields  the 
richness  cf  gardens,  Ps.  1:  3.  65:  10.  Prov.  21:  1.  Is.  30:  25.  32:  2, 
20.  Hos.  12:  11.  Springs,  therefore,  fountains,  and  rivulets,  were 
held  in  as  much  honor  and  worth  by  husbandmen  as  by  shepherds, 
Josh.  15:  9.  Judg.  1:  15  ;  and  we  accordingly  find,  that  the  land  of 
Canaan  was  extolled  for  those  fountains  of  w^l;-  '>f  which  Egypt 
was  destitute.  The  soil  was  enriched  also,  in  addition  to  the  method 
6* 


C6  §  58.    DIFFEKEXT    KINDS    OF    GRAIN. 

just  mentioned,  by  means  of  ashes ;  to  which  the  straw,  ]-z'n ,  the 
stubble,  t'j? ,  the  husks,  "ir ,  the  brambles  and  grass,  that  over- 
spread the  land  during  the  sabbatical  year,  w^ere  reduced  Ijy  fii-e. 
The  burning  over  the  surface  of  the  land  had  also  another  good  ef- 
fect, viz.  that  of  destroying  the  seeds  of  the  noxious  herbs.  Is.  7: 
23.  32:  13.  Prov.  24:  31.  Finally,  the  soil  was  manured  with  dung, 
Ps.  83:  10.  2  Kings  9:  37.  Is.  25:  10.  Jer.  8:  2.  9:  22.  10:  4.  25:  33. 
Luke  14:  34,  35. 


§  58.  Different  kinds  of  Grain. 

The  Hebrew  Avord  ',''i?5  which  is  translated  variously  by  the 
English  words,  grain,  corn,  etc.  is  of  general  signification,  and  com- 
prehends in  itself  different  kinds  of  grain  and  pulse,  such  as  wheat, 
n::r!;  millet,  "i^p;;  spelt,  ^".^s:  wall-barley,  "n'n;  barley,  n;i--b; 
beans,  iis  ;  lentils,  C'l'^"!^;  ;  meadow-cumin,  ■,'r::2  ;  pe[)perwort. 
n:j|^ ;  flax,  nri'w'Q ;  cotton,  "r'^nrs ;  to  these  may  be  added  va- 
rious species  of  the  cucumber,  and  perhaps  rice,  ir^'b.  Is.  28:  25. 
Rye  and  oats  do  not  grow  in  the  warmer  climates,  but  their  place 
is,  in  a  manner,  supjilied  by  barley.  Barley,  mixed  Avith  broken 
straw,  affords  the  fodder  for  beasts  of  burden,  which  is  called  ^i52 . 
"VYIieat,  ii:^n,  which  by  way  of  eminence  is  also  called  p'l,  grew 
in  Egypt  in  the  time  of  Joseph,  as  it  now  does  in  Africa,  on  stalks 
or  branches,  f^rirplp,  each  one  of  Avhich  produced  an  ear.  Gen. 
41:  47.  Tills  sort  of  wheat  does  not  flourish  in  Palestine ;  the 
wheat  of  Palestine  is  of  a  much  better  kind.  Cotton,  "-J  "Fi'^'s , 
grows  not  only  on  trees  of  a  large  size,  wliich  endure  for  a  number 
of  years,  but  also  on  shrubs,  which  are  annually  reproduced.  It  is 
enclosed  in  the  nuts  of  the  tree,  if  they  may  so  be  called  from  their 
resemblance  to  nuts.  The  nuts  when  they  are  ripe,  fall  off;  they 
are  then  gathered  and  exposed  to  the  sun,  which  causes  them  to  in- 
crease to  the  size  of  an  apple.  When  opened,  they  exhibit  the  cot- 
ton. There  are  a  few  seeds  found  in  each  of  these  nuts,  which  are 
sown  again  the  following  year.  The  cotton  of  the  shrub,  called  ■j-'SiS , 
§vG(Jos,  is  celebrated  for  itsNyhiteness. 


§  59.    INSTRC-MENTS    OV    AGRICULTURE.  67 


§  59.  Instruments  of  Agriculture. 

The  culture  of  tlie  soil  was  at  first  very  simple,  being  perform- 
ed by  no  other  instruments  than  sharp  sticks.  By  these  the  ground 
was  loosened,  until  spades  and  shovels,  lr^,  and  not  long  after 
ploughs,  rr-n"?,  were  invented.  All  these  implements  were 
well  known  in  the  time  of  Moses,  Deut.  23:  13.  Gen.  45:  6.  Job  1: 
14.  The  first  plough  was  doubtless  nothing  more  than  a  stout 
limb  of  a  tree,  from  which  projected  another  shortened  and  point- 
ed limb.  This  being  turned  into  the  ground  made  the  furrows; 
while  at  the  further  end  of  the  longer  branch  was  fastened  a  trans- 
verse yoke,  to  which  the  oxen  were  harnessed.  At  last  a  handle 
was  added,  by  which  the  plough  might  be  guided.  So  that  the 
plough  was  composed  of  four  parts ;  the  beam,  the  yoke,  n-S'^iz , 
hi',  which  was  attached  to  the  beam;  the  handle,  and  what  we 
should  ^eall  the  coulter,  rx,  n-^r.X,  nrn--?,  1  Sam.  13:  20,  21. 
Micah  4:  3.  (Pliny,  N.  H.  xviii.  47,  speaks  of  ploughs  constructed 
with  wheels,  which  in  his  day  Avere  of  recent  invention.)  It  was 
necessary  for  the  ploughman  constantly  and  firmly  to  hold  the 
handle  of  the  plough,  which  had  no  wheels,  and,  that  no  spot 
might  remain  untouched,  to  lean  forward  and  fix  his  eyes  steadily 
upon  it,  Luke  9:  62.  Pliny,  X.  H.  xviii.  49.  no.  2.  The  staff  by 
which  the  coulter  was  cleared,  served  for  an  ox-goad.  In  the  East 
at  the  present  day,  they  use  a  pole  about  eight  feet  in  length ;  at 
the  largest  end  of  which  is  fixed  a  flat  piece  of  iron  for  clearing 
the  plough,  and  at  the  other  end  a  spike  )^'ri ,  nivzQOv,  for  spur- 
ring the  oxen.  Hence  it  appears  that  a  good,  might  answer  the 
purpose  of  a  spear,  which  indeed  had  the  sarae:i]ame  'riT ,  1  Sam. 
13:21.  Judg.  3:31.  Sometimes  a  scourge  -^Vc,  was  applied  to 
the  oxen.  Is.  10:  2G.  Kah.  3:  2.  There  seems  to  have  been  no 
other  harrow  than  a  thick  clump  of  wood,  borne  down  by  a  weight, 
or  a  man  sitting  upon  it,  and  drawn  over  the  ploughed  field  by  ox- 
en; the  same  which  the  Egyptians  use  at  the  present  time.  In 
this  way  the  turfs  were  broken  in  pieces,  and  the  field  leveller" ; 
an  operation  which  the  Avord  l^b  seems  properly  to  signhy,  viz., 
to  level,  since,  in  Is.  28:  24,  25,  it  is  interchanged  with  r\'!\':: .  At 
a  later  period  wicker-drags  came  into  use,  which  Pliny  mentions 
N.  H.  xviH.  43. 


68  §  GO.    AXDIALS    USED    IX    AGRICULTURE. 

The  modern  orientals,  except  in  India,  are  unacquainted  "vvitb 
the  cart  ;  but  formerly  not  only  wagons  rii^ij.; ,  t~h^z\ ,  Gen.  45: 
19,  27.  Num.  7:  3,  G,  7.  1  Sara.  9:  7,  8,  10,  11,  14."  Amos  2:  13. 
Is.  5:  18.  28:  28,  and  Avarlike  chariots,  C-cr-n,  ::rn,  but  also 
pleasure  carriages,  -r~i;c ,  i^^2";^ ,  !~5|"]"5 ,  Avere  used,  Gen.  41:  43. 
45:  19,  21.  2  Kings  5:  d.  2  Sam.'  15:  1.  Acts  8:  28.  All  the  ancient 
vehicles  were  moved  upon  tAvo  Avheels  only.  Covered  coaches  are 
knoAA'n  to  have  been  used  by  ladies  of  distinction  ;  though  this  cir- 
cumstance is  not  mentioned  in  the  Bible. 


§  GO.   AXI.AIALS    USED    IX    AGRICULTURE. 

The  beasts  of  burden,  that  endured  the  toils  of  agriculture,  Avere 
bulls  and  coaa's,  he-asses  and  she-asses,  Job  1:  14.  1  Sam.  G:  7.  Isa. 
30:  24.  32:  20.  But  it  Avas  forbidden  to  yoke  an  ass  Avith  an  ox, 
Deut.  22:  10.  Those  animals,  Avhich  in  the  Scriptures  are  called 
oxen,  AA-ere  bulls,  for  the  HebrcAvs  Avere  prohibited  Irom  castrating, 
although  the  laAv  Avas  sometimes  violated,  Mai.  1:  14.  Bulls  in  the 
Avarmer  climates,  especially  if  they  are  not  greatly  pampered,  are 
not  so  ungovernable,  but  that  they  may  be  harnessed  to  the  plough. 
If  indeed  any  become  obstinate  by  rich  pasturage,  their  nostrils  AA-ere 
perfoi'ated,  and  a  ring,  made  of  iron  or  tAvisted  cord,  Avas  thrust 
through,  to  Avhich  Avas  fastened  a  rope ;  Avhich  impeded  his  respira- 
tion to  such  a  degree,  that  the  most  turbulent  one  might  easily  be 
managed,  2  Kings  19:  28.  Isa.  37:  29.  Ezek.  19:  4.  Job  40:  24. 
By  this  ring  also  camels,  elephants,  and  lions,  taken  alive,  Avere 
rendered  manageable.  When  bulls  became  old,  their  flesh  Avas  un- 
suitable for  aliment ;  for  Avhich  reason  they  were  left  to  die  a  natu- 
ral death.  For  the  old  age  of  these  animals,  Avhich  had  been  their 
companions  in  labor,  Avas  treated  by  the  HebreAVs  Avith  kindness. 
Whence  it  is  said,  that,  in  the  golden  age,  the  slaughter  of  an  ox  Avill 
be  equally  criminal  Avith  the  slaughter  of  a  man,  Isa.  66:  3.  Pliny, 
N.  H.  vii.  45,  56.  Hence  too  among  the  HebreAvs  bulls  possessed 
their  appropriate  dignity,  so  that  tropes  were  drawn  from  them,  by 
ro  means  destitute  of  elegance.  Num.  22:  4.  Deut.  23:  17. 


§  Gl.    PRP;PARATION    OF    THE    LAND.  G9 

§  CI.    PUEI'AKATIOX    OF    THE    LaXD. 

Sowing  commenced  in  the  latter  part  of  October ;  at  whicli  time, 
as  well  as  in  the  months  of  November  and  December  following,  the 
wheat  was  committed  to  the  earth.  Barley  was  sown  in  January 
and  February.  The  land  was  ploughed,  w^n,  nb3,and  the  quan- 
tit}'  which  was  ploughed  by  a  yoke  of  oxen,  ^2^,  in  one  day,  was 
called  l"c^  a  yoke,  or  an  acre,  1  Sam.  14:  14.  The  yoke,  n::Va, 
h'v ,  was  laid  upon  the  necks  and  slioulders  of  the  laboring  animals, 
and  with  i-opes,  cs^n,  ^2n,  was  made  fast  to  the  beam  of  the 
plough.  The  ox  beneath  the  yoke  afforded  metaphors  expres- 
sive of  subjugation,  Hosea  10:  11.  Isa.  9:  4.  10:  27.  Jer.  5:  5.  27: 
2,  8—12.  30:  8.  Nahum  1:  13.  Ps.  129:  3,  4.  Matt.  11:  29,  30. 
The  Syrians,  according  to  Pliny  (xviii.  3.),  ploughed  shallow.  The 
furrows,  C"'n^l3,  and  the  ridges  between  them  were  harrowed 
and  levelled,  ^^b.  Job  39:10.  Isa.  28:  24,  25.  IIos.  10:  11.  The 
seed  was  most  probably  committed  to  the  soil  in  the  harrowing, 
as  Pliny  relates.  Yet  it  seems  to  have  been  customary  in  some 
cases  formerly,  as  it  is  at  present,  to  scatter  the  seed  upon  the 
field  once  ploughed,  and  cover  it  by  a  cross  furrow.  When  it  was 
prohibited  by  law  to  sow,  either  in  field  or  vineyard,  seed  of  a 
mixed  kind,  and  crops  of  this  kind  became  sacred,  i.  e.  were  giv- 
en to  the  priests,  without  doubt  the  seed-grain  was  carefully 
cleansed  from  all  mixture  of  tares  so  often  spoken  of,  and  which 
we  find  denominated   in   the   New  Testament  ^i^unov,  in  Arabic 

^l^\  ,  in  Syriac  P^-^l  j  in  the  Talmud  □■j^'it  ,  and  in  Hebrew  cxn 
and  ci"i.  This  law  by  no  means  referred  to  a  poorer  sort  of 
grain,  as  the  Talmudic  writers  suppose,  but  what  may  be  called 
the  intoxicating  tare,  from  which  the  bread  and  the  water  in  which 
it  was  boiled  received  an  inebriating  quality,  and  became  very  inju- 
rious to  soundness  of  mind.  The  beverage  formed  by  boiling  tares 
and  water,  was  called  ^"X-i  i"2 ,  water  of  tares,  also  poison  water, 
Deut.  29:  18,  19.  Ps.  GO:  21.  Jer.  8:  14.  23:  15.  Hos.  10:  4.  The 
tares,  then,  such  were  their  injurious  qualities,  are  very  properly  said 
to  have  been  sown  by  an  enemy,  while  the  laborers  were  indulging 
sleep  at  noon.  Matt.  13:  25—40. 

Consult,  in  reference  to  the  law  mentioned  in  this  section,  Lev.  19: 
19,  and  Deut.  22:  9. 


70  §  C2.    HARVEST. 


§  G2.  Hakvkst. 


In  Palestine,  the  crops  are  as  far  advanced  in  tlie  month  of 
February,  as  they  are  in  this  country  in  the  month  of  May.  At 
that  time,  when  the  grain  lias  reached  about  a  cubit  in  height,  it 
is  frequently  so  injured  by  cold  winds  and  frost,  that  it  does  not 
ear.      The   cfiect,  thus  produced  upon    tlie    grain,  is  called  "i'lSTr 

or  Uusting.  The  common  name  for  it  in  Arabic  is  not  ^jJwO, 
as  Niebuhr  declares,  but  j^^-o,  Gen.  41:  6.  Deut.  28:22.  2 
Kings  19:  2G.  Sometimes,  even  in  November,  the  crops  are  so  an- 
noyed by  easterly  winds,  as  to  turn  yellow,  and  never  come  to 
maturity.  This  calamity  is  denominated  "'ip"^;^  mildew,  Deut.  28: 
22.  Amos  4:  9.  Hag.  2:  17.  1  Kings  8:  37.  2  Chron.  G:  28.  But 
whether  the  opinion  of  the  orientals,  that  these  eifects  are  occa- 
sioned by  winds,  is  founded  in  truth,  cannot,  as  it  seems,  be  deter- 
mined. 

The  crops,  in  the  southern  parts  of  Palestine  and  in  the  plains, 
come  to  maturity  about  the  middle  of  April ;  but  in  the  northern  and 
the  moimtaiyioiis  sections,  they  do  not  become  ripe,  till  three  weeks 
after,  or  even  later. 

The  cultivated  fields  are  guarded  by  watchmen,  who  sit  upon  a 
seat  hung  in  a  tree,  or  on  a  watch-tower  made  of  planks,  and  keep 
off  birds,  quadrupeds,  and  thieves,  Jer.  4:  16,  17.  Isa.  24:  20. 
It  was  lawful  for  travellers,  Deut.  23:  25,  to  strip  ears  from  an- 
other's field  and  to  eat ;  but  they  were  not  to  use  a  sickle.  The 
second  day  of  the  passover,  i.  e.  the  sixteenth  from  the  first  new 
moon  of  April,  the  first  handful  of  ripe  barley  was  carried  to  the 
altar,  and  then  the  harvest  "I'^rJl^  commenced ;  comp.  John  4:  35. 
The  barley  was  first  gathered ;  then  the  wheat,  spelt,  millet,  etc. 
Exod.  9:  31,  31.  Ruth  1:  22.  2:  23.  The  time  of  harvest  was  a 
festival.  It  continued  from  the  passover  until  Pentecost,  seven 
ireclcs ;  and  accordingly  went  by  the  name  "I'^r^I^  ^""'1517  riir:;"J 
Deut.  IG:  9 — 12.  Jer.  5:  24.  The  reapers  were  masters,  chil- 
dren, men-servants,  maidens,  and  mercenaries,  Ruth  2:  4,  8,  21,  23. 
John  4:  3G.  James  5:  4.  Merry  and  cheerful,  they  were  intent 
upon  their  labor,  and  the   song  of  joy  miglit  be  heard  on   every 


3   G3.    TIIRESUI.NG    FLOOR.  71 

side,  Isa.  9:  3.  Gl:  7.  Ps.  12G:  G.  Travellers  congratulated  them 
on  the  rich  harvest ;  which  was  attributed  to  the  beneficence  of  De- 
itv  and  considered  a  great  honor;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  sterility 
of  the  soil  was  supjx)sed  to  be  a  divine  punishment  and  a  dis- 
grace, Lev.  2G:  4.  Deut.  11:  14.  28:  12—24.  Isa.  4:  2.  Ilag.  1:  0— 
11.  Mai.  3:  10,  11.  Anciently  the  ears  were  plucked  oft",  or  tlie 
stalks  pulled  up  by  the  roots,  which  is  still  the  custom  in  some  eas- 
tern countries.  It  was  esteemed  servile  labor  by  the  Pharisees,  and 
a  profanation  of  the  sabbath,  when  done  on  that  day.  Matt.  12:  1 — i. 
The  Hebrews  used  the  sickle,  t-z'j-\,  H^t,  Deut.  IG:  9.  Joel  3:  13. 
Jer.  50:  IG ;  so  that  the  stubble  -"ir  remained  in  the  earth. 
The  crops  when  reaped  were  gathered  up  b}'  the  arms,  and 
bound  in  bundles,  Gen.  37:  7.  Lev.  23:  10 — 15.  Job  24:  10.  Ruth 
2:  7,  15,  IG.  Amos  2:  13.  3Iic.  4:  12.  Jer.  9:  21,  22.  At  length  the 
bundles  were  collected  into  a  heap  r.x-:.; ,  or  conveyed  away  on  a 
wa^o!i,  Amos  2:  13.  Ps.  12G:  G.  But  the  corners  of  the  field 
nr  rx3 ,  and  the  gleanings  -~; ,  were  required  to  be  left  for  tlic 
poor,  Lev.  19:  9.  Deut.  24:  19^  Puith  2:  2,  23.  The  land  in  the 
East  generally  yields  ten  fold,  rarely,  twenty  or  thirty ;  but  Matt. 
13:  8,  the  land  yielded  thirty,  sixty,  and  an  hundred  fold,  and  Gen. 
2G:  12,  an  hundred  fold.  Herodotus,  Strabo,  and  Pliny  mentioned 
the  increase  of  crops  at  the  rate  of  one  hundred  and  fifty,  two  hun- 
dred, and  even  three  hundred  fold.  This  great  increase  is  owing 
to  the  circumstance  of  the  kernels  being  put  into  the  soil  at  a  dis- 
tance from  each  other,  so  as  to  send  out  several  stalks,  Gen.  41:  5, 
47,  some  of  which,  (according  to  Pliny,  N.  H.  xviii.  21.  55.)  have 
from  three  to  four  hundred  ears ;  and  in  Africa  at  the  present  time, 
they  bear  at  least  ten  and  fifteen. 

§  Zo.  Tiiui::snixG  i-i.ooR,  ";-:«. 

The  bimdles  were  transported  into  the  threshing  floor  either  I'V 
hand,  or  by  beasts  of  burden,  or  in  wagons,  Amos  2:  13,  and  piled  in 
a  lieap,  Exod.  22:  G.  Judg.  15:  5.  A  bundle  left  in  the  field,  even 
though  discovered,  was  not  to  be  taken  up,  but  left  for  the  poor, 
Dfijit.  24:  19.  The  threshing  floor  was  in  the  field,  in  some  ele- 
vated part  of  it :  it  was  destitute  of  walls  and  covering ;  and  in- 
deed was  nothing  more  than  a  circular  space  thii-ty  or  forty  paces 
in  diameter,  Avhere  the  ground  had  been  levelled  and  Ijcateu  dowHj 


72  §  G4.  TiinF.siiixG. 

Gen.  50:  10.  2  Sam.  24:  16,  24.  Judg.  6:  37,  etc.  The  assemblage 
of  bundles  in  the  floor  for  threshing,  was  used  figuratively  to  de- 
note reservation  for  future  destruction,  Mic.  4:  13.  Isa.  21:  10.  Jer. 
51:  33. 

§  G4.    TiiRESinNG. 

At  first  the  grain  Avas  beaten  out  with  cudgels.  Al'terwanls 
this  method  Avas  retained  only  in  respect  to  smaller  kinds  of 
grain  and  in  threshing  small  quantities,  Ruth  2:  17.  Isa.  28:  27. 
At  a  later  period,  it  was  trodden  out  by  the  hoofs  of  oxen,  Isa.  28: 
28.  Deut.  25:  4,  or  beaten  out  with  machines  of  the  same  kind, 
that  are  used  in  the  East  at  the  present  day.  All  these  modes  of 
threshing  are  called  t^l.  Three  kinds  of  instruments,  however, 
are  mentioned.  The  first,  called  ci:;?^^? ,  is  not  well  known.  Per- 
haps it  was  a  square  piece  of  wood,  armed  on  the  lower  side  with 
sharp  stones.  The  second,  called  i.y",  was  composed  of  lour 
beams  joined  so  as  to  form  a  square,  betAveen  which  Avere  set 
three  revolving  cylinders,  each  one  of  Avhich  Avas  furnished  with 
three  iron  Avheels,  having  teeth  like  a  saw ;  (see  Arehacol.  Germ. 
P.  I.  T.  1.  tab.  IV.  no.  YII.)  The  third,  -j^nn ,  Avas  formed  like 
the  preceding,  except  that  the  cylinders  A\ere  not  furnished  Avith 
iron  Avheels,  but  Avith  sharp  pieces  of  iron  six  inches  long  and 
three  broad.  Possibly  this  may  be  the  same  kind  Avith  the  first. 
These  machines,  upon  Avhich  the  driver  sat,  Avere  fastened  to  the 
oxen,  and  Avere  driven  round  upon  the  bundles,  Avhich  Avere  broken 
open  and  Avere  deposited  in  the  circle  of  the  area  six  or  eight 
feet  in  height.  In  this  manner  the  grain  Avas  beaten  out  of  the 
ear,  and  the  straAV  itself  broken  in  pieces,  Avhich  in  this  state  Avas 
called  "i^n.  Another  man  folloAved  the  machine  witli  a  Avooden 
instrument,  and  placed  the  grain  in  order.  Threshing  frequently 
stands  figuratively  for  a  great  slaughter ;  and  if  the  machine  is 
said  to  be  new,  Avhen  it  is  usually  the  sharpest,  it  denotes  a  slaugh- 
ter proportionably  greater.  The  Aictorious  people  are  some- 
times represented  as  a  huge  machine,  that  threshes  and  cnnnbles 
even  mountains  and  hills,  like  straAA'.  But  the  conquered  are  al- 
Avays  prostrated  upon  the  earth,  like  the  bundles  on  the  threshing 
floor,  and  ground  to  poAvder  by  the  instruments,  Judg.  8:  7.  2  Sam. 
12:  31.     Amos  1:  3.     Micah  4:  12,  13.     Li  Deut.  25:  4,  it  Avas  for- 


§  Go.    VEXTILATIOV.  1^ 

bidden  to  muzzle  the  ox,  that  was  treading  out  the  com,  comp. 
1  Cor.  9:  9 — 12.  1  Tim.  o:  18,  and  the  cattle  which  drew  the 
threshing  machine,  were  allowed  to  eat  of  it  to  the  lull.  In  refer- 
ence to  this  circumstance,  threshing  denoted  figmatively  a  -jlendid 
manner  of  life. 

§  Go.  Ventilation. 

The  grain  being  threshed,  was  tlirown  into  the  middle  of  the 
threshing  floor ;  it  was  then  exposed  with  a  fork  to  a  gentle  wind, 
Jer.  -i:  II,  12,  which  separated  the  broken  straw,  "izrijand  chaff, 
•p'z;  so  that  the  kernels  and  clods  of  earth  with  grain  cleaving 
to  them,  and  the  ears  not  yet  thoroughly  threshed,  fell  upon  the 
ground.  The  clods  of  cai'th,  as  is  customary  in  the  East  at  the 
present  day,  were  collected,  broken  in  pieces,  and  separated  from 
the  grain  by  a  sieve,  "T;33.  Sifting  was  accordingly  used  as  a 
symbol  of  misfortune  and  overthi'ows,  Amos  9:  9.  Luke  22:  31. 
The  heap  thus  winnowed  which  still  contained  many  ears,  that 
were  broken,  but  not  fully  threshed  out,  was  again  exposed  in 
the  threshing  Hoor,  and  several  yoke  of  oxen  driven  over  it  for 
the  purpose  of  treading  out  the  remainder  of  the  grain.  At  length 
the  grain,  mingled  with  the  chaff,  was  again  exposed  to  the  wind 
by  a  fan  which  was  called  "-"'2,  Titioy;  which  bore  off  the  chaff, 
yh'z ,  so  that  the  pure  wheat  fell  upon  the  floor,  Ruth  3:  2.  Isa.  30: 
2-1.  This  operation  was  symbolical  of  the  dispersion  of  a  van- 
quished people ;  also  of  the  separation  betv/een  the  righteous  and 
wicked,  Isa.  41:  15,  16.  Jer.  13:  24.  15:  7.  .31:  2.  Job  21:  18.  Ps.  I: 
4.  35:  5.  83:  13.  Matt.  3:  12.  Luke  3:  17.  The  scattered  straw, 
as  much  at  least  as  was  required  for  the  manufiicturing  of  bricks 
and  the  fodder  of  cattle,  was  collected,  but  the  residue,  with  the 
chaff  and  stubble,  as  has  been  stated  abo\e,  was  reduced  to  ashes 
by  fire ;  which  afforded  a  figurative  illustration  to  denote  the  de- 
struction of  wicked  men,  Isa.  5:  24.  47:  14.  Joel  2:  5.  Oliad.  18. 
Nahum  1:  10.  Jer.  15:  7.  Malachi  4:  1.  Matt.  3:  12.  Originally  the 
grain  thus  obtained  from  the  earth  was  kept  in  subterranean  store- 
houses, and  even  caverns ;  but  in  progress  of  time  granaries  above 
the  earth  were  built,  both  in  Egypt  and  Palestine,  see  Gen.  41:  35. 
Exod.  1:  11.  1  Chron.  27:  28. 
7 


/4  §  66.    DF   VINES   AND    VINKYARDS. 


§  GG.  Of  Vines  and  Vineyards. 

Among  other  objects  of  agriculture,  the  vine  may  justly  be  consid- 
ered Avorthy  of  particular  attention. 

Vines,  ":S5,  in  some  parts  of  the  East,  for  instance  on  the  south- 
ern sliore  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  grow  spontaneously,  producing  grapes 
of  a  pleasant  taste,  which  in  the  very  first  ages  of  the  world,  could 
not  but  have  invited  the  attention  of  men  to  their  cultivation. 
Hence  mention  is  made  of  wme  at  an  early  period,  Gen.  9:  21.  14: 
18.  19:  32—35.  27:  25.  49:  11,  12.  The  Hebrews  were  no  less 
diligent  in  the  culture  of  vineyards,  than  of  fields  for  grain ;  and  the 
soil  of  Palestine  yielded  in  gi-eat  quantities  the  best  of  wine.  The 
mountains  of  Engedi  in  particular,  the  valley  of  salt-pits,  and  the 
valleys  of  Eshcol  and  Sorek  wei'e  celebrated  for  their  grapes. 
Sorek  indeed,  was  not  only  the  proper  name  of  a  valley,  but  also  of  a 
very  fruitful  vine,  which  bore  small,  but  uncommonly  sweet  and 
pleasant  grapes.  In  the  kingdom  of  Morocco  at  the  present  time,  the 
same  vine  is  called  Serki,  the  name  being  slightly  altered,  see  Pliny, 
xvii.  35.  no.  5.  In  a  few  instances  the  Avine  of  mount  Libanus  and 
Helbon  is  extolled  in  the  Scriptures,  Hos.  14:  7.  Ezek,  27:  18.  In 
Palestine  even  at  the  present  day,  the  clusters  of  the  vine  grow  to 
the  weight  of  twelve  pounds ;  they  have  large  grapes,  and  cannot  be 
carried  far  by  one  man,  without  being  injured,  Num.  13:  24,  25. 
The  grapes  of  Palestine  are  mostly  red  or  black  ;  whence  originated 
the  phrase,  '^  blood  of  grapes,"  fs:?  en  Gen.  49:  11.  Deut.  32:  14. 
Isa.  27:  2.  Some  vines  in  eastern  countries,  when  supported  by 
trees,  grow  to  a  great  height  and  magnitude  ;  of  such  are  made  the 
staves  and  sceptres  of  kings. 

The  vine  growing  spontaneously,  of  which  we  have  spoken, 
is  not  that  which  in  2  Kings  4:  39,  is  called  "  the  wild  vine," 
rS'::n  'tt ,  for  that,  (as  the  Vulgate  rightly  translates,)  is  the  colo- 
cyntis  or  wild  gourd,  which  in  Jer.  2:  21,  is  called  i^'-rj  '\r^'.iihe 
deyeneratc  or  strange  vine.  The  vine  of  Sodom  r:~b  "lEJ  is  tlie 
solanvm  mclavgence,  the  fruit  of  which,  as  was  said  above,  is  called 
-'"."^  ■>":" ,  or  tlie  poisonous  clusters. 


§  G7.    SIXrATIOX  AND  ARKANGKMENT  OF  VINEYARDS. 


75 


§  G7.  Situation  and  Auuangemknt  of  Vineyards. 

Vineyards,  S- -"^3 ,  C-2 ,  weve  generally  planted  on  the  declivity 
of  hills  and  monntains.  They  were  sometimes  planted  in  places, 
where  the  soil  had  been  heaped  by  art  upon  the  naked  rocks, 
and  was  supported  there  merely  by  a  wall,  Isa.  5:  1.  Jei-.  31:  5. 
Joel  3:  18.  Amos  9:  13.  Mic.  1:  G.  According  to  Strabo  and  Pliny, 
there  Avere  also  very  fine  vineyards  in  moors  and  wet  lands,  in  which 
the  vines  grew  to  a  very  great  height.  Of  the  vines,  that  grew  upon 
such  a  kind  of  soil,  were  fobricated  the  sceptre,  etc.  spoken  of  above, 
whilst  the  branches  of  other  vines  were  destined  to  be  fuel  for  the 
flames,  Ezek.  17:  1—8.  19:  10,  11,  12.  15:  1—5. 

Vines  were  commonly  propagated  by  means  of  suchers,  ^■'"!"^:ip . 
Pliny  (xvii.  35.  no.  G.)  says,  vines  were  of  four  kinds ;  viz.  those  that 
ran  on  the  ground;  those  that  grew  upright  of  themselves;  those 
that  adhered  to  a  single  prop;  and  those  that  covered  a  square 
frame.  It  is  not  my  design  to  treat  of  all  these:  it  may  suffice 
merely  to  mention,  that  Pliny  is  by  no  means  correct,  Avhen  he 
says,  the  custom  prevailed  in  Syria  and  all  Asia,  of  letting  the  vines 
run  on  the  ground.  This  indeed  accords  with  Ezekiel  17:  6,  7; 
but  that  vines  frequently  grew  to  a  great  height,  being  supported 
by  trees  and  props,  or  standing  upright  of  themselves,  the  prover- 
bial phrase,  which  so  often  occurs,  of  sitting  under  one's  own  vine 
and  fig-tree,  i.  e.  enjoying  a  prosperous  and  hapi)y  life,  is  sufficient 
proof,  Jer.  5:  17.  8:13.  Hos.  2:  12.  Mic.  4:  4.  Zech.  3:  10.  The 
prohibition,  Deut.  22:  9,  to  sow  vineyards  with  divers  seeds,  and 
the  command,  that  what  was  thus  sown  should  be  given  to  the 
priests,  are  not  to  be  understood  of  the  vines,  but  of  herbs,  which 
were  sown  in  the  intervals  between  them.  Vineyards  were  de- 
fended by  a  hedge  or  wall,  n=r:;"2,  -.'^5,  Num.  22:  24.  Ps.  80:  12. 
Prov.  24^  31.  Isa.  5:  5.  27:  2,  3."  Jer.  49:  3.  Neh.  4:  3.  Matt. 
21:  33.  In  the  vineyards  were  erected  towers,  Isa.  5:  2.  Matt.  21: 
33 ;  which,  at  the  present  time  in  eastern  countries,  are  thirty 
feet  square,  and  eighty  feet  high.  These  towers  were  for  keep- 
ers, who  defended  the  vineyards  from  thieves,  and  from  animals, 
especially  dogs  and  foxes.  Cant.  1:  G.  2:  15.  By  the  law  in  Deut, 
23:  25  the  keeper  was  commanded  not  to  prohibit  the  passing  tra- 


76  §  G9.    VINTAGE    AND    "WIXE-rKESS. 

veller  fi-om  plucking  the  grapos,  which  he  wished  to  eat  on  Iiis  way, 
provided  lie  did  not  cany  them  off  in  a  vessel. 

§  G8.  CuLTUHE  OK  Vineyards. 

Tlie  manner  of  ti-imuiiiig-  the  vine,  '^i'^t  ,  and  also  the  singular 
instrument  of  the  vine-dresser,  <~~'":'f"9 ,  were  well  known  even  in 
the  time  of  INIoses,  Lev.  25:  3,  4;  compare  Isa.  2:  4.  a:  G.  18:  5. 
Mic.  4:  3.  Joel  3:  10.  A  vintage  from  new  vineyards  was  forbid- 
den for  the  first  three  years,  Exod.  34:  20,  and  Num.  18:  11,  and 
the  grapes  also  of  the  Iburth  year  Avere  consecrated  to  s;ured  pur- 
poses; the  vines  therefore,  without  doubt,  during  these  first  years, 
were  so  pruned,  as  that  few  sprouts  remained.  On  the  fifth  year 
when  they  were  first  profaned,  bin,  i.  e.  put  to  a  common  use,  they 
had  become  sturdy  and  exuberant.  Pruning  at  three  several  times, 
viz.  March.  April,  and  May",  is  mentioned  not  only  by  Bochart,  but 
by  Pliny ;  and  Homer  speaks  of  it  as  a  thing  well  known,  (Odyss. 
vii.  120»)  The  Hebrews  dug,  p'v ,  their  vineyards,  and  gathered 
out  the  stones,  b'j^p .  The  young  vines,  unless  trees  were  at  hand, 
were  wound  around  stakes ;  and  around  those  vines  which  ran  on 
the  gi'ound  were  dug  narrow  trenches  in  a  circular  form,  to  prevent 
the  wandering  shoots  from  mingling  with  each  other.  These  prac- 
tices in  the  cultivation  of  the  vine  are  to  be  duly  considered  in  those 
allegories,  which  are  drawn  from  vineyards,  Isa.  5:  1 — 7.  27:  2 — G. 
Ps.  80:  9—13.  Matt.  21:  33—46. 

§  G9.  Vintage  and  Wine-press. 

The  vintage,  "i"'-f3,  in  Syria,  commences  about  the  middle  of 
September,  and  continues  till  the  middle  of  November.  ]>ut  grapes 
in  Palestine,  we  ai'e  informed,  were  ripe  sometimes  even  in  June 
and  July ;  which  arose  perhaps  from  a  triple  pruning,  in  which  case 
there  was  also  a  third  vintage.  The  first  vintage  was  in  August, 
whicli  month  in  Num.  13:  20,  is  called  d:::^';  "^"132  ^'zp_ ;  the  second 
in  September,  and  the  third  in  October.  The  grapes  when  not 
gathered,  were  sometimes  found  on  the  vines  until  November  and 
December.  The  Hebrews  were  required  to  leave  gleanings  fur  the 
poor.  Lev.  19:  10. 

The  season  of  vintage  was    a    most   jo}'ful  one,  Judges   9:  27. 


§  G9.  VINTAGE  AND   -wiNK-rnicss.  77 

Isa.  16:  10.  Jer.  2.3:  00.  48:  33.  "With  shoutings  on  all  sides,  the 
grapes  were  plucked  oflf  and  carried  to  the  uiue-press,  rr^-s,  P./^jo's-, 
which  was  in  the  vineyard,  Isa.  5:  2.  Zech.  1-1:  10.  Hag.  2:  IG. 
Matt.  21:  33.  Rev.  14:  19,  20.  The  presses  consisted  of  two  recep- 
tacles, wliich  were  either  built  of  stones  and  covered  with  plaster,  or 
hewn  out  of  a  large  rock.  The  upper  receptacle,  called  ri; ,  as  it  is 
constructed  at  the  present  time  in  Persia,  is  nearly  eight  feet  square 
and  four  feet  high.  Into  (fiis  the  grapes  are  thrown  and  trodden  out 
by  five  men.  The  juice  t''rrT\,  ^ows  out  into  the  lower  receptacle 
called  "-;; ,  through  a  grated  aperture,  which  is  made  in  the  side  near 
the  bottom  of  the  upper  one. 

The  treading  of  the  wine-press  was  laborious  and  not  very  fa- 
vorable to  cleanliness ;  the  garments  of  the  persons  thus  employ- 
ed Avere  stained  with  the  red  juice,  and  yet  the  employment  Avas 
a  joyful  one.  It  was  performed  with  singing,  accompanied  with 
musical  instruments ;  and  the  treaders  as  they  jumped,  exclaimed, 
Ti-n,  {1,0  iij))  Isa.  10:  9,  10.  Jer.  25:  30.  48:  32,  33.  Figumticehj, 
vintage,  gleaning,  and  treading  the  wine-press,  signified  battles 
and  great  slaughters,  Isa.  17:  C.  C3:  1 — 3.  Jer.  49:  9.  Lam.  1:  15. 
The  must,  as  is  customary  in  the  East  at  the  present  day,  was  pre- 
served in  large  firkins,  which  were  buried  in  the  earth.  The 
wine-cellars  were  not  subterranean,  but  built  upon  the  earth. 
"When  deposited  in  these,  the  firkins,  as  is  done  at  the  present  time 
in  Persia,  were  sometimes  buried  in  the  ground,  and  sometimes  left 
standino^  upon  it.  Formerly  also  new  wine  or  must  was  preserved 
in  leathern  bottles ;  and  lest  they  should  be  broken  by  fermenta- 
tion, the  people  were  careful  that  the  bottles  should  be  new,  Job 
32:  19.  Matt.  9:  17.  Mark  2:  22.  Sometimes  the  must  was  boiled 
and  made  into  syrup,  which  is  comprehended  under  the  term  -"r-^, 
althouMi  it  is  commonly  rendered  honey.  Gen.  43:  11.  2  Chron. 
31:  5.  Sometimes  the  grapes  were  dried  in  the  sun  and  preserved 
in  masses,  which  were  called  ^"Z'."_  ^'^'-.'^.  and  r-jr-r::,  1  Sam. 
25:  18.  2  Sam.  10:  1.  1  Chron.  12:  40.  Ilosca  3:  1.  From  these 
dried  grapes,  when  soaked  in  wine  and  pressed  a  second  time,  was 
manufiictured  sweet  wine,  which  is  also  called  nexv  wine,  "-"■."i-n, 
yXtiJxos',  Acts  2:  13. 


78  §  70.    GAUDENS. 


§  70.  Gaudkxs. 

Culinary  plants  and  fruit-trees  were  among  the  first  objects 
of  agriculture.  Gardens  accordingly  were  very  ancient,  and  have 
always  been  numci-ous.  By  the  Hebrews  they  were  called  C"^::.,  ",; 
r""3,  n'j  ;  afterwards,  the  Persian  name  d'H'^B  ,  nuQudiiath', 
paradise,  was  introduced.  The  later  Hebrews  were  invited  the 
more  to  the  cultivation  of  gardens  by  the  example  of  the  Syrians, 
whom  Pliny  extols  for  this  species  of  agriculture,  above  all  other 
nations. — Trees  were  multiplied  by  seeds  and  shoots ;  they  were 
transplanted,  dug  around,  manured,  and  pruned,  Job  8:  IG.  Isa.  17: 
10.  Grafting  occui's  figuratively,  Ivom.  11:  17,  24. — The  gardens 
in  Persia  at  the  present  day  are  disjiosed  in  good  order ;  those  in 
the  Ottoman  empire  are  very  rude,  displaying  hardly  any  indication 
of  art,  except  a  fountain  or  receptacle  of  waters,  which  is  never 
wanting. 

In  the  Sci-iptures,  gardens  are  denominated  from  the  preva- 
lence of  certain  trees :  as  the  garden  of  nuts,  '"SX  r|a ,  and  the 
garden  of  Carthaginian  apples  or  pomegranates,  t'^r'.r";  c;!"?, 
Cant.  6:  11.  The  forest  of  palms  also,  in  the  plain  of  Jericho, 
was  only  a  large  garden,  in  which  other  trees  were  interspersed 
among  the  palms,  Strabo,  p.  7G8.  The  modern  orientals  are  no 
less  fond  of  gardens  than  were  the  ancient  Hebrews ;  not  only  be- 
cause they  yield  the  richest  fruits,  but  because  the  shade  is  very 
refreshing,  and  the  air  is  cooled  by  the  waters,  of  which  their 
gardens  are  never  allowed  to  be  destitute,  1  Kings  21:  2.  2  Kings 
25:  4.  Hos.  9:  13.  Cant.  4:  13.  0:  11.  Eccles.  2:  5.  John  18:  1. 
19:  41.  20:  15.  The  Hebrews  had  an  attachment  to  gardens  as 
a  place  of  burial ;  hence  they  frequently  built  sepulchres  in  them, 
2  Kings  9:  27.  21:18.  Matt.  15:  46.  Matt.  26:  36.  John  18:  1,  2. 
A  pleasant  region  is  called  "  a  garden  of  God,''  i.  e.  a  region  ex- 
tremely pleasant.  The  trees  which  the  gardens  constantly  dis- 
played are  often  used  figuratively  for  men.  Those  whieli  are 
fiourishing  and  fruitful  denote  good  men  ;  the  unfruitful  and  bar- 
ren, u-ickcd  men,  and  lofty  cedars  in  particular  are  the  emblems  of 
kings,  Job  29:  19.  Ps.  1:  3.  92:  12—14.  Hos.  14:  6,  7.  Jer.  17:  8. 
Dan.  4:  10—16.  Luke  23:  31.  Matt.  3:  10.  7:  17—20.  12:  33. 
Ezek.  17:  3,  4.    31:  3,  13.      Indeed  an  assembly  of  men  is  com- 


§  71.    OI.IVK    TUEKS.  79 

pared  to  a  forest,  and  a  multitude  of  wicked  men  to  briers,  I<a.  9:  10. 
10:19,33,34,  11:1.  Several  trees,  which  are  often  mentioned  in 
the  Scriptures,  but  not  very  well  known,  we  shall  now  describe  in  a 
few  words. 


§  71.  Oi.ivE  Trees. 

Olive  Trees,  ^t't  ,  r";T ,  were  a  very  ancient  and  profitable  ob- 
ject of  agriculture.  Its  branches  as  early  as  Gen.  8:  11,  and  since 
that  time  among  all  nations,  have  been  a  symbol  of  peace  and 
prosperit)-.  Oil  is  first  mentioned.  Gen.  28:  18.  Job  24:  11,  which 
proves  the  cultivation  of  this  tree  to  have  been  very  ancient. 
Olives  in  Palestine  are  of  the  best  growth  and  afford  the  best  oil ; 
hence  this  region  is  often  extolled  on  account  of  this  tree,  and  es- 
pecially in  opposition  to  Egypt,  which  is  destitute  of  good  olives. 
Num.  18:  12.  Deut.  7:  13.  11:  14.  12:  17.  18:  4.  Land  that  is  bar- 
ren, sandy,  dry,  and  mountainous,  is  favorable  to  the  production 
of  the  olive.  The  mount  of  Olives  derives  its  name  from  this 
tree.  The  olive  is  pleasant  to  the  view,  having  widely  extended 
branches,  and  remaining  green  in  winter.  Its  multiplied  branches 
entitled  it  to  become  the  symbol  of  a  numerous  progeny,  a  bless- 
ing which  was  attributed  to  the  peculiar  favor  of  God,  Ps.  52:  8. 
128:  3.  Hos.  14:  6.  Jer.  11:  IG,  17.  It  flourishes  about  two  hun- 
dred years,  and  even  while  it  is  living,  young  olives  spring  up 
around  it,  which  occupy  its  place  when  dead ;  the  3'oung  sprouts 
are  called  r'^T  ■b'^n'i ,  Ps.  128:  3.  It  was  customary,  notwithstand- 
in"',  to  raise  the  tree  from  suckers,  which  were  transplanted.  It 
requires  no  other  cultivation  than  digging  the  ground  and  pruning 
the  branches.  The  fruit  is  very  pleasant  to  the  palate,  but  near- 
Iv  all  of  it  is  thrown  into  the  oil-press,  for  the  purpose  of  procur- 
ing the  oil,  of  which  there  are  sometimes  one  thousand  pounds  ob- 
tained from  one  tree.  By  means  of  this  article,  tlie  Hebrews  car- 
ried on  an  extensive  commerce  with  the  Tyrians,  Ezek.  27:  17- 
comp.  1  Kings  5:  11 ;  they  also  sent  presents  of  oil  to  the  kings  of 
Egypt,  Hos.  12:  1.  The  berries  of  the  olive-tree  were  some- 
times plucked  or  carefully  shaken  off  by  the  hand,  before  they 
were  ripe,  Isa.  17:  0.  24:  13.  Deut.  24:  20.  If,  while  they  were 
3'et  green,  instead  of  being  cast  into  the  press,  they  were  only 
beaten  and  squeezed,  they  yielded  the  best  kind  of  oil ;  it  was  call- 


80  §  72.    Firj-TRKKS. 

eel  omphacinum,  or  the  oil  of  unriijc  olives,  mid  also  beaten  or  fresh 
oil,  rrrs  'r^^  Tr^X  •j'^d,  Exod.  27:  20.  There  were  presses  of 
a  peculiar  make  for  pressing  oil,  called  "i-iu;  rs,  (from  Avhich 
is  derived  the  name  Gethscmane,  Matt.  2G:  3G.  Jolm  18:  1.)  in 
wliich  tlie  oil  was  trodden  out  by  the  feet,  IMicah  G:  la.  The 
(irst  exj)rfssion  of  the  oil  was  bettt'r  than  (lie  second,  and  the 
second  tlian  the  third.  Ivipe  olives  yielded  oil  of  a  less  valuable 
kind.  The  best  sort  of  oil  was  mixed  witli  spices  and  used  for 
ointment;  tlie  inferior  sort  was  used  with  food.  In  sacrifices,  ac- 
cordin_i>lv,  which  were  in  a  certain  sense  the  feasts  of  God,  the  king 
and  ruler  of  the  people,  the  use  of  oil  was  commanded.  Lev.  2:  1,  5, 
7,  15.  G:  15. 

Note. — The  cotinKS,  y.oTivog,  and  the  oleaster,  dyQitXaiog,  are 
both  called  wild  olive  trees.  They  are  nevertheless  of  different 
kinds,  though  they  are  sometimes  confounded  by  the  Greeks  theiri' 
selccs.  The  fruit  of  the  cotinus  is  used  for  no  other  purpose  than 
coloring;  but  the  oleaster,  the  Agrippa  Elo^agnus  of  Linneus, 
)-^;q  yj ,  is  that  species  of  wild  olive,  whose  branches,  (see  Schulz, 
in  Paulus's  Collection  of  Travels,  VI.  290.)  are  grafted  into  barren 
olive  trees,  that  are  in  a  state  of  cultivation,  in  order  that  fruitfulness 
may  be  produced,  comp.  Rom.  11:  17,  2-i. 

§  72.  Fig-trees. 

Fig-trees,  n-^rxn,  ni^n,  are  vexy  common  in  Palestine.  They 
flourish  in  a  dry  and  sandy  soil.  They  are  not  shrubs,  as  in  our 
gardens,  but  trees,  not  altogether  erect,  and  yet  tall  and  leafy. 
The  shade  of  the  fig-tree  is  very  pleasant,  and  was  well  known  to 
the  Hebrews,  Micah  4:  4,  Fig-trees  begin  to  sprout  at  the  time 
of  the  vernal  equinox,  Luke  21:  29,  30.  Matt.  24:  32.  The  fruit 
makes  its  appearance  before  the  leaves  and  flowers;  the  foliage 
expands  about  the  end  of  March,  Matt.  21:  19,  Mark  11:  13.  The 
figs  are  of  three  kinds.  L  T/ie  untimely  fig,  which  puts  forth  at  the 
vernal  equinox,  and  before  it  is  ripe  is  called  55,  the  green  fig, 
!)ut  when  ripe,  the  untimely  fig.  Cant.  2:  13.  IIos.  9:  10,  Jer.  24:  2. 
It  comes  to  maturity  the  latter  part  of  June,  comp.  Mark  11:  13. 
Matt.  21:  19 ;  and  in  relish  surpasses  the  other  kinds,  Jer.  24:  2. 
IL   The  summer  or  dry  fg.     It  appears  about  the  middle  of  June, 


§  70.    THE    rOMEGRAXATE.  81 

and  comes  to  maturity  in  August.  III.  The  winter  fg,  which  ger- 
minates in  August,  and  docs  not  ripen  until  the  faUing  of  the  leaves, 
which  is  about  the  end  of  November.  It  is  longer  and  of  a  browner 
color  than  the  others.  All  figs  when  ripe,  but  especially  the  untime- 
ly, fall  spontaneously,  Nahum  3:  12.  The  early  figs  are  eaten,  but 
some  are  dried  in  the  sun  and  preserved  in  masses  which  are  called 
=^b:^,  nbsT,  1  Sam.  25:  18.  30: 12.  2  Ivings  20:7.  1  Chron.  12:40. 
The  parable  in  Luke  13:  G  et  seq.  is  founded  in  the  oriental  mode  of 
gardening ;  and  the  method  of  improving  the  palm,  whose  barren- 
ness may  be  remedied  in  the  way  there  mentioned,  is  transferred  to 
the  fig-tree. 

Note. —  llie  sycamore,  s-:;?"!',  in  size  and  figure  resembles  the 
mulberry  tree,  and  is  very  common  not  only  in  Egypt,  but  in  Judca, 
especially  in  the  low  lands,  1  Chron.  27:  28.  2  Chron.  1:  15.  9:  27. 
Ps.  78:  47.  Its  body  is  large  and  its  branches  numerous,  groAving 
nearly  in  a  horizontal  direction ;  by  means  of  its  branches  it  is  easy 
of  ascent,  Luke  19:  4,  5.  It  is  always  green.  Its  wood  which  is  of  a 
dark  hue,  endures  a  thousand  years,  and  was  therefore  much  used  in 
building,  1  Chron.  27:  28.  Isa.  9: 10.  Its  fruit,  which  does  not  spring 
from  the  branches  and  among  the  leaves,  but  from  the  trunk  itself, 
resembles  the  fig,  though  it  is  destitute  of  seeds.  It  is  very  luscious, 
and  hence  hurtful  to  the  stomach ;  it  is  not,  therefore,  eaten,  except 
for  the  want  of  something  better.  The  fruit  does  not  ripen  unless 
it  is  opened,  252  by  the  nail  or  a  piece  of  iron,  so  that  the  juice, 
which  resembles  milk,  may  be  emitted ;  then  as  the  wound  grows 
black,  it  comes  to  maturity,  Amos  7:  14.  The  tree  is  very  produc- 
tive, yielding  its  fruits  seven  times  a  year,  and  affording  a  supply  of 
food  for  the  poor,  during  four  months  of  the  year;  comp.  my  Arabic 
Chrestomathy,  p.  114. 

§  73.  The  Pomegranate,  'psn. 

The  tree,  which  bears  this  name,  grows  in  Persia,  Ai-abia, 
Egypt,  and  Palestine.  It  is  not  a  tall  tree,  and  at  a  little  distance 
from  the  ground,  shoots  out  into  a  multitude  of  branches ;  in  con- 
sequence of  which,  it  is  considered  by  some  merely  a  shrub.  The 
fruit  it  bears  is  very  beautiful  to  the  eye,  and  pleasant  to  the  pal- 
ate ;  it  is  about  the  size  of  a  large  apple,  say,  two  or  three  inches 


82  §  74.    TUK    ILVl.S.VM. 

in  diameter,  and  is  encircled  at  the  upper  jiart  willi  sonietliiiig  re- 
sembling a  crown.  At  first  it  exhibits  a  green  appearance,  but  in 
August  and  September  it  appears  of  a  reddish  color,  approximating 
to  a  brown;  the  rind  is  thick  and  hard,  but  easily  broken.  The  in- 
terior of  the  pomegranate  is  of  a  yellow  color.  There  seems  lu 
be  a  number  of  internal  rinds,  which  are  soft  and  rich,  and  atlbrd 
a  juice,  which  from  its  effect  on  the  palate  may  be  called  bitter- 
sweet. The  seed  are  sometimes  white  and  sometimes  puirple,  !Xuin. 
20;  i).  Deut.  8:  8.  The  artificial  [lomegranates,  made  to  resemble 
the  natural  ones,  were  no  small  ornament,  Exod.  28:  3.3,  34.  1  Kings 
7:  18. 

Note. —  Citron  and  orange-trees  appear  to  have  been  transplanted 
at  some  recent  period  from  Persia  into  Palestine.  Had  they  been 
native  productions  of  Palestine,  the  Hebrews  clearly  would  not  have 
wanted  a  name  for  them ;  for  the  phrase,  infi  yj  I'la  the  fruit  of  a 
goodly  tree,  Lev.  23:  40,  means  neither  the  citron  nor  the  orange, 
but  the  fruit  of  any  rich  tree  whatever,  for  instance  the  pomegranate 
or  date. 


§  74.  The  Balsam. 

The  balsam  is  both  a  fruit  and  a  tree.  The  odoriferous  balsam, 
so  salutary  in  some  cases  to  health,  ITeb.  ^^'Z  is  not  gathered  from 
the  tree  in  Yemen  called  by  the  Arabic  name  Abu  Shamm,  but  is 
distilled  from  a  fruit,  which  is  indigenous  on  the  moinitains  of  Mecca 
and  Medina. 

The  fruit  Avhich  produces  this  distillation,  was  found  to  be 
cultivated  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  in  Egypt,  at 
Matara,  not  far  from  Grand  Cairo,  in  gardens.  That  it  was  culti- 
vated in  this  way  at  a  very  ancient  period  in  Gilead,  and  also  in 
the  vicinity  of  Jericho  and  Engedi,  appears  fi'om  many  passages 
of  Scripture,  Gen.  37:  25.  43:11.  Jer.  8:  22.  4G:  11.  51:8;  see 
also  the  History  of  Tacitus,  Bk.  V.  c.  G.  Josephus  in  his  Jewisli 
War,  Bk.  IV.  c.  8.  §  3.  compared  with  his  Antiquities,  Bk.  YHI.  c. 
G.  §  G.  Bk.  XX.  c.  4.  §  2.— Pliny's  Natural  Hist.  Bk.  XII.  2.  Dio- 
dorus  Siculus,  XIX.  c.  98.  Strabo  7G3,  and  Justin  Trogus  XXXYI. 
z.  2.  So  that  the  conjectures  and  statements,  brought  against 
what  is  here  stated,  cannot  hold.     There  are  three  species  of  the 


§  75.  Tin:  I'.vLM.  83 

balsam,  Iwo  are  shrubs,  the  other  is  a  tree.  Tliey  yield  tlieir  s:ip  in 
June.  July,  and  August,  whieh  is  received  into  an  earthen  vessel. 
The  fruit  also,  when  pierced  by  some  instrument,  emits  a  juice  of 
the  same  kind,  and  in  more  abundance,  but  less  rich.  The  sap, 
extracted  from  the  body  of  the  tree  or  shrub,  is  called  the  opo- 
hahamum;  the  juice  of  the  balsam  fruit  is  denominated  carpo- 
balsumum  ;  and  the  liquid,  extracted  t'rom  the  branches  when  cut  off, 
the  xylohahamum. 

§  7o.  The  Palm.  "":",  qoiii'i. 

The  palm-tree  is  very  common  in  the  countries  of  the  East  and 
in  Africa.  It  is  not  very  frequently  found  in  Palestine  at  the  pre- 
sent day ;  the  reason  is,  a  Avant  of  cultivators.  It  requires  men, 
who  are  skilful  and  experienced,  to  make  a  palm  grove  flourish- 
ing and  productive.  At  a  very  early  period,  however,  they  were 
quite  numerous  even  in  Palestine.  This  we  may  learn  from  Lev. 
23:  40.  Deut.  34:  3.  Judg.  1:  IG.  3:  13.  4:  6,  and  from  many  pro- 
fane writers  ;  and  also  from  the  ancient  coins  of  the  Jews  and  Ro- 
mans, which  exhibit  the  palm,  a  sheaf  of  wheat,  and  a  cluster  of 
grapes,  as  the  symbols  of  the  Jewish  nation.  The  palm  flourishes 
most  in  a  warm  climate,  and  in  case  there  is  a  suflSciency  of  wa- 
ter, in  clayey,  sandy,  and  nitrous  soils.  It  is,  therefore,  commonly 
found  most  flourishing  in  valleys  and  plains,  Exod.  15:  27.  It  as- 
cends very  straight,  and  very  lofty,  being  destitute  of  limbs,  except 
very  near  the  top,  where  it  is  surmounted  with  a  crown  of  foliage, 
that  is  always  green.  The  figure  of  the  palm-tree  was  carved  in  or- 
namental work,  1  Kings  6:  32 ;  and  it  is  used  figuratively,  as  a  sym- 
bol of  a  beautiful  person,  Cant.  7:  8  ;  and  also  of  a  religious,  upright 
man,  Ps.  1:  3.  92:  12.  The  dates  grow  on  small  stems,  wliich 
germinate  at  the  angles  formed  by  the  stock  of  the  tree  and  the 
branches.  Palm  trees  exhibit  what  may  be  termed  a  sexual  dis- 
tinction ;  and,  in  order  to  any  fruits  being  produced,  the  seed  from 
the  flowers  of  the  masculine  palm  must  be  borne,  at  the  proper 
season,  to  the  tree  of  an  opposite  character.  If  this  is  not  done, 
or  if  it  happen  too  early  or  too  late,  the  female  palm,  like  the 
male,  bears  no  fruit.  The  productions  of  the  palm  are  large  clus- 
ters of  dates,  which  become  ripe  in  August,  September,  and  Octo- 
ber.    Some    of  the  dates  are  eaten  in  their  crude  state ;    the  rest 


84  §  7('>.    TKin'.lUNTIlS    AND    I'ISTACIAS. 

are  strained  lIirouLdi  a  jiress  woven  of  osiers,  and  after  tlie  juice 
is  forced  out,  are  icdiiccd  into  solid  masses,  and  are  preserved. 
The  juice  jircssed  out  is  the  date  ivine,  formerly  very  celebrated; 
(inder  wliieli  name  was  also  comprehended  the  beverage,  MJiich 
was  procured  from  clusters  of  dry  dates  steeped  in  warm  watei', 
and  then  jtressed.  The  Hebrews,  at  the  i'east  of  tabei-nacles,  bore 
palm  l)rauclies  in  tiicir  hands;  they  also  strewed  them  in  the 
way  before  the  kinjxs,  as  they  entered  on  public  occasions  into 
their  cities.  Lev.  2o:  40.  1  Mac.  13:  51.  Matt.  21:  8.  The  Greeks 
gave  a  branch  of  the  jtalm  to  those  who  conquered  in  the  games, 
comp.  Rev.  7:  9.  This  tree  is  regarded  by  the  orientals,  of  all 
others  as  the  most  excellent  and  noble.  Hence  the  saying  J'rom 
the  branch  (i.  e.  the  j)alm  branch)  to  the  rush  or  reed;  expressions 
which  are  interchangeable  with  the  head,  and  tail,  'zVi^  dl<~i,  and 
mean  the  same  thing,  as  the  phrase  "  from  the  highc'St  to  the  lowest,'' 
Tsa.  9:  14.  19:  15. 

§  7G.   Terebinths  and  Pistacias. 

Terebinths  are  called  in  Heb.  ',ibN,  C'^b'^X,  T\y».,  etc.,  which 
words  are  sometimes  confounded  and  interchanged  with  n^x  and 
*|ibj< ,  which  mean  the  oak.  The  terebinths  are  a  large  tree,  are 
loaded  with  branches  and  foliage,  and  are  green  through  the  whole 
year.  They  live  a  thousand  years,  and  when  they  die,  leave  in  their 
place  a  scion,  which  in  time  spreads  a  like  luxuriance  of  foliage,  and 
lives  to  a  like  number  of  years ;  so  that,  where  they  once  appear, 
they  may  be  said  to  be  perpetuated.  It  was  for  this  reason,  viz.  the 
comparative  perpetuity,  which  was  attached  to  them,  that  places  were 
denominated  from  them,  as  from  cities,  Gen.  13:  18.  Judg.  6:  11. 
1  Sam.  10:  3.  Isa.  6:  13.  Ezek.  6:  13.  They  are  used  figuratively 
qs  symbols  of  the  good,  who  in  Isa.  61:  3,  are  called  terebinths  of 
righteousness,  pyi  ''biN . 

The  jjistacia  is  a  tree,  very  much  like  the  terebinth.  It  bears  a 
very  rich  species  of  nuts ;  which  liang  in  clusters,  t:''2:;2 ,  Gen.  40: 
11,  and  which  become  ripe  in  October.  They  somewhat  resemble 
almonds  in  appearance,  but  are  of  a  much  better  flavor ;  and  are, 
therefore,  most  valued  by  the  orientals.  Walnuts,  t'lJX,  are  common 
in  Palestine ;  but  hazel  nuts  are  scarce,  if  indeed  they  are  found 
there  at  all.  The  word  Tib ,  which  some  suppose  to  mean  the  hazel 
nut,  is  the  name  of  the  almond. 


§  77.    BEES    AND    I10.N1.Y. 


^  77.  Bees  and  IIoxev. 


Palestine  has  been  often  called  the  land  flowing  with  milk  and 
honey.  This  is  a  proverbial  expression,  and  is  applied  to  any  fruit- 
fnl  land,  for  instance,  Egypt  in  Num.  IG:  13.  Still  it  must  be  con- 
fessed, that  bees  were  very  numerous  in  Palestine,  not  only  in  the 
hives,  which  were  built  for  them  of  clay  mixed  with  broken  straw, 
but  frequently  in  the  wood?,  in  the  hollow  trees,  and  the  fissures  of 
i-ocks,  Deut.  32:  13.  Ps.  81:  17.  They  possess  a  keen  animosity,  and 
a  verv  efficient  sting,  and  when  they  have  a  disposition,  attack  to 
good  purpose  individuals  and  even  large  bodies  of  men.  They  are 
consequently  used  by  a  figure  of  speech  to  represent  violent  and  fero- 
cious enemies,  Deut.  1:  44.  Ps.  118:  11,  12.  They  could  be  allured, 
by  anything  that  made  a  tinkling  sound,  to  any  particular  place,  Isa. 
7:  18.  The  Hebrews  took  great  care  of  these  little  animals ;  as  is 
evident  from  the  abundance  of  honey  which  they  possessed,  and  were 
able  to  exchange  in  their  traffic  with  the  Tyrians,  Ezek.  27:  17. 
Hence  honey  is  often  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  both  the  comb, 
s-3rj  rs:,  iuXIggiov  y.r^Qiov, 'awHl  the  liquid  honey,  T^rs,  'CZ-^_.  It 
sliould  be  remarked,  that  the  word  dn'n ,  which  means  liquid  honey, 
mav  also  mean  the  sirup  of  dates  and  must.  Gen.  43: 11.  Wild  honey, 
itt/.i  a'/Q(oi',  -?~n  r"n:;^,  is  likewise  s^xtken  of,  1  Sam-  14:  23 — -27. 
Matt.  3:  4.  This  was  not  the  honey  of  bees  found  in  fissures  of 
rocks;  for  this  occurs  under  the  phrase,  "53"2  w'^"  Deut.  32:  13.  Ps. 
81:  17.  Nor  was  it  the  liquid  manna  called  terengabm,  although  this 
manna  was  formerly  comprehended  under  the  common  word  for 
honey.  It  is  what  has  been  called  the  hoiiey  dew,  i.  e.  the  excre- 
ments, which  certain  little  iiisects,  called  by  Linneus  Aplddes,  emij 
very  copiously  upon  the  leaves  of  trees,  so  much  that  it  flows  down 
upon  the  ground,  1  Sara.  14:  15 — 27. 

The  ancients  used  honey  instead  of  sugar,  and  loved  it  much ; 
it  is  hence  used  tropically  as  an  image  of  pleasure  and  happiness, 
Ps.  119:  103.  Prov.  24:  13,  14.  Cant.  4:  11.  AVhen  taken  in  great 
quantities  it  causes  vomiting,  and  is  consequently  used  l)y  a  figure 
to  express  fastidiousness,  or  any  nauseating  sensation,  Prov.  25:  16, 
17. 

8 


86  §  79.   Till-:   FALLOW   yeak. 


§  78.  Fishing. 

Fish  Avere  esteemed  by  the  Hebrews,  a5  by  all  the  orientals,  n 
rrreat  delicacy,  Num.  11:  5.  In  consequence  of  being  held  in  such 
estimation,  they  Avere  taken  in  great  numbers  from  the  river  Jordan 
and  the  lake  Gennesareth.  Those  only,  which  were  destitute  of 
scales  or  fins,  were  interdicted,  Lev.  11:  9.  Hence  mention  is  made 
of  the  fsh-gaie,  at  Jerusalem,  so  called  from  the  circumstance  of  fish 
being  sold  there,  2  Chron.  33:  14.  Neh.  3:  3.  12:  39.  Isa.  19:  8. 
Ezek.  26:  5,  14.  47:  10.  Fishermen  are  used  tropically  for  enemies, 
Isa.  19:  8.  Ilab.  1:  15.  Strabo  says,  there  was  a  great  trade  carried 
on  in  ti:-h  at  the  lake  Gennesareth.  Some  of  the  apostles  living  near 
the  lake  were  fishermen,  and  this  class  of  men  were  in  general  active, 
experienced,  and  apt,  Luke  5:  1  et  seq.  comp.  Matt.  4:  19.  The  in- 
struments used  in  fishing,  Avere  a  hook,  nrn  Job  41:  1.  Isa.  19:  8. 
Hab.  1:15;  an  iron  spear,  f:^  h'sh's  Job  41:  7,  and  a  net,  -irrr ,  n--j^ , 
Job  19:  6.  Isa.  51:  20. 

§  79.   The  Fallow  Year. 

Agriculture  on  every  seventh  year  came  to  an  end.  Nothing 
was  soAvn  and  nothing  reaped ;  the  vines  and  the  olives  Avere  not 
pruned ;  there  Avas  no  vintage  and  no  gathering  of  fruits,  even  of 
Avhat  greAV  wild ;  but  whatever  spontaneous  productions  there 
were,  Avere  left  to  the  poor,  the  traveller,  and  the  Avild  beast. 
Lev.  25:  1—7.  Deut.  15:  1—10.  The  object  of  this  regulation 
seems  to  have  been,  to  secure  the  preservation  of  Avild  beasts,  to 
let  the  ground  recover  its  strength,  and  to  teach  the  HebrcAvs  to 
be  provident  of  their  income,  and  to  look  out  for  the  future.  It 
is  true,  that  extraordinary  fruitfulness  Avas  promised  on  the  sixth 
year,  but  in  such  a  Avay  as  not  to  exclude  care  and  foresight.  Lev. 
25:  20 — 24.  "We  are  not  to  suppose,  hoAvever,  that  the  HebreAvs 
spent  the  seventh  year  in  absolute  idleness.  They  could  fish, 
hunt,  take  care  of  their  bees  and  flocks,  repair  their  buildings  and 
furniture,  manufacture  cloths  of  avooI,  linen,  and  of  the  hair  of 
goats  and  camels,  and  carry  on  commerce.  Finally,  they  Avcre 
obliged  to  remain  longer  in  the  tabernacle  or  temple  this  year, 
durin*^  Avhich  the  Avhole  INIosaic  laAv  Avas  read,  in  order  to  be  instruct- 


§  81.    STATK    OF   Till::    AKTS.  87 

ed  in  ruliirioiB  and  moral  duties  and  the  history  of  their  nation,  and 
tlie  wonderful  works  and  blessings  of  God,  Dcut.  31:  10 — 13. 

Tliis  seventh  year's  rest,  as  Moses  predicted.  Lev.  2G:  34,  35,  was 
for  a  long  time  neglected,  2  Chron.  3G:  21  ;  after  the  captivity  it  was 
more  scrupulously  observed. 


CHAPTER  V. 
OF    THE    ARTS. 

§  80.  The  Origin  of  the  Arts. 

They  originated,  no  doubt,  partly  in  necessity,  partly  in  accident. 
At  first  they  must  have  been  very  imperfect  and  very  limited ;  but 
the  inquisitive  and  active  mind  of  man,  seconded  by  his  wants, 
soon  secured  to  tliem  a  greater  extent  and  fewer  imperfections. 
Accordinglv,  in  the  fourth  generation  after  the  ci'eation  of  man, 
we  find  mention  made  of  artificers  in  brass  and  iron,  and  also  of 
musical  instruments.  Gen.  4:  21 — 23.  Those  communities,  whicli, 
from  local  or  other  causes,  could  not  flourish  by  means  of  agri- 
culture, of  course  directed  tlieir  attention  to  and  encouraged  the 
arts.  Tlie  arts,  consequently,  advanced  with  great  rapidity,  and 
were  carried  to  a  high  pitch  as  iar  back  as  the  time  of  Noah ;  as  we 
may  learn  from  the  very  large  vessel,  wliich  was  built  under  his 
direction. 

§  81.  State  of  the  Arts  from  the  Deluge  till  Moses. 

Noah,  together  with  his  sons  and  servants,  who  were  engaged 
with  him  in  the  construction  of  the  ark,  must,  as  above  intimated, 
have  been  well  acquainted,  at  least  with  certain  of  tlie  meclianic 
arts.  Thev  had  also,  witliout  doubt,  see7i  the  operations  of  artifi- 
cers in  other  ways  besides  that  of  building,  and  after  the  deli'.gc 
imitated  tlieir  works  as  well  as  they  could.     Hence  not  lonpr  after 


88  §  83.    ARTS    AMONG    TIIK    IIF.r.RKWS. 

this  period,  viz.  tlie  di.-lugo,  wo  liiul  nK'iitioii  of  inuiiy  things,  such 
as  edifices,  utensils,  and  ornaments,  which  in)[>ly  a  knowhnlge  of 
the  arts.  Gen.  9:  21.  11:  1—9.  14:  1— 10.  12:  7,  8.  1"):  10.  17:  10. 
18:  4,  5,  6.  19:  32.  21:  14.  22:  10.  23:  13—10.  24:  22.  20:  12,  15, 
18.  27:  3,  4,  14.  31:  19,  27,  34.  Traces  and  intimation^;  of  which 
occur  continually,  as  the  attentive  reader  will  find,  down  to  I  he  time 
of  Moses. 


§  82.  Till-:  AiiTS  among  thI':  Hebrews  in  the  time  of  Moses. 

E"-ypt  in  the  early  age  of  the  world  excelled  all  other  nations 
in  a  knowledge  of  the  arts.  The  Hebrews,  in  consequence  of  re- 
maining four  hundred  years  with  the  Egyi)tian?,  must  have  become 
initiated,  to  a  considerable  degree,  into  that  knowledge  which 
their  masters  possessed.  Hence  we  find  among  them  men,  who 
were  sufficiently  skilful  and  informed  to  frame,  erect,  and  orna- 
ment the  tabernacle.  Moses,  it  is  true,  did  not  enact  any  special 
laws  in  favor  of  the  arts,  nor  did  he  interdict  them  or  lessen 
them  in  the  estimation  of  the  people ;  on  the  contrary  he  speaks 
in  the  praise  of  artificers,  Exod.  35:  30 — 35.  36:  1  et  seq.  38:  22, 
23,  etc.  The  grand  object  of  Moses,  I  mean  in  a  temporal  point 
of  view,  was  to  promote  agriculture  ;  and  he  thought  it  best,  as  was 
done  in  other  nations,  to  leave  the  arts  to  the  ingenuity  and  industry 
of  the  people. 

§  83.  Arts  among  the  Hebrews  in  Palestine. 

Soon  after  the  death  of  Joshua,  a  place  was  expressly  allotted 
by  Joab  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  to  artificers.  It  was  called  the  val- 
ley of  craftsmen,  n-r-r,  n-J  1  Chron.  4:  14.  comp.  Neh.  11:  35. 
About  this  time  mention  is  made  also  of  artificers  in  gold  and  sil- 
ver, Judg.  17:  3 — 5.  The  arts  could  not,  however,  be  said  to  flour- 
ish much,  although  it  was  a  fact  that  those  utensils  and  instruments, 
which  were  absolutely  necessary,  were  to  be  obtained  from  the  shops 
of  craftsmen,  exc(!pt  Avhen  they  were  carried  away  captives  in  war, 
Judg.  3:  31.  5:  8.  1  Sam.  13:  19.  Some  of  the  less  complicated  and 
difficult  instruments  used  in  agi'iculture,  each  one  made  for  him- 
self. The  women  spun,  wove,  and  embroidered ;  they  made 
clothing    not  only    for    their    families,  but    for  sale,  Exod.  35:  25. 


§  84.    STATE    OF    THE    AUTS    AKTER    THE    CAI'TIVITY.  89 

1  Sam.  2:  19.  Prov.  31:  18 — 31.  Acts  9:  39.  Employment,  con- 
sequentlv,  us  far  as  tlie  arts  were  concerned,  was  limited  cliiefly  to 
those  who  engaged  in  the  more  ditlicult  perlbrmances :  lor  in- 
stance those  who  built  chariots,  hewed  stones,  sculptmed  idols  or 
cast  them  of  metal,  made  instruments  of  gold,  silver,  and  brass, 
and  vessels  of  clay  and  the  like,  Judg.  17:  4.  Isa.  29:  IG.  30:  14. 
Jer.  2S:  13.  Artificers  among  the  Hebrews  were  not,  as  among 
*the  Greeks  and  Romans,  servants  and  slaves,  but  men  of  some  rank, 
and  as  luxury  and  wealth  increased  they  became  quite  numerous, 
Jer.  24:  1.  29:  2.  2  Kings  24:  14.  In  the  time  of  David  and  Solo- 
mon, there  were  Israelites,  who  understood  the  construction  of  tem- 
ples and  palaces,  but  they  were  inferior  to  the  Tyrians,  and  were 
willing  to  take  lessons  from  them,  1  Chron.  14:  1.  22:  lo.  From 
the  frequent  mention  made,  in  the  history  of  the  Hebrews,  of  nume- 
rous instruments,  and  of  various  operations  in  metals,  we  may  infer 
as  well  as  from  other  sources,  that  quite  a  number  of  the  arts  were 
understood  among  them. 

§  84.  State  of  the  Arts  after  tue  Captivity. 

During  the  captivity  many  Hebrews,  (most  commonly  those,  to 
whom  a  barren  tract  of  soil  had  been  assigned.)  apphed  them- 
selves to  the  arts  and  merchandise.  Subsequently,  when  they 
were  scattered  abroad  among  different  nations,  a  knowledge  of  the 
arts  became  so  popular,  tliat  the  Talmudists  tauglit,  that  all 
parents  ought  to  learn  their  children  some  art  or  handicraft.  They 
indeed  mention  many  learned  men  of  their  nation  who  practised 
some  kind  of  manual  labor,  or  as  we  should  say,  followed  some 
trade.  Accordingly,  we  find  in  the  New  Testament,  tliat  Joseph, 
the  husband  of  Mary,  was  a  carpenter,  and  that  he  Avas  assisted 
by  no  less  a  personage  than  our  Saviour  in  his  labors,  Matt. 
13:  55.  Mark  G:  3.  Simon  is  mentioned  as  a  tanner  in  the  city 
of  Joppa,  Acts  9:  43.  10:  32.  Alexander,  a  learned  Jew,  was  a  cop- 
persmith, 2  Tim.  4:  14;  Paul  and  Aquila  were  tent  makers, 
ay.r,rnr[niO(.  Not  only  the  Greeks,  but  the  Jews  also,  esteemed 
certain  trades  infamotis.  At  any  rate  the  Rabbins  reckoned  the 
drivers  of  asses  and  camels,  barbers,  sailors,  shepherds,  and  inn- 
keepers in  the  same  class  with  robbers.  Those  Ephesians  and 
Cret:ms,    who    were    lovers   of  gain,    ulaj^noy.tnSkli,    1   Tim.  3:  8. 

8* 


90  §  85.    ANTIQUITY    Ol-    THK    ART    OF    AVRITING. 

Tit.  1:  7,  -were  men  as  wo  may  Irani  fVoiii  aiick'nt  writers,  who  were 
deterniiiK'd  to  get  money  in  however  base  a  manner.  The  more 
eminent  Greek  tradesmen  were  united  together  in  the  time  of  the 
Apostles  in  a  society,  Acts  19:  25.  comp.  Xenophon,  Cyrop.  viii.  2,  4. 
Of  sonic  of  the  arts  we  must  say  something  separately. 

§  8.).  Antiquity  of  the  Art  of  Writing. 

"Wliether  symbolic  representations  were  first  used,  afterwards 
hieroglyphics,  then  aliihabetic  writing,  is  not  very  clear,  nor  is 
it  a  point  necessary  to  be  determined  in  this  place.  In  regard  to 
alphabetic  writing,  all  the  ancient  writers  attribute  the  inventior. 
of  it  to  some  very  early  age,  and  some  country  of  the  East;  bu; 
they  do  not  pretend  to  designate  precisely  either  the  age  or  th4 
country.  They  say,  further,  that  Cadmus  introduced  letters  fron 
Phenicia  into  Greece  in  the  year,  if  we  may  credit  the  Parian 
chronicle,  1519  before  Christ,  i.  e.  forty-five  years  after  the  death  of 
Moses. 

AnticUdes,  (see  Pliny's  Natural  History,  vii.  57.)  asserts  and  at- 
tempts to  prove,  that  letters  were  invented  in  Uffijpt  fifteen  years 
before  Phoroneus,  the  most  ancient  king  of  Greece,  i.  e.  four  hun- 
dred and  nine  years  after  the  deluge,  and  in  the  one  hundred  and 
seventeenth  year  of  Abraham.  On  this  I  remark,  that  they  might 
have  been  introduced  into  Egypt  at  this  time ;  but  they  had  been 
previously  invented  by  the  Phenicians.  Epigenes.  who  in  the  esti- 
mation of  Pliny  is  weighty  authority,  informs  us,  that  observations, 
made  upon  the  heavenly  bodies  for  seven  hundred  and  twenty 
years  at  Babylon,  were  written  down  upon  baked  tiles,  but  Bero- 
sus  and  Critodemus,  also  referred  to  by  Pliny,  make  the  number 
of  years  four  hundred  and  eighty.  Pliny  from  these  statements 
draws  the  conclusion,  that  the  use  of  letters,  as  he  expresses  it, 
must  have  been  eternal,  i.  e.  extremely  ancient.  Simi)licius,  who 
lived  in  the  fifth  century,  states  on  the  authority  of  Porphyry,  an 
acute  historian,  that  Calisthenes,  the  companion  of  Alexander,  found 
at  Babylon  a  record  of  observations  on  the  heavenly  bodies  for 
one  thousand  nine  hundred  and  three  years.  Of  course  the  re- 
cord must  have  begun  in  the  year  two  thousand  two  huiulred 
and  thirty-four  before  Christ,  i.  e.  the  eighty-ninth  year  of  Abra- 
ham.    This  statement  rec(!ives  some  confirmation  ft-om  the  fiict,  that 


§  8.3.  AXTiQunv   OF  Till-:  art  of  avriting.  91 

the  montli  of  March  is  called  ~nx ,  J^f'f/;-,  in  the  Chaldaic  dialect: 
and  at  the  time  mentioned,  viz.  the  eighty-ninth  year  of  Abraham, 
the  sun,  during  the  whole  month  of  March,  uas  in  the*  si'rn  of 
the  zodiac,  called  Aries  or  the  ram.  The  word  mx,  Adar, 
means  the  same  with  Aries.  But,  as  letters  were  unquestionably 
invented  for  the  purposes  of  commercial  intercourse,  they  must 
have  been  known  long  before  they  were  employed,  to  transmit 
the  motions  of  the  stars.  Of  this  we  have  an  evidence  in  the 
bill  of  sale,  which  as  we  have  reason  to  suppose  from  the  expres- 
sions used  in  Gen.  23:  20,  was  given  to  Abraham  bv  the  sons  of 
Heth. 

Hence  it  is  not  at  all  wonderful,  that  books  and  writings  are  spo- 
ken of  in  the  time  of  Closes,  as  if  well  known,  Exod.  17:  14.  24:  4. 
28:  9—11.  32:  32.  34:  27,  28.  Num.  33:  2.  Deut.  27:  8.  Xor  is  it  a 
matter  of  surprise,  that  long  before  his  time  there  had  been  public 
scribes,  who  kept  written  genealogies ;  they  were  called  by  the  He- 
brews, n-"-;-r,  Exod.  G:  14.  Deut.  20:  5 — 9.  Even  in  the  time  of 
Jacob,  SEALS,  upon  which  names  are  engraved  in  the  East,  were  in 
use,  see  Gen.  38:  18.  41:  42 ;  which  is  another  probable  testimony  to 
the  great  antiquity  of  letters. 

Note  I. — Herodotus  and  Diodorus  Siculus  mention  the  existence 
in  antiquity  of  two  kinds  of  writing,  the  one  sacred,  the  other  profa)ie. 
Clemens  Alexandrinus  and  Porphyry  mention  three  kinds,  viz.  the 
sacred,  the  profane,  and  the  hieroglyphical.  Some  interpreters  sup- 
pose, that  the  phrase  d^:x  Ziy^  a  man's  pen,  Isa.  8: 1,  means  the  mode 
of  writing  which  is  denominated  profane.  Hieroglyphics  were  in- 
scribed by  the  Egyptians,  among  whom  they  were  used,  upon  stones. 
The  phrase  r'rr':  "ils,  a  pictured  or  engraven  stone.  Lev.  2G:  1. 
Num.  33:  b'2,  means  a  stone,  engraven  with  hieroglyphical  figures, 
which,  in  that  age  of  idolatry,  was  liable  to  be  worshipped.  Those 
persons,  who  understood  how  to  read  hieroglyphics,  ="ri;-n  magicians, 
were  held  in  high  estimation  and  much  honored  among  the  Egyptians, 
Exod.  8:  3.  Gen.  41:  8. 

Note  II. — Gesenius  renders  the  word  ^-"iiiVr  overseers,  rulers, 
or  officers.      In   support    of   his  rendering,   he  collates  the  Arabic 

word  ^  'r*  f. »)  to  preside,  and  wIsjumjo  an  overseer.      But  the  Ara- 


92         §  SO.  Tin:  kxthnsion  ok  am-haijktical  avimtinoj 

^    ^  ^  0  ~  --  > 

bic  word  wiiA*,  to  write,  and  wiiw)  a  scribe,  ami  the  Syriac 
•f^  a  \rrtliH(j,  are  nearer  as  regards  form  to  the  Hebrew,  than 
tho<e  whicli  arc  colhited  by  Gesenius. 

§  80.  Tni^>  i:.\TKXsiox  of  alphabetical  avkitinc;. 

Letters,  wliieh  had  thus  become  known  at  the  eai'Hest  period, 
were  communicated  by  means  of  the  Phenician  merchants  and 
colonies,  and  subsequently  by  Egyptian  emigrants,  througli  all  the 
East  and  the  West.  A  strong  evidence  of  this  is  to  be  ibund  in 
the  ditterent  alphabet;?!  themselves,  which  betray  by  their  resem- 
blance a  common  oi-igin.  The  Hebrew  Patriarchs  received  their 
alphabet  from  the  Phenicians,  or,  what  is  the  same  thing,  from 
the  Canaanites;  and  that  tlieir  posterity  preserved  a  knowledge 
of  alphabetical  writing  during  their  abode  in  Egy[)t,  wh(;re  essen- 
tially the  same  alphabet  was  in  use,  is  evident  from  the  fact,  that 
the  Hebrews  while  remaining  there  always  had  jjublic  genealogists, 
Deut.  24:  1 — 3.  17:  18,  19.  The  Law  also  was  ordered  to  be  in- 
scribed on  stones ;  a  fact  which  implies  a  knowledge  of  alphabeti- 
cal writing.  The  writing  thus  engraven  upon  stones  is  designated 
by  its  appropriate  name,  viz.  nnnn,  comp,  Exod.  32:  IG,  32.  Not 
a  few  of  the  Hebrews  were  able  to  read  and  write,  Judg.  8:  14;  yet 
very  many  were  very  illiterate.  Hence  those,  who  were  capable  of 
writing,  wrote  for  others,  when  necessary.  Such  persons  were  com- 
monly priests,  who,  as  they  do  to  this  day  in  the  East,  bear  an  ink- 
horn  in  their  girdle,  Ezek.  9:  2,  3,  11.  In  the  inkhorn  were  the 
materials  for  writing,  and  a  knife  for  sharpening  the  pen,  Jcr.  36:  23. 
The  rich  and  noble  had  scribes  of  their  own,  and  readers  also ;  whence 
there  is  more  frequent  mention  made  of  hearing,  than  of  reading, 

1  Kings  4:  3.  2  Kings  12:  11.  Isa.  29:  18.  Jer.  36:  4.  Rom.  2:  13. 
James  5:  11.  Rev.  1:  3.  The  scribes  took  youth  under  their  care, 
who  learnt  from  them  the  art  of  writing.  Some  of  the  scribes  seem 
to  have  held  public  schools  for  instruction ;  some  of  whii-h  under  the 
care  of  Samuel  and  other  prophets  became  in  time  quite  illustrious, 
and  were  called  the  schools  of  the  prophets,  1  Sam.  19:  16  et  seq. 

2  Kings  2:  3,  5.  4:  38.  6:  1.  The  disciples  in  these  schools  were 
not  children  or  boys,  but  young  men,  who  inhabited  separate  edifices, 
as  is  the  case  in  the  Persian  academies.     They  were  taught  mu- 


§  87.    MATF-IUAI-S    AM)    INSTnL'MKXTS    OK    WltlTlNC.  00 

?ic  aiul  singing,  williout  doubt  writing  also,  the  Mosaic  law,  and 
poetry.  They  were  denominated  in  reference  to  their  instructors 
the  sons  of  the  prophets,  teachers  and  prophets  being  sometimes 
called  fathers.  After  the  captivity  there  were  schools  for  instruc- 
tion either  near  the  synagogues  or  in  them,  of  which  we  shall  speak 
hereafter. 

§  87.  ^Matkuials  and  Instruments  of  Whiting. 

I.  Materials  from  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

1.  The  leaves  of  trees. 

2.  The  lark  of  trees,  from  which  in  the  process  of  time  a  sort  of 
paper  was  manufactured. 

3.  A  table  of  tcood,  n^,  ntvai,  Isa.  8:  1.  Ezek.  37:  IG.  Luke  1: 
Go.  In  the  East,  these  tables  were  not  covered  with  wax  as  they 
were  in  the  West ;  or  at  any  rate  very  rarely  so. 

4.  Linen.  Linen  was  used  for  the  object  in  question  at  Rome. 
Linen  books  are  mentioned  by  Livy.  Cotlo7i  cloth  also,  which  was 
used  for  the  bandages  of  Egyptian  mummies,  and  inscribed  with  hie- 
roglyphics, was  one  of  the  materials  for  writing  upon. 

5.  The  paper  made  from  the  reed  papyrus,  which,  as  Pliny  has 
shown  in  his  Natural  History,  XIII.  21 — 27,  was  used  before  the 
Trojan  Avar. 

II.  Materials  from  the  animal  kingdom. 

The  skins  of  animals.  They  were  but  poorly  prepared  for  the 
purpose,  until  some  improved  methods  of  preparation  were  invented 
at  Pergamus,  during  the  reign  of  Euraenes,  about  200  years  before 
Christ.  Hence  the  skins  of  animals,  prepared  for  writing,  are  called 
in  Latin  perrjamena,  in  English  parchment,  to  this  day,  from  the  city 
Pergamus.  They  are  sometimes  denominated  in  Greek,  neii^ndva, 
2  Tim.  4:  13. 

HI.  ^Materials  from  the  mineral  kingdom. 

1.  Tables  of  lead,  r-;£ir,  Job  19:  24. 

2.  Tables  of  brass,  diXroi  laly.iu.  Of  all  the  materials,  brass  was 
considered  among  the  most  durable,  and  was  employed  for  those  in- 


94  s  S7.    AtATKUIALS    AND    INSTRUMENTS    OT    AVKITING. 

scrlptions,  which  were  designed  to  last  the  longest,  1  3Iacc.  8:  22. 
14:  20—27. 

3.  JSloues  or  rods,  upon  which  public  laws,  etc.  Avere  written. 
Sometimes  the  letters  engraved  were  filled  up  with  lime,  Exod.  24: 
12.  31:  18.  32:  19.  34:  1  et  seq.  Deut.  27:  1—9.  comp.  Josh.  8:  32 
et  seq.  Job  19:  24. 

4.  Tiles.  The  inscriptions  were  made  upon  the  tiles  ^'vs^,  and 
sifterwards  they  were  baked  in  the  fire.  They  are  yet  to  be  found  in 
the  ruins  of  Babylon ;  others  of  later  origin  are  to  be  found  in  many 
countries  in  the  East. 

0.  The  sand  of  the  earth,  in  which  the  children  in  India  to  this 
day  learn  the  art  of  writing,  and  in  which  Archimedes  himself  delin- 
eated his  mathematical  figures,  comp.  John  8:  1 — 8.  If  in  Ezekiel 
3:  1,  and  in  Revelation  10:  9,  we  are  informed  that  books  were  eaic7i, 
we  must  remember,  that  the  descriptions  are  figurative,  and  that  they 
were  eaten  in  vision  ;  and  consequently  are  not  at  liberty  to  draAV  the 
conclusion  from  these  passages,  that  any  substance  was  used  as  ma- 
terials for  writing  upon,  which  was  at  the  same  time  used  for  food. 
The  representations  alluded  to  are  symbolic,  introduced  to  denote  a 
communication  or  revelation  from  God. 

Instruments  used  in  Writing. 

The  instrument,  commonly  used  for  this  purpose,  was  the  style, 
Heb.  ::";;n ,  :iv .  1.  When  it  was  necessary  to  write  upon  hard  ma- 
terials, as  tables  of  stone  and  brass,  the  style  was  made  of  iron,  and 
sometimes  tipped  with  diamond,  Jer.  17:  1. 

2.  The  letters  were  formed  upon  tablets  of  wood,  (Avhen  they 
were  covered  with  rcax,)  Avith  a  style  sharpened  at  one  end,  broad 
and  smooth  at  tlie  other ;  by  means  of  which,  the  letters,  when  badly 
written,  might  be  rubbed  out  and  the  wax  smoothed  down.  Wax, 
however,  was  but  rarely  used  for  the  purpose  of  covering  writing- 
tables  in  such  warm  regions.  When  this  was  not  the  case,  the  let- 
ters were  painted  on  the  wood  with  a  black  tincture  or  ink. 

3.  On  linen,  cotton  cloth,  paper,  skins,  and  parchment,  the  let- 
ters were  painted  with  a  very  small  brush,  Heb.  perhaps  ::-n, 
afterwards  with  a  reed,  which  was  split.  The  orientals  use  this 
elegant  instrument  to  the  present  day  instead  of  a  pen.  The  knife, 
with  which  the  reed  was  split,  was  called  -s'-sn  "^r,  Jer.  36:  23. 


§  88.    RESPFXTIXG    BOOKS.  95 

Ink  called  '"."''n ,  is  spoken  of  in  Num.  or  23,  as  well  known  and 
common,  eomp.  Jer.  36:  18,  and  was  prepared  in  various  ways, 
which  are  related  by  Pliny,  XVI.  G.  XXX.  20.  Tlie  most  simple, 
and  consequently  the  most  ancient  method  of  preparation,  was  a 
mixture  of  water  with  coals  broken  to  pieces,  or  with  soot,  with  an 
addition  of  gum.  The  ancients  used  other  tinctures  also ;  particularly, 
if  we  may  credit  Cicero  de  Nat.  Deor.  II.  20.  and  Persius  III.  11, 
the  ink  extracted  from  the  cuttle  fish,  r5=n,  altliough  their  assertion 
is  in  opposition  to  Pliny.  The  Hebrews  went  so  fjir  as  to  Avrite  their 
sacred  books  in  gold,  as  we  may  learn  from  Josephus,  xViitiq.  XII.  2, 
11,  compared  with  Pliny,  XXXIII.  10. 


§  88.  Respecting  Books,  =*"S9  -.ro . 

Booh,  (wliich  are  mentioned  as  very  well  known  as  early  as 
Job  19:  23.  Num.  21:  14.  Exod.  17:  14,)  were  written  most  an- 
ciently on  skins,  on  linen,  on  cotton  cloth,  and  the  reed  papyrus ; 
and  subsequently  on  parchment.  The  leaves  were  written  over  in 
small  columns,  called  rir^n,  Jer.  36:  23.  If  the  book  were  large, 
it  was  of  course  formed  of  a  number  of  skins,  of  a  number  of  pieces 
of  linen  or  cotton  cloth,  or  of  papyrus,  or  parchment,  connected 
together.  The  leaves  were  rarely  written  over  on  both  sides, 
Ezek.  2:  9.  Zech.  5:  1.  Whether  the  lines  were  written  ^ovoiQocpr^- 
86p,  as  in  the  Sigean  inscription,  and  in  the  Etruscan  inscriptions, 
might  yet  be  determined,  if  the  stones  mentioned  Josh.  8:  32,  could 
be  found.  The  question,  whether  there  was  any  space  between  the 
words,  has  been  discussed  in  my  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament, 
T.  V.  p.  1.  §  98. 

Books  being  written  upon  very  flexible  materials,  were  rolled 
round  a  stick;  and,  if  they  were  very  long,  round  tioo,  from  the 
two  extremities.  Tiie  reader  unrolled  the  book  to  the  place 
which  he  wanted,  caanTviug  to  i^rpJor,  and  rolled  it  up  again 
when  he  had  read  it,  nTvXa<;  to  ^if/.iov,  Luke  4:  17 — 20 ;  whence 
the  name  nsS':  a  volume,  or  tiling  rolled  up,  Ps.  40:  7.  Isa.  34:  4. 
Ezek.  2:  9.  2  Kings  19:  14.  p:zra  6:  2.  The  leaves  tlius  rolled 
round  the  stick,  which  has  been  mentioned,  and  bound  with  a 
string,  could  be  easily  sealed,  Isa.  29:  11.  Dan.  12:  4.  Rev.  o:  1.  6: 
7.     Those  books,  which  were  inscribed    on    tablets    of  wood,  lead. 


96  §  90.    ON    I'OKTUY. 

brass,  or  ivory,  were  coiineeted  togetlier  by  rings  at  tlie  back,  through 
wliieli  a  roil  was  passed  to  carry  them  by. 

Note. — The  orientals  appear  to  take  a  pleasure  in  giving  tropical 
or  enigmatical  titles  to  their  books.  The  titles  prefixed  to  the  fifty- 
sixtli,  sixtieth,  and  eightieth  psalms,  appear  to  be  of  this  description. 
And  there  can  be  no  doubt,  that  David's  elegy  upon  Saul  and  Jona- 
than. 1  Sam.  1:  18,  is  called  rr;?  or  the  bote,  in  conlbrmity  with  this 
peculiarity  of  taste. 

§  89.  CoN-ci:nKi\G  Epistlks. 

Epistles,  which  occur  under  the  same  Hebrew  word  with 
books,  viz.  -ISO,  are  mentioned  the  more  rarely,  the  further  you 
go  back  into  antiquity.  An  epistle  is  first  mentioned  2  Sam.  11:  14 
et  seq.  Afterwards  there  is  more  frequent  mention  of  them,  and 
sometimes  an  epistle  is  meant,  when  literally  a  messenger  is  spo- 
ken of,  as  in  Ezra  4:  15 — 17.  In  the  East  letters  are  commonly 
sent  unsealed.  In  case,  however,  they  are  sent  to  persons  of  dis- 
tinction, they  are  placed  in  a  valuable  purse,  which  is  tied,  closed 
over  with  clay  or  wax,  and  then  stamped  with  a  signet,  see  Isa.  29: 
11.  Neh.  G:  5.  Job  38:  14.  The  most  ancient  epistles  begin  and 
end  without  either  salutation  or  farewell,  but  under  the  Persian 
monarchy  the  salutation  was  very  prolix.  It  is  given  in  an  abridged 
form  in  Ezra  4:  7 — 10.  5:  7.  The  apostles  in  their  epistles  used  the 
salutation  customary  among  the  Greeks,  but  they  omitted  the  usual 
farewell  at  the  close,  viz.  yatQaiv,  and  adopted  a  benediction  more 
conformable  to  the  spirit  of  the  Christian  religion.  Paul,  when  he 
dictated  his  letters,  wrote  the  benediction  at  the  close  with  his  own 
hand,  2  Thess.  3:  17.  He  was  more  accustomed  to  dictate  his  letters 
than  to  write  them  himself. 


§90.  Ox  Poetry. 

Poetry  had  its  origin  in  the  first  ages  of  the  world,  when  un- 
disciplined feelings  and  a  lively  •  imagination,  naturally  supplied 
strono-  expressions,  gave  an  expressive  modulation  to  the  voice, 
and  motion  to  the  limbs;  hence  poetry,  music  and  dancing  were 
contemporaneous  in  origin.     As  far  back  as  the  time  of  Moses,  po- 


§91.    CIIAKACTEU    OF    THE    HEBREW    POETPa'.  97 

etry,  not  only  among  the  Hebrews,  but  also  among  some  other  na- 
tions, had  reached  a  great  degi-ee  of  perfection,  Exod.  xv.  Deut. 
xxxii.  Num.  21:  24  et  seq.  conip.  also  the  book  of  Job.  It  after- 
wards flourished  with  great  honor  among  the  Hebrews  for  almost 
1000  years.  The  design  of  it  was  not  merely  to  excite  pleasure, 
but  also  to  preserve  historical  narrations,  and  that  in  such  a  way, 
that  they  might  be  sung  on  special  occasions ;  but  it  was  more  par- 
ticularl}'  the  object  of  this  art,  to  declare  in  the  most  affecting  man- 
ner the  praises  of  the  Deity,  and  to  excite  the  people  to  good  and  to 
praiseworthy  woi'ks ;  see  the  books  of  Psalms,  Job,  Proverbs,  and 
F^cclesiastes ;  comp.  also  Gen.  3:  24.  4:  23.  9:  25 — 29. 

§  91.  Character  of  the  Hebrew  Poetry. 

Hebrew  poetry,  like  the  genuine  poetry  of  all  other  nations,  is 
characterized  by  ardent  feelings,  splendid  thoughts,  a  great  variety 
of  beautiful  images,  strength  of  expression,  condensation,  and  elegance. 
But  it  is  distinguished  in  a  number  of  particulars  from  the  poetry  of 
occidental  nations. 

I.  The  metaphors,  comparisons,  etc.  are  more  bold  and  unusual ; 
a  point,  which  is  capable  of  receiving  much  light  from  a  collation  of 
Arabic  poems. 

n.  The  ornaments,  by  which  a  subject  is  enriched  in  Hebrew 
poetry,  are  derived  from  the  state  of  things,  as  they  exist  in  the  East, 
especially  Palestine ; 

(1.)  from  the  natural  objects  of  that  region,  from  Lebanon  and  its 
cedars,  from  Carmel,  from  the  oaks  of  Bashan,  from  the  gardens,  the 
vineyards,  and  the  forests,  which  enrich  the  land,  and  from  the  ani- 
mals, viz.  the  oxen,  the  lions,  and  the  gazelles,  etc.  that  tread  upon 
its  surface ; 

(2.)  from  the  occupation  of  husbandmen  and  she^.  (ids  ; 

(3.)  from  the  histoiy  of  the  nation  ; 

(4.)  from  the  manners  exhibited  in  common  life,  even  from  its 
vices,  as  drunkenness,  fornication,  and  adultery ; 

(5.^  from  oriental  mythologv',  which,  in  a  great  degree,  though 
not  in  all  respects,  corresponds  with  the  Greek  and  Roman.  "We 
find,  for  instance,  mention  made  of  the  chamber  of  the  sun,  Vs.  19: 
5,  G,  but  then  there  is  this  difference ;  the  orientals  do  not  con- 
vey him  on  a  chariot,  like  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  but  make 
9 


98  §1)1.    CIIAKACTICK    OF    THE    HKIUtEW    I'OKTKV. 

liim  lly  with  wings,  Ps.  I'd'J:  9.  I\Ial.  1:  2.  'I'lic  iIiiukIlts  are 
borne  on  fluiriots,  but  these  chariots  are  not  drawn  \>y  iiorsc-s,  but 
by  cherubim,  C"<a-li3,  monsters  that  are  sjmboUc  of  tlie  clouds, 
Kzek.  1:  2—28.  Ps.  18:  10.  D',):  1.  We  find  menlicn  made  of  a 
golden  age,  Isa.  2:  1.  11:  G— 9.  24:  2.'3.  30:  24—28.  00:  I'.t,  20.  G.3: 
4 — 2-").  GO:  1 — i>  ;  of  tlie  infernal  regions  also,  s/nol  oi-  /nir/es, 
'"'H':: ,  ('aV/^5,  into  which  descend  not  only  soldiers,  wailike  Iieroes 
and  emperors,  even  all  who  die,  but  also  by  a  figure  of  s],eech. 
conquered  nations  and  states,  and  even  trees,  the  symbols  of  states. 
The  warriors  repose  in  this  wide  abode  on  couches,  with  their  ai- 
mor  i)laced  beneath  their  head,  Isa.  14:  9 — 20.  P2zek.  2(J:  20.  ol: 
14—18.  32:7,8.  17:30.  Matt.  IG:  18.  We  find  mention  likewise 
of  the  rivers  of  hades,  Ps.  18:  4 — G.  2  Sam.  22:  o,  and  of  a  j)oliti- 
cal  heaven,  which  can  be  shaken,  and  the  moon  and  the  stars  there- 
of be  obscured  or  cast  down  with  great  confusion  and  overthrow. 
Hag.  2:  6,  21.  Isa.  24:  21—23.  34:  4.  Co:  17.  Amos  8:  9,  10.  Matt. 
24:  29. 

III.  The  poems  in  the  Hebrew  language  may  have  been  mea- 
sured by  means  of  a  certain  number  of  syllables  or  words,  but  we 
have  reason  to  believe  that  the  rhythm  consisted  essentially  and 
chiefly  in  the  parallelism.  The  parallelism,  •which  is  sometimes 
synonymous  and  sometimes  antithetical,  and  sometimes  shows  it- 
self merely  in  the  construction,  independent  of  the  sense,  consists 
in  many  cases  of  only  two  members,  see  Ps.  114:  1 — 8;  in  other 
instances  there  are  three  members,  see  Hos.  6:  1,  2;  in  other 
instances  again  there  are  four  members,  the  first  answering  to  the 
third,  and  the  second  to  the  fourth,  see  Dent.  32:  42.  Sometimes 
the  parallelism  displays  itself  in  five  verses  or  members,  the  two 
first  and  the  two  last  being  parallel,  and  the  middle  one  unequal, 
Isa.  31:  4,  or  the  first  being  parallel  to  the  third,  and  the  second 
to  the  fourth,  and  the  fifth  being  unequal,  see  Ps.  19:  8 — 10.  In 
some  instances  the  poetry  may  be  called  irregular,  i.  e.  incapable 
of  being  reduced  to  the  more  common  forms  of  i)arallelism,  Ps. 
113:  5,  G.  Micah  1:  4.  These  traits  in  the  Hebrew  poetry,  when 
well  understood,  afford  very  considerable  aid  in  the  interpretation 
and  criticism  of  the  Bible,  as  for  instance  in  such  i)assages  as 
Ps.  77:  18,  19.  139:  20.  Isa.  47: 11.  49:  G,  16.  One  may  find,  in  the 
parallelisms  in  various  places,  a  similarity  in  the  cadences,  which 
gives  to  them  a  more  than  ordinary  musical  effect,  and  seems  to 


X 


§  93.    USES    OF    MUSIC    AMONG    TIIK    IIKRHEWS.  *^9 

be  the  result  of  art,  see  Judg.  14:  18.  Pmv.  7:  13 — 15.  29:  17.  Isa. 
26:  20,  21.   40:  24.  49:  8.  TjI:  1,  2—3,  8.  o3:  G,  7.  Zech.  11:  1. 


§92.  Ox  Music. 

Music  is  coeval  with  poetry.  Musical  instruments  were  the  in- 
vention of  Jubal,  Gen.  4:  21,  and  as  early  as  Gen.  31:  27,  we  are 
introduced  to  a  whole  choir.  Afterwards  music  and  poetry 
went  hand  in  hand,  and  with  equal  step.  The  poet  himself  sung 
his  own  poems  and  accompanied  his  voice  witli  instruments. 
Both  music  and  poetry  were  esteemed  of  great  consequence, 
and  without  doubt  as  long  as  poetry  was  cultivated,  music  was 
none  the  less  so.  Tlie  music  of  the  Hebrews  may  be  thought  to 
have  been  too  loud  and  noisy,  but  a  person's  opinion  on  a  point 
of  that  kind  will  depend  very  much  on  his  own  personal  habits  and 
experience. 

§  93.  Uses  of  Music  amoxg  the  Hebrews. 

The  Hebrews  insisted  on  having  music  at  marriages,  on  anni- 
versary birthdays,  on  the  days  which  reminded  them  of  victories 
over  their  enemies,  at  the  inauguration  of  their  kings,  in  their 
public  worship,  and  when  they  were  coming  from  afju*  to  attend 
the  great  festivals  of  their  nation,  Isa.  30:  29.  In  the  tabernacle 
and  the  temple,  the  Levites  were  the  lawful  musicians,  but  on  other 
occasions  any  one  who  chose  might  use  musical  instruments. 
There  was,  however,  this  exception  ;  the  holy  silver  trumpets  were 
to  be  blown  only  by  the  priests,  who  by  the  sounding  of  them,  pro- 
claimed the  festival  days,  assembled  the  leaders  of  the  people, 
and  gave  the  signal  for  battle,  and  for  the  retreat,  Num.  1:  1 
— 10.  David,  in  order  to  give  the  best  effect  to  the  music  of  the 
tabernacle,  divided  the  four  tliousand  Levites  into  twenty-four 
classes,  who  sung  psalms,  and  accompanied  them  Avith  music. 
Each  of  these  classes  was  superintended  by  a  leader,  n:*:"; ,  placed 
over  it ;  and  they  performed  the  duties,  which  devolved  upon 
them,  each  class  a  week  at  a  time  in  succession,  1  Chron.  IG:  5. 
23:  4,  5.  25:  1—31.  comp.  2  Chron.  5:  12,  13.  The  classes  collec- 
tively, as  a  united  body,  were  superintended  by  three  directors. 
This   arrangement   was   subsequently   continued   by  Solomon  after 


100  §  !'l.    MIUNT.KI)    INSTKUMKNTS. 

the  erection  of  tlic  triii|)l<'.  ami  was  transmitted  till  the  time  of  the 
overthfow  of  Jerusalem.  It  was  indeed  sometimes  interrupted  dur- 
ing the  rei.irn  of  the  idolatrons  kings,  but  was  restored  by  their  suc- 
cessors, 2  C'ln-on.  5:  12 — 14.  29:  27.  35:  15.  It  was  even  continued 
after  the  captivity,  Ezra  3:  10.  jSeh.  12:  45 — 17.  1  Mac.  4:  54.  13: 
51.  It  should  be  remarked,  however,  that  neither  music  nor 
poetry  attained  to  the  same  excellence  after  the  captivity,  as  before 
that  period. 

§  94.  Stringed  Instkumknts. 

I.  The  iiARr,  "'"Z .  This  was  the  most  ancient  of  this  class  of 
instruments.  Gen.  4:  21.  It  was  sometimes  called  skemmith,  rr^r^'J, 
or  ei(/M  stringed,  Ps.  G:  1.  12:  1.  1  Chron.  15:  21,  although  as  we 
mav  gather  from  the  coins  or  medals  of  the  Maccabean  age,  there 
were  some  harps,  which  were  furnished  with  oidy  three  strings. 
The  harp,  therefore,  was  of  two  kinds,  one  only  of  which  is  distin- 
guished by  a  separate  name,  viz.  that  called  sheminitli,  unless  per- 
chance separate  names  should  be  found  for  both  in  the  Greek, 
the  three-stringed  harp  being  called  xi&uqu,  the  other  y.nvQu, 
for  these  two  words  appear  to  be  iised  with  some  distinction  of 
this  kind  in  1  Mae.  4:  54.  Josephus  in  his  Jewish  Antiquities,  YII. 
10.  3.  assigns  ten  strings  to  the  harp,  an  evidence  that  in  his  time 
the  number  of  them  had  been  increased.  The  strings  of  this  in- 
strument, it  is  lawful  to  suppose,  were  originally  swept  by  the 
hand,  but  in  Josephus's  time,  it  was  played  with  a  small  bow  or 
fret ;  which  act  is  denominated  in  Hebrew  by  the  words  isn ,  "3: , 
nx':: ,  iT:n ,  xas ,  and  even  -.St .  This  instrument,  viz.  the  ancient 
harp,  seems  to  have  been  called  by  the  Babylonians  "ir:C3  and 
-!-.::cQ  Dan.  3:  5,  7,  10,  15. 

il.  The  nabluh  or  psaltery,  h'z:,  td^).a  fcdO.a.  It  is  first 
mentioned  in  the  psalms  of  David.  In  Psalms  33:  2,  and  144:  9, 
it  is  called  ""-'i'r  a  ten  sfrinr/ed  {yistniment ;  but  in  Ps.  92:  3, 
it  is  distinguished  from  it.  Josephus,  Antiq.  YII.  10.  3.  assigns 
to  it  twelve  strings ;  which,  taken  in  connection  with  the  fact  above 
stated,  leaves  us  to  conclude,  that  it  sometimes  had  ten  and  some- 
times twelve  strings.  It  was  not  played  with  a  bow  or  fret,  but 
with  the  fingers ;  the  act  of  playing  it  is  expressed  in  Hebrew  by 
the  word  nsT .     It  resembled  in  form  a  right  angled  triangle  or  the 


§  95.    WIND    INSTULMEXrS.  101 

Greek  Delta  inverted  [7.  Tlie  body  of  it  was  ot  wood  and  hollow, 
and  was  enclosed  with  a  piece  of  leather  tensely  drawn.  The  chords 
were  extended  on  the  outside  of  the  leather,  and  were  fixed  at  one 
end  into  the  transverse  part  of  the  triangular  body  of  the  instrument. 
Such  is  its  form  at  the  present  day  in  the  tZast,  but  it  has  only  five 
itrings  in  its  modern  shape,  2  Sam.  G:  o.  1  Kings  10:  12.  There 
was  another  instrument  of  this  kind  used  in  Buliylonia;  it  was  trian- 
ixular  in  form  ;  in  Greek  it  is  ralk'd  rruii^vy.ij,  in  Hebrew  X32~  and 
Nrz'r;  it  had  originally  only  four,  but  subsequently  twenty  strings, 
Dan.  o:  5,7,  10,  15. 

Tl,e  chords  of  stringed  instruments  are  denominated  -'f^,  Vs. 
150:  4.  At  first  tliey  were  the  usual  sort  of  strings  twisted,  from 
Hax  or  some  like  substance,  but  subsequently  were  manufactured 
from  the  entrails  of  sheep.  Cliords  of  the  last  kind  are  mentioned  by 
Homer,  as  a  recent  invention. 

§  95  Wind   Ikstroients. 

I.  The  OKOAX,  (as  it  is  called  in  the  English  version,)  Heb.  'IV , 
uggah,  Gen.  4:  21.  It  may  be  called  the  ancient  shepherd's  pipe, 
corresponding  most  nearly  to  the  ovQiyt,  or  the  pipe  of  Pan  among 
the  Greeks.  It  consisted  at  first  of  only  one  or  tAVo,  but  afterwards 
of  about  seven  pipes,  made  of  reods  and  differing  from  each  other  in 
length.  The  instrument  called  mashkroMtha,  xrii^inr": ,  used  in 
Babylon,  Dan.  3:  5,  was  of  a  similar  construction. 

II.  t-'h-  halt'!,  rib-ns  nehiloth,  and  =-:  7ie/ceb,  arc  wind  instru- 
ments resembling  the  one  just  described,  made  of  various  materials, 
such  as  -wood,  reeds,  horns,  and  bones.  As  far  as  we  may  be  per- 
mitted to  judge  from  the  three  kinds  of  pii^es  now  used  in  the  East, 
the  Hebrew  instrument  called  nehiloth  is  one  that  is  double  in  its 
structure,  halil  is  perhaps  the  one  of  simpler  form,  having  a  sin- 
gle stem  with  an  orifice  through  it,  while  neheh  answers  to  the  one 
^thout  an  orifice,  Isa.  5:  12.  30:  29.  Jer.  48:  36.  Ps.  5:  1.  EzeL 
28:  13. 

III.  rT:-b":'0,  or  according  to  the  marginal  rending  Nv"--r.  Dan. 
3:  5,  10,  was  a  wind  instrument  made  of  reeds,  by  the  Syrians  called 
samhonja,  by  the  Greeks  samponja,  and  by  the  Italians  zampogna. 
According  to  Servius,  it  was  of  a  crooked  shape. 

IV.  The  HORN',  or  crooked  trumpet.  ■-;:: .     This  was  a  very  an 

9* 


102  §  9C.  DiFricnnxT  sokts  of  i>uu.ms. 

cient  iiistniiiu'iit.  It  \v;i.>  nuulc  of  the.  liorns  of  oxen,  Avliifli  wore 
cut  ofl'  at  tlie  s^nialkT  extremity,  and  tlius  i)resente(l  an  orifice,  wliicli 
extended  through.  In  progress  of  time  rams'  horns  were  liollowed 
and  employed  for  the  same  purpose.  This  instrument  was  called 
also  "isir  shophar,  as  we  may  learn  both  from  Josephus  and  Jerome. 
It  is  jirobable  that,  in  some  instances,  it  was  made  of  brass,  fashioned 
so  as  to  resemble  a  horn.  It  was  greatly  used  in  war,  and  its  sound 
resembled  thunder. 

Y.  The  STRAIGHT  Tia'-MncT,  n^-.i".^n.  This  instrument  Avas 
straiglit,  a  cubit  in  length,  hollow  throughout,  and  at  the  larger  ex- 
treniity  shaped  so  as  to  resemble  the  mouth  of  a  small  bell.  In 
times  of  peace,  when  the  people  or  the  rulers  were  to  be  assembled 
togethei',  this  trumpet  was  blown  softly,  wliich  was  exj)ressed  by  the 
Hebrew  word  "~ri.  When  the  camps  were  to  move  forward,  or  the 
people  to  march  to  war,  it  was  sounded  with  a  deeper  note ;  this 
was  e.xpressed  by  the  Hebrew  verb  "sy^} ,  and  by  the  phrase  "pp 

§  96.  Different  sorts  of  Drums. 

I.  ""iSn ,  rh ,  rendered  in  the  English  version  tabret  and  ii7n- 
hrel,  Gen.  31:  27.  It  consisted  of  a  circular  hoop  either  of  wood 
or  brass,  three  inches  and  six  tenths  wide,  was  covered  with  a 
skin  tensely  drawn,  and  hung  round  with  small  bells.  It  was 
held  in  the  left  hand,  and  beaten  to  notes  of  music  with  the 
right.  The  ladies  through  all  the  East,  even  to  this  day,  dance 
to  the  sound  of  this  instrument,  Exod.  15:  20.  Job  17:  G.  21:  12. 
2  Sam.  6:  5. 

II.  The  CYJiBAL,  niV^'^ri,  rVr^:'?.  There  were  two  kinds  of 
cymbals  formerly,  as  there  are  to  this  day,  in  the  East.  The  cym- 
bal, called  n:^'1"iri  "^^^^2,  consisted  of  two  flat  pieces  of  metal  or 
plates ;  the  musician  held  one  of  them  in  his  right  hand,  the  other 
in  his  left,  and  smote  them  together,  as  an  accompaniment  to 
other  instruments.  This  cymbal,  and  the  mode  of  using  it,  may  be 
often  seen  in  modern  armies  and  military  trainings.  The  second 
kind  of  cymbals,  v^'5  "h^h"!,  Ps.  150:  5,  consisted  of  four  small 
I)lates  attached,  two  to  each  hand,  which  the  ladies  as  they  dan- 
ced, smote  together.  But  riV32"2,  Zech.-14:  20,  [Engl.  vers.  W/s,] 
are   not   musical   instruments,  as   some   sujipose,  nor  indeed   bells, 


§  9G.    DllKtKKNT    Sours    OF    DULM3.  103 

but  concave  pieces  or  plates  of  brass,  wbich  were  sometimes  attached 
to  horses  for  the  sake  of  ornament. 

III.  ="":r;":,  menaaneim,  2  Sam.  C:  5;  the  word  is  derived  from 
r-3 ,  to  move  or  to  he  shaken.  We  may  suppose,  therefore,  it  was  an 
instnimcnt  corresponding  to  the  sistni?)i,  by  wliich  word  Jerome,  in 
his  Latin  version,  has  rendered  it.  If  this  were  the  case,  we  may 
suppose  also,  that  like  the  sistnim,  (in  Greek  gsigtqov,  from  GSiOj,  to 
shake,)  it  was  a  rod  of  iron  bent  into  an  oblong  shape,  or  square 
at  two  corners  and  curved  at  the  others,  and  furnished  with  a  luira- 
ber  of  movable  rings,  so  that  when  shaken  or  struck  with  another 
rod  of  iron,  it  emitted  the  sound  desired.  The  instrument  used  by 
the  women,  which  occurs  under  tlie  word  ri'rVr,  1  Sam.  18:  G, 
probably  differed  from  the  more  common  sistrum  only  by  being  of  a 
triangular  Ibmi. 

Note. — The  names  of  musical  instruments  which  are  \cry  little 
known,  are  as  follows  : 

I.  yri>T} ,  higffaio7i,  Vs.  0:  IG.  92:4;  perhaps  this  word  was  used 
to  designate  some  sort  of  song  or  poem. 

U.  r."w5,  gittith,  Ps.  8:  1.  81:  1.  84:  1,  derived  from  r;,  a  trine 
press  ;  an  instrument  which  was  played  at  the  treading  out  of  the 
grapes.  Some  suppose  it  derived  its  name  from  Gath,  a  city  of  the 
Philistines. 

in.  "rs  r"":"-r ,  ahmdh  labben,  Ps.  9:  1 ;  a  better  reading  of 
the  Hebrew  would  be  "ns  r-.'zbv ,  for  Ben  was  the  name  of  a  musi- 
cian in  the  time  of  David,  1  Chron.  15:  18.  What  the  meaning  of 
the  word  r'lhv  is,  is  not  very  clear ;  perhaps  it  was  a  kind  of  harp, 
and  hence,  1  Chron.  15:  20,  is  interchanged  with  r^rrr,  a  harp  of 
eiglit  strings. 

IV.  "r-.-:,  jedutliun.  Ps.  39:  1.  07:  1,  an  instrument  thus  denomi- 
nated from  some  musician  of  that  name. 

V.  t'it.';!,  mahalath,  Ps.  88:  1.  53:  1,  perhaps  an  instrument  like 
the  shepherd's  pipe ;  comp.  the  Ethiopic  word  mahlef,  which  in  Gen. 
4:  21,  answers  to  the  Greek  -/.lOdQU.  Some  other  words  and  phrases, 
such  as  shushan-eduth,  Ps.  GO:  1,  appear  to  be  enigmatical  inscriptions 
of  the  psalms,  to  which  they  are  prefixed. 


104  §97.    ON   DANCING. 


§  97.  Ox  Dancing. 

The  Mohammedans  esteem  dancing  a  sport  unwoilhy  the  dignity 
of  a  man,  and  accordingly  leave  it  to  the  women.  It  is  practised  in 
such  an  indecorous  manner  among  the  modern  orientals,  that  they 
would  be  still  nearer  the  truth,  if  they  should  pronounce  it  an  ai-t 
unworthy  to  be  indulged  in  by  either  sex.  It  was  ditierent  an- 
ciently. Among  the  Greeks  it  was  a  sort  of  pantomime,  a  mimic 
representation  of  the  common  actions  of  life,  and,  in  some  instances, 
of  deeds  of  war.  It  was  accordingly  admitted  among  the  gymnastic 
sports.  The  dancers  danced  to  the  notes  of  the  timbrel ;  they  ex- 
hibited many  inflections  of  the  body  and  many  gesticulations  with 
the  hands ;  they  danced,  beating  the  floor  in  a  circle,  following  the 
one  they  had  chosen  for  a  leader,  with  regular  and  artificial  pulsa- 
tions of  the  feet,  Exod.  15:  20.  Judg.  11:  34.  1  Sam.  18:  G,  7. 
Jer.  31:  4,  13.  Sometimes  men  who  were  singers  or  musicians, 
took  a  part  in  these  dances ;  in  this  case  the  singers  went  forward, 
those  who  played  on  instruments  followed,  and  the  dancing  women 
girded  them  on  both  sides,  Ps.  G8:  2G.  The  dance  was  called  in 
Hebrew  s-r,-: ;  it  was  practised  on  the  national  festivals,  and  made 
part  of  the  sacred  worship.  The  nobles  and  the  princes  of  the  peo- 
ple engaged  in  this  ceremony,  but  did  not  mingle  in  it  with  the 
common  multitude.  This  was  the  ground  of  the  reproach,  which 
Michal  threw  out  against  David,  who  danced  before  the  ark  in 
company  with  the  rest  of  the  people,  2  Sam.  G:  IG — 23.  In  the  later 
periods  of  the  Jewish  history,  the  kings  and  great  men  appear  to 
hiive  been  rather  the  spectators,  thau  the  parties  in  dances,  see  Matt. 
G:  21—25. 

XoTE. — The  art  of  oratoiy  never  flourished  in  the  East.  Paul, 
accordingly,  when  he  appeared  among  the  Greeks,  who  estimated 
eloquence  very  highly,  although  it  was  at  that  time  degenerate  and 
declining,  was  not  listened  to  with  that  interest,  with  which  he  might 
otherwise  have  been.  Paul,  however,  displays  in  his  speeches  re- 
corded in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  a  good  arrangement  and  no  little 
skill  in  the  art  of  persuasion. 


CHAPTER   VJ. 
ON    THE    SCIENCES. 

§  98.  The  Origin  of  the  Scienxes. 

When'  the  arts  liad  been  reduced  by  long  practice  and  meditation 
to  lixed  and  definite  rules,  tlicy  were  succeeded  by  the  sciences; 
which  in  fact  are  nothing  more  than  the  reduction,  into  a  more 
regular  and  philosophic  form,  of  those  rules  and  theories,  which 
have  been  ascertained  and  approved  by  inquiry  and  practice. 
Vt'e  are  able  to  discover  the  beginnings,  the  indistinct  vestiges 
of  the  sciences  in  very  remote  periods ;  and  in  some  nations  more 
strikingly  than  in  others.  The  Egj-ptians  and  Babylonians  excelled 
in  scientific  knowledge  all  others.  The  Arabians  also  are  favorably 
mentioned  in  this  respect,  1  Kings  4:  30 ;  also  the  Edomites,  Jer. 
49:  7.  The  Hebrews  became  renowned  for  their  intellectual  culture 
in  the  time  of  David,  and  especially  of  Solomon,  who  is  said  to  have 
surpassed  all  others  in  wisdom ;  a  circumstance,  which  was  the 
ground  of  the  many  visits,  which  were  paid  to  him  by  distinguished 
foreigners,  1  Kings  5:  9 — 14.  His  example,  whicli  was  truly  an 
illustrious  one,  was  beyond  question  imitated  by  other  kings.  The 
literature  of  the  Hebrews  was  limited  chiefly  to  ethics,  religion,  the 
history  of  their  nation,  and  natural  history;  on  which  last  subject, 
Solomon  wrote  many  treatises  no  longer  extant.  The  Hebrews 
made  but  little  progress  in  science  and  literature  after  the  time 
of  Solomon.  Dux'ing  Oieir  captivity,  it  is  true,  they  acquired  many 
foreign  notions,  with  which  they  had  not  been  previously  acquainted ; 
and  they  subsequently  borrowed  much,  both  of  truth  and  of  false- 
hood, from  the  philosophy  of  the  Greeks.  The  author  of  tlie  book 
of  wisdom,  with  some  others  of  the  Jewish  writers,  has  made  pretty 
good  use  of  the  Greek  philosophy.  It  is  clear,  notwithstanding  this, 
that  the  Jews  after  the  captivity  fell  below  their  ancestors  in  re- 
spect to  history ;  as  the  published  annals  of  that  period  are  not  of 
a  kindred  character,  with  those  of  the  primitive  ages  of  their  coun- 
try. 


106  §  90.    IIISTOUY,   GENEALOGY,   AND    CHRONOLOGY. 


§  09.  History,  Genealogy,  and  Chronology. 

That  tlic  art  of  histoiical  writing  was  anciently  niucli  cultivated 
in  the  East,  the  Bible  itself  is  an  ample  testimony ;  for  it  not  only 
relates  the  prominent  events,  from  the  creation  down  to  the  fifth 
century  before  Christ,  but  speaks  of  many  historical  books,  which 
have  now  perished ;  and  also  of  many  monuments,  erected  in  com- 
memoration of  remarkable  achievements  and  furnished  with  ap- 
propriate inscriptions.  These  monuments  are  denominated  by  va- 
rious names,  as  n3:i"? ,  \^ ,  V"'?!  •  The  Babylonians  also,  the  As- 
syrians, the  Persians,  and  Tyrians,  had  their  Historical  Amials. 
Among  the  Egyptians,  there  was  a  separate  order,  viz.  the  Priests^ 
one  part  of  whose  duty  it  was,  to  write  the  history  of  their  coun- 
try. In  the  primitive  ages  the  task  of  composing  annals  fell  in 
most  nations  upon  the  priests,  but  at  a  later  period  the  king  had 
his  own  secretaries,  whose  special  business  it  was  to  record  the 
royal  sayings  and  achievements.  The  prophets  among  the  Pie- 
brews  recorded  the  events  of  their  own  times,  and,  in  the  earliest 
periods,  the  genealogists  interwove  many  historical  events  with 
their  accounts  of  the  succession  of  families.  Indeed,  it  should  not 
be  forgotten,  that  ancient  history  generally  partakes  more  of  a 
c^enealogical,  than  of  a  chronological  character.  Hence  the  Hebrew 
phrase  for  genealogies,  n-.nV-in  nsa,  is  used  also  for  history.  Gen. 
6:  9.  10:  1 ;  and  hence  no  epoch,  more  ancient  than  that  of  Na- 
bonassar,  is  anywhere  found.  In  the  Bible,  however,  this  defect, 
in  re"-ard  to  a  regular  chronological  system,  is  in  a  manner  com- 
pensated by  the  insertion  in  various  places  of  deiinite  periods  of 
time,  and  by  chronological  genealogies.  In  giving  a  concise  ac- 
count of  the  genealogy  of  a  person,  the  Hebrews,  as  well  as  the 
Arabs,  took  the  liberty  to  omit,  according  to  their  own  pleasure, 
one  or  more  generations,  Ruth  4:  18,  22.  Ezra  7:  1—5.  INIatt.  1:  8. 
It  was  considered  so  much  of  an  honor,  to  have  a  name  and  a 
place  in  these  family  annals,  that  the  Hebrews,  from  their  first  exist- 
ence   as    a    nation,    had    public    genealogists,    denominated    TJVi-, 

Not  only  the  Hebrews,  but,  if  we  may  credit  Herodotus  and 
Diodorus  Sicuhis,  the  Egyptians  also,  assigned  a  certain  period  to 
a  generation.      According    to    their   estimation,    three    generations 


§  100.   ARITHMETIC,   JIATHEMATICS,   ETC.  107 

made  a  hundred  years.  In  the  time  of  Abraham,  however,  when 
men  Hved  to  a  greater  age,  a  hundred  years  made  a  generation. 
This  is  clear  from  Gen.  lo:  13,  IG,  and  from  the  circumstance,  that 
Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  dwelt  two  hundred  and  fifteen  years  in 
the  land  of  Canaan,  and  yet  there  were  only  two  generations. 

§  100.  Arithmetic,  Mathematics,  Astuoxomy,  and  Astrology. 

I.  Arithmetic.  The  more  simple  methods  of  arithmetical  calcula- 
tion are  s2:)oken  of  in  the  Pentateuch,  as  if  they  were  well  known. 
The  merchants  of  that  early  period  must,  for  their  own  conve- 
nience, have  been  possessed  of  some  method  of  operating  by  num- 
bers. And  that  they  were  able  to  do  it,  to  some  coiifiderable  ex- 
tent, may  be  argued  from  the  fact,  that  they  had  separate  words, 
viz.  !i2"i  n--"i ,  for  so  large  a  number  as  10,000,  Gen.  24:  GO.  Lev. 
2G:  8.  beuV  32:  30. 

II.  Mathematics.  By  this  we  understand  geometry,  mensuration, 
navigation,  etc.  As  far  as  a  knowledge  of  them  was  absolutely  re- 
quired by  the  condition  and  employments  of  the  people,  we  may 
well  suppose  that  knowledge  to  have  actually  existed ;  although  no 
express  mention  is  made  of  them. 

III.  Astronomy.  The  interests  of  agriculture  and  navigation  re- 
quired some  knowledge  of  astronomy.  An  evidence,  that  an  attempt 
was  made  at  a  very  early  period,  to  regulate  the  year  by  the  annual 
revolution  of  the  sun,  may  be  found  in  the  fact,  that  the  Jewish 
months  were  divided  into  thirty  days  each,  see  Gen.  7:  11.  8:  4. 
In  astronomy,  the  Egyptians,  Babylonians,  and  Phenicians  exhibited 
great  superiority.  We  are  informed  there  were  magicians  or  en- 
chanters in  Egj-pt,  Exod.  7:  11.  Lev.  20:  27.  19:  31.  Deut.  18:  10, 
denominated  in  Hebrew  n"E'i":~ ,  because  they  computed  eclipses 
of  the  sun  and  moon,  and  pretended  to  the  people,  that  they  pro- 
duced them  by  the  efficacy  of  their  own  enchantments.  Some  of  the 
constellations  are  mentioned  by  name,  Job  9:  9.  38:  31,  32.  Isa.  13: 
10.  Amos  5:  8.  2  Kings  23:  5. 

IV.  Astrology.  It  is  by  no  means  a  matter  of  wonder,  that  the 
Hebrews  did  not  devote  greater  attention  to  astronomy,  since  the 
study  of  astrology,  which  was  intimately  connected  with  that  of  as- 
tronomy, and  was  very  highly  estimated  among  the  neighboring 
nations,  Isa.  47:  9.  Jer.  27:  9.    50:  35.    Dan.  2:  13,  48,  was  interdict- 


108  §  101.  DIVISION  OF  Tin;  day  and  night. 

C(l  to  till-  Hebrews,  Deut.  18:  10.  Lev.  20:  27.  l);iiiiel,  iiuleed, 
studied  tlic  art  of  astrolog:}-  at  Babylon,  but  he  did  not  practise  it, 
Dan.  1:  20.  2:  2.  The  astrologers,  (and  those  wise  men  mentioned 
in  ]\Iatl.  2:  1  et  seq.  appear  to  have  been  such,)  divided  tlie  heavens 
into  apartments  or  habitations,  to  each  one  of  which  apartments,  they 
assigned  a  ruler  or  president.  This  lact  develops  the  origin  of  the 
word  Btt).^t(iov).,  b^ST  '"Z,  or  the  lord  of  the  (celestial)  dwelling, 
]\ralt.  10:  2.").   12:  21.  27.  Mark  3:  22.  Luke  11:  1.5—19. 


§  101.  Division  of  the  Day  and  Night. 

The  IIArews,  in  conibnnity  with  the  Mosaic  law,  reckoned  the 
day  from  evening  to  evening.  The  natural  day,  i.  e.  the  portion  of 
time  from  sunrise  to  sunset,  was  divided  by  the  Hebrews,  as  it  is  now 
by  the  Arabians,  into  six  unequal  parts. 

Tliese  divisions  were  as  follows : 

I.  "irr  also  ""c;:,  the  break  of  day.  The  portion  of  time  was  at  a 
recent  period  divided  into  two  parts,  in  imitation  of  the  Persians ; 
the  first  of  which  began,  when  the  eastern,  the  second,  when  the  wes- 
tern division  of  the  horizon  was  illuminated.  The  authors  of  the  Je- 
rusalem Talmud  divided  it  into  four  parts,  the  first  of  Avhich  was 
called  in  Hebrew  ".n^n  r^.^x,  which  occurs  in  Ps.  22:  1,  and  corres- 
ponds to  the  phrase  Xiav  ttqcoi  in  the  New  Testament,  Mark  16:  2. 
John  20:  1. 

n.  "■'ph ,  the  morni)ig  or  sunrise. 

III.  ri-'n  ::'n ,  the  heat  of  the  day.  It  begins  about  nine  o'clock, 
Gen.  18:  1.  1  Sam.  11:  11. 

IV.  C'^'^n"-^  >  midday. 

V.  c'T'n  nn ,  the  cool  of  the  day,  literally  the  xcind  of  the  day. 
This  expression  is  grounded  in  the  fact,  that  a  wind  commences 
blowing  regularly  for  a  few  hours  before  sunset,  and  continues  till 
evening.  Gen.  3:  8. 

VI.  a"!^;,  the  evening.  It  was  divided  into  two  parts,  t:"i2";"; 
the  first  of  which  began  according  to  the  Karaites  and  Samaritans  at 
sunset,  the  second,  when  it  began  to  grow  dark.  But  according  to 
the  Rabbins,  the  first  commenced  just  before  sunset,  the  second  pre- 
cisely at  sunset.  The  Arabians  agree  w'ith  the  Karaites  and  Samari- 
tans ;  and  in  this  way  the  Hebrews  appear  to  have  computed  pre- 
vious to  the  captivity. 


§  101.    DIVISION    OF    THE    DAY    AND    NIGHT.  109 

Hours,  n;'"J.  The  iiu'ntion  of  tliciu  occurs  fii^t  in  Dan.  3:  G, 
ir».  'i:  f).  Hours  were  first  measured  by  gnomons,  which  merely 
ii)(lic:itt'(l  the  meridian;  afterwards  by  the  Iioiir-wa/ch,  oy.tuOiinoy; 
and  .-td>?eqiiently  still,  by  the  clepsydra,  or  instrument  for  measuring 
time  bv  means  of  Avater.  The  hour-watch  or  dial,  otherwise  called 
the  sun-dial,  is  mentioned  in  the  reign  of  king  Ilezekiah,  2  Kings  20; 
y.  10.  Isa.  38:  8.  Its  being  called  "the  sun-dial  of  Ahaz,"  renders  it 
j)robalile,  that  Ahaz  first  introduced  it  from  Babylon,  Avhence  also 
Anaxinienes  the  Milesian  brought  the  first  shiatheron  into  Greece. 
This  instrument  was  of  no  use  during  the  night,  nor  indeed  during  a 
cloudy  dav.  In  consequence  of  this  defect,  the  clepsydra  was  in- 
vented, which  was  used  in  Persia,  as  late  as  the  17th  century,  in  its 
simplest  form. 

TIk;  clepsydra  was  a  small  circular  vessel,  constructed  of  thinly 
beaten  copper  or  brass,  and  having  a  small  perforation  through  the 
bottom.  It  was  placed  in  another  vessel  filled  with  water.  Tiie 
diameter  of  the  hole,  in  the  bottom  of  the  clepsydra,  was  such,  that 
it  filled  with  water  in  three  hours,  and  sunk.  It  was  necessary,  that 
there  should  be  a  servant  to  tend  it ;  who  should  take  it  up,  when  it 
had  sunk,  pour  out  the  water,  and  place  it  again  empty,  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  water  in  the  vase. 

The  hours  of  principal  note,  in  the  course  of  the  day,  were  the 
third,  tlie  sixth,  and  the  ninth.  These  hours,  it  would  seem,  were 
consecrated  by  Daniel  to  prayer,  Dan.  G:  10,  comp.  Acts  2:  lo.  3:  1. 
10:  9.  The  day  was  divided  into  twelve  hours,  which  of  course 
varied  in  length,  being  shorter  in  the  winter  and  longer  in  the  sum- 
mer, John  11:  9.  In  the  winter,  thereibre,  the  clepsydras,  were  cov- 
ered internally  with  wax,  that  the  water  might  subside  from  them 
more  rapidly.  The  hours  were  numbered  from  the  rising  of  the  sun, 
so  that  at  the  season  of  the  equinox,  the  third  corresponded  to  the 
ninth  of  our  reckoning,  the  sixth  to  our  twelfth,  and  the  ninth  to 
3  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  At  other  seasons  of  the  year,  it  is 
necessary  to  observe  the  time,  when  the  sun  rises,  and  reduce  the 
hours  to  our  time  accordingly.  "We  observe,  therefore,  that  the 
sun  in  Palestine,  at  the  summer  solstice,  rises  at  five  of  our  time, 
and  sets  about  seven.  At  the  tvinter  solstice,  it  rises  about  seven 
and  sets  about  five. 

Before  the  captivity,  the  night  was  divided  into  three  watches. 
The  riusT,  which  continued   till    midnight,  was  denominated  rxn 

10 


no  §  102.    OF    WEEKS. 

r"i--"l'X  (he  commencing  or  Jirst  icalc/t,  Lam.  2:  19.  The  SECOND 
was  denominati'tl  n:-.r''rin  rnt'ix  (he  middle  watch,  and  continued 
from  midnight  till  the  crowing  of  the  cock,  Judg.  7: 19.  The  tiifrd, 
calh'd  '■~2!n  rn^rx  (he  morning  watch,  extended  from  the  second  to 
the  rising  of  the  sun.  These  divisions  and  names  appear  to  have 
owed  their  origin  to  the  watches  of  the  Levites  in  the  tal)ernacle  and 
trniple,  Exod.  14:  24.  1  Sam.  11:11.  In  the  time  of  C'hri>t,  how- 
ever, the  nigfd,  in  imitation  of  the  Romans,  was  divided  into  Jmr 
watches.  According  to  the  Englis^h  mode  of  reckoning,  they  were  as 
follows : 

I.  Oqrt,  the  evening,  from  twilight  to  nine  o'clock. 

II.  DhaovvxTiov,  the  midnight,  from  nine  to  twelve. 

III.  JO.c/.Tonnqcoj't'a,  the  coch-croiving,  from  twelve  to  three. 

IV.  FIqwi,  from  three  o'clock  till  day-break. 

The  assertions  of  the  Talraudists  in  opposition  to  this  statement 
are  not  to  be  regarded. 

§  102.  Of  Weeks. 

A  period  of  seven  days,  under  the  usual  name  of  a  week,  r^iad , 
is  mentioned  as  far  back  as  the  time  of  the  deluge.  Gen.  7:  4,  10. 
8:  10,  12 ;  also  Gen.  29:  27,  28.  It  must  therefore  be  considered 
a  very  ancient  (h vision  of  time,  especially  as  the  various  nations, 
among  whom  it  has  been  noticed,  for  instance  the  Nigri  in  Af- 
rica, (see  Oldendorp's  Gesch.  der  Mission,  I.  308.)  ajipear  to 
have  received  it  from  the  sons  of  Noah.  The  enumeration  of 
the  days  of  the  week  commenced  at  Sunday.  Saturday  was  the 
last  or  seventh,  and  was  the  Hebrew  sabbath  or  day  of  rest. 
The  Eg}ptians  gave  to  the  days  of  the  week  the  same  names 
that  they  assigned  to  the  planets.  From  the  circumstance,  that 
the'  sabbath    was    the    principal  day  of  the    week,  the    whole    pe- 

riod  of  seven  days  was  likewise  called  naTT,  Syriac  |  Ag-^  , 
in  the  New  Testament,  au^^azov  and  au^^uTU.  The  Jews  ac- 
cordingly, in  designating  the  successive  days  of  the  week,  were 
accustomed  to  say,  the  first  day  of  the  sabbath,  i.  e.  of  the  loeeh,  the 
second  day  of  the  sabbath,  viz.  Sunday,  Monday,  etc.  Mark  IG:  2,  9. 
Luke  24:  1.  John  20:  1,  19.  In  addition  to  the  week  of  days,  the 
Jews  had  three  other  seasons,  denominated  weeks.  Lev.  25:  1 — 17. 
Deut.  IG:  9,  10. 


§  103.    OF    TIIK    MONTHS    AND    ini:    YEAR  111 

I.  T/ie  u-eek  of  wecU.  It  was  a  period  of  seven  \veeks  or  forty- 
nine  (lavs,  which  was  succeeded  on  tlie  fiftieth  day  by  tlie  feast  of 
pentecost,  Greek  ntvTi-/.oorii,fJ'(ij,  Deut.  IG:  9,  10. 

II.  The  week  of  years.  Tliis  was  a  period  of  seven  years,  during 
the  hist  of  which,  the  land  remained  untilled,  and  the  people  enjoyed 
a  sabbath  or  season  of  rest. 

III.  The  week  of  seven  sabbatical  years.  It  was  a  period  of  forty- 
nine  vears,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  year  of  jubilee,  Lev.  25:  1 — 
22.  26:  34. 

§  103.  Oi^  THE  Months  and  the  Year. 

The  lunar  changes  without  doubt  were  first  em[)loyed  in  tlie  mea- 
surement of  time.  Weeks,  however,  were  not  as  some  suppose,  sug- 
gested by  these  changes,  since  four  weeks  make  only  twenty-eight 
davs,  Avhile  the  lunar  period  is  twenty-nine  and  a  half.  Nor  is  it 
rational  to  suppose,  that  the  changes  of  the  moon  first  suggested  the 
method  of  computation  by  years.  Years  were  regulated  at  first  by 
the  return  of  summer  or  autumn.  But  when  in  the  progress  of 
time  it  was  discovered  that  the  ripe  fruits,  by  which  the  year  had 
been  previously  limited,  statedly  returned  after  about  twelve  lunar 
months,  or  three  hundred  and  fifty-four  days,  the  year  was  regulated 
by  those  months,  and  restricted  to  that  number  of  days.  In  the 
course  of  seventeen  years,  however,  it  was  seen,  that,  on  the  return 
of  the  same  month,  all  the  appearances  of  nature  were  reversed. 
Hence,  as  is  evident  from  the  history  of  the  deluge,  an  attempt  was 
made  to  regulate  the  months  by  the  motion  of  the  sun,  and  to  assign 
to  each  of  them  thirty  days ;  but  it  was,  nevertheless,  observed,  after 
ten  or  twenty  years,  that  there  was  still  a  defect  of  five  days. 

Moses  did  not  make  any  new  arrangement  in  regard  to  the  lu- 
nar months  of  the  Hebrews,  nor  the  year,  which  was  solar,  but  in 
order  to  secure  a  proper  reduction  of  the  lunar  to  the  solar  year, 
he  obligated  the  priests,  to  present  at  the  altar  on  the  second  day 
of  the  passover,  or  the  sixteenth  day  after  the  first  new  moon  in 
April,  a  ripe  sheaf.  For  if  they  saw  on  the  last  month  of  the  year, 
that  the  grain  would  not  be  ripe,  as  exi)ected,  they  were  compelled 
to  make  an  intercalation,  which  commonly  ha[)i)ened  on  the  third 
year. 

After    their    departure    from    Egypt,    there    existed    among    the 


112  §  103.  OF  Tin:  .aiontiis  am>  tiik  yi:.vi;. 

flebrc'ws  two  moilcs  of  reckoning,'  tlie  iiioiitlis  of  tlie  vi.-ar;  the  one 
civi'i,  tlio  other  sacred.  The  begiiinin;j  of  the  civil  year  was  reck- 
oned from  the  seventh  month,  or  Tishri,  i.  e.  the  first  new-moon 
in  October.  The  commencement  of  the  sacred  year  was  reckoned 
from  the  month  Nisan,  or  the  lirst  new-moon  in  April,  because  the 
Hebrews  departed  from  Egypt  on  the  fifteenth  day  of  that  month, 
Exod.  12:  2.  The  prophets  use  tliis  reckoning.  Tlie  civil  year, 
which  was  tlie  more  ancient,  was  used  only  in  civil  and  agricultural 
concerns.  The  Jewish  Rabbins  say,  that  March  and  .Sei)teniber, 
instead  of  April  and  October,  were  the  initial  months  of  these  two 
years.  That  they  were  so  at  a  late  period  is  admitted,  but  the 
change  was  probably  owing  to  the  example  of  the  Romans,  who 
began  their  year  with  the  month  of  March.  The  Jews,  lieing 
pleased  with  their  examiile  in  this  respect,  or  overruled  by  their 
authority,  adopted  the  same  practice.  That  this  is  the  most  prob- 
able statement,  is  evident  also  from  the  fact,  that  the  position  of  the 
Rabbins  is  opposed  not  only  by  Josephns,  but  by  the  usage  of  the 
Syriac  and  Arabic  languages ;  from  the  fact  al.-o.  that  the  prescribed 
observances  of  the  three  great  festival  days  will  not  agree  with  the 
months  of  ]March  and  September,  as  has  been  shown  by  Michaelis, 
see  Commentat.  de  Mensibus  Hebraeorum  in  Soc.  Reg.  Goett.  17G3 
— 1768,  p.  10  et  seq. 

Montlis,  C'n'n'i  ^  sometimes  also  called  -""^"^n ,  from  the  circum- 
stance of  their  commencing  with  the  new-moon,  anciently  had  no 
separate  names,  with  the  exception  of  the  first,  which  was  called 
Abib,  i.  c.  "the  month  of  the  young  ears  of  corn,"  Exod.  13:  4. 
23:  15.  34:  18.  Deut.  IG:  1.  During  the  captivity,  the  Hebrews 
adopted  the  Baliylonian  names  for  their  months.  They  were  as 
follows : 

I.  "iC^: — XiSAN,  reckoned  from  new-moon  of  April,  Neh.  2:  1. 

II.  ^■^7 — ZiF  or  Ziv,  also  called  "i^"N; ,  —     of  May,  1  Kings  G:  1. 

III.  -,^^^5— SivAX,  '  of  June,  Esth.  8:  9. 

IV.  VIZ- — Tammuz,  of  July. 

V.  zs — Ab,  of  August. 

VI.  b^bs— Ei.UL,  of  Sept.  Neh.  G:  15. 

VII.  "i-i-i-r.— Tisiiui,  also  c-rr^xri  n:^      of  Oct.  1  Kings  8:  2. 
Vin.  b^2 — BuL,  also  ',;!Cn-i-: ,  of  Nov.  1  Kings  G:  38. 

IX.  1^5:2 — KiSLEV,  of  Dec.  Neh.  1:  1. 

X.  r::-j— Tedetii,  of  Jan.  Esth.  2:  16. 


§104.  sniVRYiNG,  Tin:  micciianio  auts,  ktc.  ho 

XJ.  -jz-:: — SiiKBAT,  of  February,  Zech.  1:  7. 

XII.  n-x— Adau,  of  March,  Esth.  3:  7. 

The  first   month  here  mentioned,  NisAX,  Avas   orighially  called 
Anii5.     Tlie  intercalary  month  is  denominated  in  Hebrew  Tis . 

XoTic. — The  division  of  the  year  into  six  parts  has  already  been 
mentioned  §  19,  and  need  not  be  repeated  here ;  but  we  cannot 
avoid  saying  a  few  words  on  a  subject,  connected  with  the  present 
one,  viz.  tlie  longevitij  of  the  antediluvians.  Certain  critics  have 
put  their  skill  into  ri'quisition  to  convert  the  hundreds  of  their  years 
into  tens,  or  into  quarters  of  years.  Or  into  months,  or  into  sum- 
mers and  Avinters.  Certainly  they  forget,  that  the  orientals  of  the 
earliest  period,  as  well  as  the  modern  Arabs,  not  only  had  a 
knowledge  of  the  proper  solar  }ear,  but  di\ided  it  both  into  months 
and  into  six  periods  of  two  months  each.  Clearly  then,  if  the  au- 
thor of  the  first  part  of  Genesis  had  meant  to  say,  that  the  antedi- 
luvians lived  so  many  months  or  other  less  jieriods  of  time,  instead 
of  so  many  years,  he  would  have  said  so  in  terms  conmionly  used 
to  express  those  minor  divisions.  Besides,  the  attempt  to  reduce 
the  years  of  the  antediluvians  to  months  especially,  will  make  them, 
in  some  instances,  the  fathers  of  children  at  five  years  of  age. 
What  some  of  the  ancients  say,  in  regard  to  a  year  much  shorter 
than  the  solar  one,  is  as  Diodorus  Siculus  expressly  assures  us, 
nothing  more  than  a  mere  conjecture,  originated,  to  account  for 
the  great  number  of  years,  which  the  Egyptians  and  other  nations 
attributed  to  their  ancestry. 

§  104.  Surveying,  toe  Mechanic  Akts,  and  Geography. 

I.  Surveyiiig.  Measures  of  length  are  mentioned,  Gen.  G:  15,  IG. 
A  knowledge  of  the  method  of  measuring  lands  is  implied  in  the  ac- 
count given  Gen.  47:  20 — 27.  Mention  is  made  in  the  books  of  Job 
and  Joshua,  of  a  line  or  rope  for  the  purpose  of  taking  measurements, 
■'i??  "^r^.-  It  was  brought  by  the  Hebrews  out  of  Egypt,  where, 
according  to  the  unanimous  testimony  of  antiquity,  surveying  first 
had  its  origin,  and,  in  consequence  of  the  inundations  of  the  !Nile, 
was  carried  to  tlie  greatest  height.  It  was  here,  as  we  may  well 
conclude,  that  the  Hebrews  acquired  so  much  knowledge  of  the 
principles  of  that  science,  as  to  enable  them,  with   the  aid  of  the 

10* 


114  §  103,    MKDICINE. 

measririnrf  line  ahovemcntionccl,  to  i):irlitiun  and  set  ofi"  geographi- 
cally tlir  whole  land  of  Canaan.  The  weights  used  in  weighing 
soliil  bodies,  Gen.  23:  15,  IG,  provided  they  were  similar  to  each 
other  in  form,  imply  a  knowledge  of  the  rudiments  of  stereometry. 

11.  7'itc  Mechanic  Arts.  No  express  mention  is  made  of  t!i(.'  me- 
chanic arts;  but  that  a  knowledge  of  them,  notwithstanding,  existed, 
may  be  inferred  from  the  erection  of  Noah's  ark  and  tin,'  tower  of 
Ikiliel ;  also  from  what  is  said  of  the  Egyptian  chariots,  Gen.  41:  4.'3. 
4."):  r.i.  ,">0:  0.  Exod.  14:  G,  7;  and  from  the  instruments  used  by  the 
Egyptians  in  irrigating  their  lands,  Deut.  11:  10.  It  is  implied  in 
the  mention  of  these,  and  subsequently  of  many  other  instruments, 
that  other  instruments  still  not  expressly  named,  but  which  were  of 
course  necessary  for  the  formation  of  those  which  arc  named,  were 
in  existence. 

in.  GeograpJiy.  Geographical  notices  occur  so  frequently  in  th?- 
Bible,  tl'.at  it  is  not  necessary  to  say  much  on  this  point,  see  Gen.  10: 
1—30.  12:  4—15.  14:  1—16.  28:  2—9.  49:  13,  etc.  Perhaps,  how- 
ever, it  deserves  to  be  repeated,  that  in  the  time  of  Joshua,  the 
whole  of  Palestine  was  subjected  to  a  geographical  division,  Josh.  18: 
9.  It  is  evident  then,  from  their  geographical  knowledge,  as  well  as 
from  other  circumstances  already  mentioned,  that  there  must  have 
existed  among  the  Hebrews  the  rudiments,  if  nothing  more,  of  mathe- 
matical science. 

§  105.  Medicine. 

At  Babylon  the  sick,  when  they  were  first  attacked  with  a  dis- 
ease, were  left  in  the  streets,  for  the  purpose  of  learning  from 
those  who  might  pass  them,  what  practices,  or  what  medicines 
they  had  found  of  assistance,  when  afflicted  with  a  similar  disease. 
This  was  perhaps  done  also  in  other  countries.  The  Egyptians 
carried  their  sick  into  tlie  temples  of  Serapis ;  the  Greeks  carried 
iheirs  into  those  of  Esculapius.  In  both  of  these  temples,  there 
wen-  j)reserved  written  recipes  of  the  means  by  which  various 
cures  had  been  effl^cted.  "With  the  aid  of  these  recorded  reme- 
dies, the  art  of  healing  assumed  in  the  progress  of  time  the 
aspect  of  a  science.  It  assumed  such  a  form,  first,  in  Egypt,  and 
at  a  much  more  recent  period,  in  Greece ;  but  it  was  not  long  be- 
fore those  of  the  former  were  surpassed  in  excellence  by  the  phy- 


§  105.    MKDICINE.  115 

sicians  of  the  latter  country.  That  the  Egyptians,  however,  had 
no  little  skill  in  medicine,  may  be  gathered  from  what  is  said  in 
the  Pentateuch  respecting  the  marks  of  leprosy.  That  some  of 
the  medical  prescriptions  should  fail  of  bringing  the  expected  re- 
lief, is  nothing  strange,  since  Pliny  himself  mentions  some,  which 
are  far  from  producing  the  effects  he  ascribes  to  tlieni.  Physicians, 
r"xs-,  XS",  are  mentioned  first  in  Gen.  50:  2.  Exod.  21:  I'J.  .Job 
13:  4.  Some  acquaintance  with  chirurgical  operations  is  impli.ed  in 
the  rite  of  circumcision,  Gen.  17:  11 — 14.  Tiiere  is  ample  evi- 
dence, that  the  Israelites  had  some  acquaintance  with  the  inter- 
nal structure  of  the  human  system,  altliough  it  does  not  appear, 
that  dissections  of  the  human  body  for  medical  purposes  were 
made,  till  as  late  as  the  time  of  Pto'emy.  That  physicians  some- 
times undertook  to  exercise  their  skill  in  removing  diseases  of  an 
internal  nature,  is  evident  from  the  circumstance  of  David's  play- 
ing upon  the  harp,  to  cure  the  malady  of  Saul,  1  Sam.  IG:  IG.  The 
art  of  healing  was  committed,  among  the  Hebrews  as  well  as 
among  the  Egyptians,  to  the  priests ;  who  indeed  were  obliged, 
by  a  laio  of  the  state,  to  take  cognizance  of  leprosies,  Lev.  13: 
1 — 14,  57.  Deut.  24:  8,  9.  Keference  is  made  to  physicians  who 
were  not  priests,  and  to  instances  of  sickness,  disease,  healing,  etc.  in 
the  following  passages,  1  Sam.  IG:  16.  1  Kings  1:  2 — 4.  15:  23. 
2  Kings  8:  20.  9:  15.  Isa.  1:  G.  Jer.  8:  22.  Ezek.  30:  21.  Prov.  3: 
18.  11:  30.  12:  18.  IG:  15.  29:  1.  The  probable  reason  of  king 
Asa's  not  seeking  help  from  God,  but  from  the  physicians,  as  men- 
tioned 2  Chron.  16:  12,  was,  that  they  had  not  at  that  period  recourse 
to  the  simple  medicines  which  nature  offered,  but  to  certain  super- 
stitious rites  and  incantations ;  and  this,  no  doubt,  Avas  the  ground 
of  the  reflection  wliich  was  cast  upon  him.  The  balm  or  balsam, 
"":»,  """.i,  was  particularly  celebrated  as  a  medicine,  Jer.  8:  22. 
46:  11.  51:  8.  That  mineral  baths  were  deemed  worthy  of  no- 
tice may  be  inferred  from  Gen.  36:  24.  [see  Gesenius  on  the  word 
C-''.]]  About  the  tin;.'  of  Christ,  the  Hebrew  physicians  both 
made  advancements  in  science,  and  increased  in  numbers,  Mark  5: 
26.  Luke  4:  23.  5:  31.  8:  43.  .Josephus,  Antiq.  XVIL  C.  5.  It  ap- 
pears from  the  Talmud,  Shahhath,  p.  110,  that  tlie  Hebrew  phy- 
sicians were  accustomed  to  salute  the  sick  by  saying,  "Arise  from 
your  disease."  This  salutation  had  an  efTcct  in  the  mouth  of  Je- 
sus, Mark  5:  41.     According  to  the  Jerusalem  Talmud,  a  sick  man 


116  §    1<~1G.    I  IIVSICS.    NATntAI,    lllSTOHY,    KTC. 

was  judged  to  lie  in  a  way  of  recovery,  who  began  to  take  his  usual 
food,  oomp.  !Mark  o:  13. 


§  lOG.  Physics,  Natlual  IIistouv,  and  PiiiLosoriiv. 

Phi/sirs,  or  natural  j)hilosophy,  has  secured  but  little  attention 
in  the  East.  A  knowledge  of  the  animal,  vegetable,  and  mine- 
ral kingdoms,  or  the  science  of  natural  histori/,  was  alwa}s  much 
more  an  oI)jeet  of  intcr<'st.  "We  are  inlbrmed  in  1  Kings  4:  33,  thai 
Solomon  himself  had  given  a  description  of  the  animal  and  vegetable 
kingdoms. 

Traces  of  j)/iilosoj}Iif/,  strictly  so  called,  i.  e.  the  system  of  i)re- 
vailing  moral  oi)inions,  may  be  found  in  the  book  of  Job,  in  the 
37th,  39th,  and  73d  Psahns,  also  in  the  book  of  Proverbs  and  Ec- 
clesiastes,  but  chiefly  in  the  apocryphal  book  of  "Wisdom,  and  the 
Avritings  of  the  son  of  Sirach.  During  the  captivity,  the  Jews  ac- 
quired many  new  notions,  particularly  from  th.e  Mehestani,  and 
appropriated  them,  as  occasion  offered,  to  their  own  purposes. 
Thev  at  length  became  acquainted  with  the  philosophy  of  the 
Greeks,  which  makes  its  appearance  abundantly  in  the  book  of 
Wisdom.  After  the  captivity,  the  language,  in  which  the  sacred 
books  were  written,  was  no  longer  vernacular.  Hence  arose  the 
need  of  an  interpreter  on  the  sabbatic  year,  a  time,  when  the 
whole  law  was  read ;  and  also  on  the  sabbath  in  the  synagogues, 
which  had  been  recently  erected,  in  order  to  make  the  peoi^le 
understand  what  was  read.  These  interpreters  learnt  the  He- 
brew language  at  the  schools.  The  teachers  of  these  schools, 
who,  for  the  two  generations  preceding  the  time  of  Christ,  had 
maintained  some  acquaintance  with  the  Greek  philosophy,  were 
not  satisfied  Avith  a  simple  interpretation  of  the  Hebrevr  idiom,  as 
it  stood,  but  sha]ied  the  interpretation  so  as  to  render  it  conform- 
able to  their  philosophy.  Thus  arose  contentions,  which  gave 
occasion  for  the  various  sects  of  Pharisees,  Sadducees,  and  Essenes. 
In  the  time  of  our  Saviour,  divisions  had  arisen  among  the  Phari- 
sees themselves.  No  less  than  eighteen  nice  questions,  if  we  may 
believe  the  Jewish  Rabbins,  were  contested,  at  that  period,  be- 
tween the  schools  of  Hillel  and  Shammai.  One  of  which  ques- 
tions was  an  inquiry,  "  What  cause  was  sufficient  for  a  bill  of  di- 
vorce?"    If  the   Shammai  and  Hillel  of  the  Talmud  are  the  same 


§106.  ruiLOSoniT.  117 

^vith  llie  learned  men  mentioned  in  Josephus,  viz.  Sameas  and 
Pollio,  who  flourished  thirty-four  years  before  Christ,  then  Sham- 
mai  or  Sameas  is  undoubtedly  the  same  ivith  the  Simeon,  who  is 
mentioned  Luke  2:  25 — 35,  and  his  son  Gamaliel,  so  celebrated 
in  the  Talmud,  is  tlie  same  with  the  Gamaliel,  mentioned  Acts  5:  34. 
22:3. 

Ancientl}',  learned  men  were  denominated  among  the  Hebrews 
cirrP!,  as  among  the  Greeks  they  were  called  oocfoi,  i.  e.  ict'se 
men.  In  the  time  of  Christ  the  common  appellative  for  men  of 
that  description  was  yQUfiftaziiVi,  in  the  Hebi'ew  "^S-'D,  a  scribe. 
They  were  addressed  by  the  honorary  title  of  RahU,  ::'],  i£'n, 
i.  e.  great  or  master.  The  Jews,  in  imitation  of  the  Greeks,  had 
their  seven  wise  men,  who  were  called  Rahhoni,  "jsn.  Gamaliel 
was  one  of  the  number.  They  called  i/iemselces  the  children  of 
wisdom ;  an  expression,  which  corresponds  very  nearly  to  the  Greek 
(ft).6ao(fOi%  Matt-  11:  19.  Luke  7:  35.  The  heads  of  sects  were 
called  fal/icrs.  Matt.  12:  27.  23:  1—9.  The  disciples,  C-'I'^^bn, 
were  denominated  sons  or  children.  The  Jewish  teachers,  at 
]esist  some  of  them,  had  private  lecture-rooms,  but  they  also  taught 
and  disputed  in  synagogues,  in  temples,  and  in  fact  wherever  they 
could  find  an  audience.  The  method  of  these  teachers  was  the 
same  with  that  which  prevailed  among  the  Greeks.  Any  disci- 
ple who  chose  might  propose  questions,  ufwu  which  it  was  the 
duty  of  the  teachers  to  remark  and  give  their  opinions,  Luke  2: 
46.  The  teachers  were  not  invested  with  their  functions  by  any 
formal  act  of  the  church  or  of  the  civil  authority ;  they  were  self- 
constituted.  They  received  no  other  salary  than  some  voluntarj'- 
present  from  the  disciples,  which  was  called  an  honorary,  riui'^, 
noNORARiUM,  1  Tim.  5:  17.  They  acquired  a  subsistence  in  the 
main  by  the  exercise  of  some  art  or  handicral't.  That  they  took 
a  higher  scat  than  their  auditors,  although  it  was  probably  the 
case,  does  not  follow,  as  is  sometimes  supposed,  from  Luke  2:  46. 
According  to  the  Talmudists,  they  were  bound  to  hold  no  conversa- 
tion with  women,  and  to  refuse  to  sit  at  table  with  the  lower  class 
of  people,  John  4:  27.  Matt.  9:  11.  The  subjects  on  which  they 
taught  were  numerous,  commonly  intricate,  and  of  no  great  conse- 
quence ;  of  which  there  are  abundant  examples  in  the  Talmud. 


118  §   lOG.    ACADEMICAL    DICGRKK. 

Note. — A  sort  of  ucademic-il  degree  was  conforred  on  tlie  pupils 
in  the  Jewisli  seminaries,  wliieli,  alter  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem, 
were  established  at  Babylon  and  Tiberias.  The  circumstances,  at- 
tending the  conferring  of  this  degree,  are  described  by  Maimonides, 
Jad  chazaka,  Lib.  VI.  4,  as  follows : 

I.  The  candidate  for  the  degree  was  examined,  both  in  resjiect  to 
his  moral  character  and  his  literary  acquisitions. 

II.  Having  undergone  this  examination  with  approbation,  the  dis- 
ciple then  ascended  an  elevated  seat,  INIatt.  23:  2. 

III.  A  writing-tablet  was  presented  to  him,  to  signify  that  he 
should  write  down  his  acquisitions,  since  they  might  escape  from  his 
memory,  and,  without  being  written  down,  be  lost. 

IV.  A  key  was  presented,  to  signify  that  he  might  now  open  to 
others  the  treasures  of  knowledge,  Luke  11:  52. 

V.  Hands  were  laid  upon  him ;  a  custom  derived  A-om  Num.  27: 
18. 

VI.  A  certain  power,  or  authority,  was  conferred  upon  him,  prob- 
ably to  be  exercised  over  his  own  disciples. 

VII.  Finally,  he  was  saluted,  in  the  school  of  Tiberias,  with  the 
title  of  Rabbi,  n^! ;   in  the  school  of  Babylon,  with  tha*^^  of  Master, 


119 


CHAPTER  ^'IL 

OF    COMMERCE. 

§  107.  Antiquity  ur  Cummkrck. 

MERCn.vxDiZE,  in  iis  various  branclic?,  was  carritd  on  in  the 
East,  at  the  earliest  period  of  wliich  we  liave  any  account ;  and  it 
was  not  long  before  the  traffic  between  nations,  both  by  sea  and 
land,  was  very  considerable.  Accordingly  frequent  mention  is 
made  of  public  roads,  fording  places,  bridges,  and  beasts  of  bur- 
den ;  also  of  ships  for  the  transportation  of  property,  of  weights. 
measures,  and  coin,  both  in  the  oldest  parts  of  the  Bible,  and  in 
the  most  ancient  profane  histories.  Gen.  10:  4 — 5.  12:  5.  23:  16. 
37:  25,  26.  42:  1—5.  Judg.  5:  17.  Exod.  20:  23.  25:  4.  Deut.  3:  14. 
19:  3.  Josh.  13:  2.  12:  5.  13:  13.  1  Sam.  27:  8—10.  2  Sam.  3:  3. 
13:  37.  15:  8. 

§  108.  COMMEKpE  OF  THE  PhENICIAXS,  ARABIANS,  AND  EGYPTIANS. 

Tlie  Phenicians  anciently  held  the  first  rank,  as  a  commercial 
nation.  They  were  in  the  habit,  either  themselves  in  person  or 
by  their  agents,  of  purchasing  goods  of  various  kinds  throughout 
all  the  East.  They  then  carried  them  in  ships  on  the  ]Mediterra- 
nean,  as  far  as  the  shores  of  Africa  and  Europe,  brought  back  in 
return  merchandize  and  silver,  and  disposed  of  these  again  in  tlie 
more  Eastern  countries.  The  first  metropolis  of  the  Phenicians 
was  Sidon  ;  afterwards  Tyre  became  the  principal  city.  Tyre  was 
built  two  hundred  and  forty  years  before  the  temple  of  Solomon,  or 
twelve  hundred  and  fifty-one  before  Christ.  The  Phenicians  had 
ports  of  their  own  in  almost  every  country,  the  most  distinguished 
of  which  were  Carthage,  and  Tarshish  or  Tartessus  in  Spain.  The 
ships  from  the  latter  place  undertook  very  distant  voyages  ;  hence 
any  vessels,  that  performed  distant  voyages,  were  called  ships  of  Tar- 
shish, -•^i-n  r":x.     Something  is  said  of  the  commerce  of  the  Plie- 


120  §  109.    MKUCANTILi:    KOLTES. 

nicians  in  the  27lh  and  28th  chapters  of  Ezekiel,  and  the  "20d  chaj> 
ter  of  Isaiah. 

The  inhabitants  of  Arabia  Felix  carried  on  a  commerce  with 
India.  They  carried  some  of  the  articles,  which  they  brought  from 
India,  through  the  straits  of  Babelmandeb  into  Abyssinia  and  Kgypt ; 
some  tlicy  transported  to  Dabylon  through  the  Per,<ian  Gulf  and  tlie 
Euphrates;  and  some  by  the  way  of  the  Ked  Sea  to  the  port  of 
Eziongeber.  They  thus  became  rich,  though  it  is  possible,  their 
wealth  may  have  been  too  mucli  magnified  by  the  ancients.  Tiie 
eminence  of  the  Egyptians,  as  a  commercial  nation,  commences  with 
the  reign  of  Necho  and  his  successor  Psammeticus.  Their  com- 
merce, nevertheless,  was  not  great,  till  Alexander  had  destroyed 
Tyre  and  built  Alexandria. 

§  109.  Mercantile  Routes. 

The  Phenicians  sometimes  received  the  goods  of  India  by  way 
of  the  Persian  Gulf,  where  they  had  colonies  in  the  islands  of 
Dedan,  Arad,  and  Tyre.  Sometimes  they  received  them  from  the 
Arabians,  who  eitlier  brought  them  by  land  through  Arabia  or  up 
the  Red  Sea  to  Eziongeber.  In  the  latter  case,  having  landed 
them  at  the  port  mentioned,  they  transported  them  through  the 
country  by  the  way  of  Gaza  to  Phenicia.  The  Phenicians  increased 
the  amount  of  their  foreign  goods  by  the  addition  of  those  which 
they  themselves  fabricated,  and  were  thus  enabled  to  supply  all 
parts  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  Egyptians  formerly  received 
their  goods  from  the  Phenicians,  Arabians,  Africans,  and  Abyssi- 
nians ;  in  all  of  which  countries,  there  are  still  the  remains  of  large 
trading  towns.  But  in  a  subsequent  age,  they  imported  goods  from 
India  in  their  own  vessels,  and  eventually  carried  on  an  export 
trade  with  various  ports  on  the  Mediterranean.  Oriental  commerce, 
however,  was  chiefly  carried  on  by  land.  Accordingly  vessels  are 
hardly  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  except  in  Ps.  107:  23 — 30,  and  in 
passages,  where  the  discourse  turns  upon  the  Phenicians,  or  upon 
the  naval  affaii-s  of  Solomon  and  Jehoshaphat.  The  two  principal 
routes  from  Palestine  into  Egyi)t,  were  the  one  along  the  shores  of 
the  Mediterranean  from  Gaza  to  Pelusium,  and  the  other  from 
Gaza  by  the  way  of  mount  Sinai  and  the  Elanitic  branch  of  the 
Red  Sea. 


§  110.    METHOD    OF    CARRYING    GOODS    BY    LAND.  121 


§  110.  Method  of  carrying  goods  by  land. 

Chariots  were  anciently  in  use  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  East. 
The  merchants,  notwithstanding,  transported  their  goods  upon  cam- 
els ;  animals,  which  are  patient  of  thirst,  and  are  easily  supported  in 
the  deserts.  For  the  common  purj>ose  of  security  against  depreda- 
tions, the  oriental  merchants  travelled  in  company,  as  is  common  in 
the  East  at  the  present  day.  A  large  travelling  company  of  this 
kind  was  called  a  caravan  or  carvan,  r!~x ,  nn";^ .  A  smaller  one 
was  called  lajile  or  hrjie,  ri:-bn,  Greek  Gvvo8ia,  Job  G:  18 — 20. 
Gen.  07:  2,"5.  L<a.  21:  13.  Jer!  9:  2.  Judg.  5:  6.  Luke  2:  44.  The 
furniture  carried  by  the  individuals  of  a  caravan  consisted  of  a  mat- 
tress, a  coverlet,  a  carpet  for  sitting  upon,  a  round  piece  of  leather, 
which  answered  the  purpose  of  a  table,  a  feAV  pots  and  kettles  of  cop- 
per covered  with  tin,  also  a  tin-plated  cup,  which  Avas  suspended  be- 
fore the  breast  under  the  outer  garment,  and  was  used  for  drinking, 
1  Sam.  2G:  11,  12,  10  ;  leathern  bags  for  holding  water,  tents,  lights, 
and  provisions  in  quality  and  abundance,  as  each  one  could  affbi'd. 
Ezek.  12:  3.  Every  caravan  had  a  leader  to  conduct  it  through  the 
desert,  who  was  acquainted  with  the  direction  of  its  route,  and  with 
the  cisterns  and  fountains.  These  he  was  able  to  ascertain,  some- 
times from  heaps  of  stones,  sometimes  by  the  character  cjf  the  soil, 
and  when  other  helps  failed  him,  by  the  stars,  Num.  10:  20 — 32. 
Jer.  31:  21.  Isa.  21:  14.  AVhen  all  things  are  in  readiness,  the  indi- 
viduals, who  compose  the  caravan,  assemble  at  a  distance  i'rom  the 
city.  The  commander  of  the  caravan,  who  is  a  different  person  from 
the  conductor  or  leader,  and  is  chosen  from  the  wealthiest  of  its  mem- 
bers, appoints  the  day  of  their  departure.  A  similar  arrangement 
was  adopted  among  the  Jews  whenever  they  travelled  in  large  num- 
bers to  the  city  of  Jerusalem.  The  cai'avans  start  very  early,  some- 
times before  day.  They  endeavor  to  find  a  stopping  {dace  or 
station  to  remain  at  during  the  night,  which  shall  afiord  tliem  a 
supply  of  water.  Job  G:  15 — 20.  They  arrive  at  their  stojiping 
place  beibre  the  close  of  the  day,  and  while  it  is  yet  light,  prepare 
every  thing,  that  is  necessary  for  the  recommencement  of  their 
journey.  In  order  to  prevent  any  one  from  wandering  away  Irom 
the  cavavan  and  getting  lost  during  the  night,  lamps  or  torch- 
es are  elevated  upon  poles    and    carried    before  it.     The  pillar  of 

11 


122  §  111-  coMMKKCi:  OF  Tiir:  iikijukv.'s. 

lire  answered  this  purpose  iur  the  Israelites,  uheii  wandering  in 
the  wilderness.  Sometimes  the  caravans  lodge  in  cities;  but 
when  they  do  not,  they  pitch  their  tents  so  as  to  form  an  encamp- 
ment, and,  daring  the  night  keep  watch  alternately  for  the  sake  of 
security.  In  the  cities  there  are  public  inns  called  khunes  and 
caravansaries,  in  which  the  caravans  are  lodged  without  expense. 
Thev  are  large,  square  buildings,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  an 
area  or  open  court.  Caravansaries  are  denominated  in  the  Greek 
of  the  New  Testament  Tzccrdoyuov,  y.aTuXvaii',  and  y.uruXvua, 
Luke  2:  7.  10:  34.  The  first  mention  of  one  in  the  Old  Testament 
is  in  Jer.  41:  17,  cn":3  ma.  It  was  situated  near  the  city  of  Beth- 
lehem. 


§  111.  Commerce  of  the  Hebreavs. 

Moses  enacted  no  laws  in  faAor  of  commerce,  although  there 
is  no  question,  that  he  saw  the  situation  of  Palestine  to  be  very 
favorable  for  it.  The  reason  of  this  Avas  that  the  IlebreAvs  Avho 
Avere  designedly  set  apart  to  preserve  the  true  religion,  could  not 
mingle  Avith  foreign  idolatrous  nations  Avithout  injury.  He,  there- 
fore, merely  inculcated  good  faith  and  honesty  in  buying  and  sell- 
ing, Lev.  19:  36,  37.  Deut.  25:  13—16;  and  left  all  the  other  in- 
terests of  commei-ce  to  a  future  age.  By  the  establishment,  how- 
ever, of  the  three  great  festivals,  he  gave  occasion  for  some  mer- 
cantile intercourse.  At  these  festivals  all  the  adult  males  of  the 
nation  Avere  yearly  assembled  at  one  place.  The  consequence 
Avas,  that  those,  Avho  had  anything  to  sell,  brought  it ;  Avhile  those, 
Avho  Avished  to  buy  articles,  came  Avith  the  expectation  of  having 
an  opportunity.  As  Moses,  though  he  did  not  encourage,  did 
not  interdict  foreign  commerce  ;  Solomon,  at  a  later  period,  not  only 
carried  on  a  trallic  in  horses,  as  already  stated,  but  sent  ships  from 
the  port  of  Eziongeber  through  the  Bed  Sea  to  Ophir,  (probably 
the  coast  of  Africa,)  and  also  had  commercial  intercourse  even  with 
Spain,  1  Kings  9:  26.  2  Chron.  9:  21.  This  traffic,  although  a  source 
of  emolument,  appears  to  have  been  neglected  after  the  death  of  Sol- 
omon. The  attempt  made  by  Jehoshaphat  to  restore  it,  Avas  frus- 
trated by  his  ships  being  dashed  upon  the  rocks  and  destroyed,  1 
Kings  22:  48,  49.  2  Chron.  20:  30.  Joppa,  though  not  a  very  conve- 
nient one,  Avas  properly  the  port  of  Jerusalem  ;  and  some  of  the  large 


§  113.    MEASURES    OF    LENGTH.  123 

vessels,  which  went  to  Spain,  sailed  from  it,  Jonah  1:  3.  In  the  a."e 
of  Ezekiel,  the  commerce  of  Jerusalem  was  so  great,  that  it  gave  oc- 
casion of  envj  even  to  the  Tyrians  tliemselves,  Ezek.  2G:  2.  After 
Ihe  captivity,  a  great  number  of  Jews  became  merchants,  and  trav- 
elled ibr  the  purpose  of  traffic  into  all  countries.  About  the  year 
150  13.  C,  prince  Simon  rendered  the  port  of  Joppa  more  conve- 
nient than  it  had  hitherto  been.  In  the  time  of  Pompey  the  Great, 
there  were  so  many  Jews  abroad  on  the  ocean,  even  in  the  char- 
acter of  pirates,  that  king  Antigonus  was  accused  before  him  of  hav- 
ing sent  them  out  on  purpose.  A  new  port  was  built  by  Herod  at 
Cesarea. 


§  112.  "Weights  and  Measures. 

Commerce  could  not  be  carried  on  without  coin,  nor  without  a 
system  of  weights  and  measures.  Weights  and  measures  were  regu- 
lated at  a  very  early  period  in  Asia.  Eegulations  in  regard  to  them, 
as  far  as  concerned  the  Hebrews,  were  made  by  Moses ;  and  mea- 
sures and  weights  to  serve  as  models,  both  for  form  and  contents, 
were  deposited  in  the  tabernacle.  AJl  the  duties  in  regard  to  this 
subject  devolved,  among  the  Jews  as  well  as  among  the  Egyptians, 
upon  the  priests.  After  the  time  of  Solomon  the  models  for  weights, 
etc.  were  deposited  in  the  temple ;  consequently,  when  the  temple 
was  destroyed,  they  perished  with  it.  The  Hebrews,  while  in  cap- 
tivity, used,  as  might  be  expected,  the  weights  and  measures  of  their 
masters.  The  prophet  Ezekiel  is  a  proof  of  this,  who  speaks  of  cu- 
bits and  weights,  evidently  the  same  with  those  in  use  after  the  cap- 
tivity. The  weights  and  measures  of  the  Jews  therefore  are  to 
be  distinguished  into  those  before  and  those  ofier  the  captivity. 
Wli<_'never  they  are  mentioned  by  the  Alexandrine  tra7islators,  or  by 
Josephiis,  they  belong  to  the  latter  period.  The  amount  and  extent 
of  weights  and  measures  before  the  captivity  cannot  be  accurately 
determined. 

§  113.  Measures  of  Length. 

Almost  all  nations  have  taken  their  measures  of  length  from  the 
parts  of  the  human  body,  and  what  their  extent  was  among  the  Jews 
before  the  captivity  can  be  learnt  only  by  a  reference  to  those  parts. 


124  §   113.    MKASUUKS    OV    I.KNOTII. 

I.  :''S:!X,  a  Jiinjcr  or  dlijit.  Its  li'ii^Mli  ^vas  uliout  llic  breadth 
of  a  linger.  [Aecording  to  llie  tubles  nitpeiidecl  to  the  tliird  volume 
of  Iloriic's  lutrodiietion  to  tlie  Scriptures,  wliicli  are  taken  cliiefly 
from  Dr.  Arbutlmot,  the  Jewish  digit  is  0.912tli  of  aii  English 
inch.] 

II.  ns- ,  TiSt; ,  a  pdhn  or  four  digits,  otherwise  called  a  /uind- 
breadth,  1  Kings  7:  2G.  com]).  2  Cliron.  1:  .k  Jer.  32:  21. 

III.  r'^T ,  a  sjicui,  viz.  from  the  end  of  the  thumb  to  the  end  of  the 
little  finger,  or  three  i)ahns,  Exod.  28:  IG.  39:  9.  1  Sam.  17:  4. 

IV.  nSN,  a  cubit.  It  extended  from  the  elbow  to  the  wrist, 
Ezek.  41:  8,  or  four  palms,  about  the  sixth  })art  of  the  height  of  the 
human  body,  Deut.  3:  11.  1  Sum.  17:  4.  Ezekiel  (chap.  40:  a. -43: 
13)  mentions  a  cubit  of  five  palms,  i.  e.  the  extent  from  the  elbow  to 
the  knuckles.  This  appears  to  have  been  the  Babylonian  or  new  cu- 
bit, of  Avhich  mention  is  made  in  2  Chron.  3:  3,  comp.  Ilerodot.  I. 
178,  and  Solinus  5G,  2. 

V.  t::;.,  a  measure  which  was  probably  the  length  of  a  man's  arm, 
Judg.  3:  16. 

VL  'nip ,  a  measuring  reed,  of  six  cubits,  or  the  length  of  the  hu- 
man body.  ILzekiel  (chap.  40:  5)  mentions  a  Babylonian  reed  of  a 
little  more  than  six  cubits  in  length. 

VII.  NO'^'n ,  a  Chaldaic  word,  Greek  orudiov,  a  stadiuw,  or  fur- 
long. It  was  a  Greek  measure  adopted  by  the  Jews,  and  was  one 
hundred  and  twenty-five  geometrical  paces  in  extent,  or  the  six 
hundredth  part  of  a  degree,  making  one  hundred  and  forty-five 
English  paces,  four  feet,  and  six  tenths,  John  6:  19.  11:  L'^.  Rev. 
14:  20.  21:  IG.  The  Uggptian  furlong  was  sixty-seven  fathoms  and 
two  feet. 

VIII.  "Odog  aa^^uTOv,  a  sabbath  day's  journey,  viz.  seven  hun- 
dred and  twenty-nine  English  paces  and  three  feet,  Acts  1:12.  This 
measure  is  a  sort  of  Jewish  invention  founded  on  Exod.  IG:  29. 

IX.  Mihor,  a  Roman  mile,  being  eight  furlongs,  or  a  thousand 
geometrical  paces,  Matt.  5:  41. 

X.  yiijfi  i^'!'??5  "  ^^if'^'^  ■''''''y»  Gen.  35:  IG.  2  Kings  5:  19;  accord- 
ing to  the  Septuagint  a  horse's  race,  hTT/x^QOnog,  i.  e.  as  the  Arabians 
inform  us,  a  pa7-asang,  by  which  word  the  phrase  is  translated  in  the 
Peshito.     It  was  about  four  English  miles. 

XI.  t:i*n   TC."^.,   «    day's  jourt^cy.      It  is  sometimes   greater  and 


§  114.   HOLLOW   Mr.ASURICS.  12o 

sometimes  Ictfs,  viirying  from  twenty  to  thirty  miles,  see  Ilerodot. 
V.  53. 


§  114.   HoLLOAV  Measures. 

L  y^p,  a  handful,  a  measure  not  accurately  defined,  Lev.  2:  2. 
o:  12. 

II.  •"•::.■,  an  omer,  used,  as  appears  from  Exod.  IG:  10,  18,  22,  32, 
33,  3G,  in  the  measurement  of  dry  articles.  It  contained  the  portion, 
which  was  assigned  to  each  individual  for  his  daily  food.  It  corres- 
jionded  to  the  yoini  (the  choenix)  of  the  Greeks,  and  held  five  pints 
and  one  tenth  English  corn  measure;  [see  Home's  In  trod,  to  the 
Scriptures,  Vol.  III.  App.  no.  II.] 

III.  riE'X,  nsx,  an  ephah,  the  Egyptian  olql,  a  measure  for  dry 
articles.  It  contained,  as  we  learn  from  Exod.  10:  30,  ten  omers. 
The  genuineness  of  that  passage  is,  indeed,  somewhat  doubtful ;  but 
at  any  rate  it  is  very  ancient,  since  it  is  found  in  all  the  ancient  ver- 
sions, even  the  Samaritan  itself.  It  held  three  pecks  and  three  pints. 
The  hath,  a  measure  for  liquids,  was  of  the  same  size.  Josephus, 
however,  (Antiq.  VIII.  2.  §  9.)  makes  a  hath  equal  to  seventy-two 
itarai,  an  Attic  measure  holding  a  pint.  If  this  be  true,  it  was  the 
same  in  capacity  Avith  the  /if rn/^r/^'s,  a  JirJcin,  which  was  an  Attic 
measure,  commonly  represented  equal  to  seventy-two  ttGTui,  or  nine 
English  gallons,  John  2:  G. 

IV.  nsp,  a  seah.  It  appears  to  be  merely  the  Hebrew  name 
of  that  measure,  which  was  called,  by  a  word  of  Egyptian  origin, 
ephah,  comp.  Gen.  18:  0  with  Judg.  0:  19.  2  Kings  7:  10,  18  and  1 
Sam.  25:  18.  It  is  thought  by  some  to  be  the  third  part  of  an  ephah. 
This  measure  occurs  in  the  new  Testament,  under  the  word 
auTOv,  derived  from  the  Hebrew  C^rNp .  Josephus  (Antiq.  IX.  2.) 
remarks  in  regard  to  this  measure,  that  it  contained  fioSiov  y.ai 
r'jiaov  Jrahy.ov,  an  Italian  hushel  and  a  half,  i.  e.  a  peck  and  a  half 
English- 

V.  "'ch ,  a  homer,  used  both  for  liquids  and  dry  articles ;  also  call- 
ed "z ,  a  hor.  It  held  ten  ephahs ;  consequently  the  lethch,  r^h , 
which  was  half  its  size,  held  five  ephahs. 

VI.  ip.ahah.  It  appears  to  have  been  used  for  dry  articles 
merely,  2  Kings  0:  25.  From  the  passage  in  Kings,  it  is  clear,  that 
it  was  a  measure  of  small  dimensions. 

11* 


120  §  lli5.    AVi:iGIITS    AND    MONEY. 

A'll.  '|-r!,  a  Idn,  used  for  liquids.  A  third,  lialf,  and  fourth 
part  of  a  hin  are  mentioned.  It  is  supposed  to  be  the  sixth  part 
of  a  bath,  ■which  agrees  sufficiently  well  with  those  places,  where  it 
occurs. 

VIII.  i'5 ,  a  log,  the  twelfth  part  of  a  hin. 

IX.  nn;i3 ,  a  purah.  The  connection  in  Isa.  G3:  2,  requires  this 
word  to  be  rendered  wine-vat;  but  in  Hag.  2: 11,  it  appears  to  be  the 
name  of  an  unknown  Persian  measure. 

X.  St'ait;^',  the  Roman  sextarius,  containing  the  forty-eighth  part 
of  an  amphora. 

XL  Modioi;,  the  Roman  busliel,  used  for  dry  articles,  containing 
a  peck  in  English  measure. 

XII.  M£7Q)ji]<;,  a  Greek  measure,  a  third  part  larger  than  the 
Roman  amphora,  being  a  Roman  foot  and  a  half  in  length,  breadth 
and  heicht. 


§  115.  "Weights  and  Money. 

In  oriental  countries,  as  far  back  as  the  time  of  Abraham,  the 
value  of  goods  was  estimated  at  a  certain  quantity  of  silver,  the  purity 
of  which  was  taken  into  account  by  the  merchant,  Gen.  23:  16.  But 
there  is  no  trace  of  stamped  silver,  or  coin,  previous  to  the  captivity. 
Nor  indeed  was  it  at  that  early  period  divided  into  pieces  of  a  certain 
size.  It  was  commonly  weighed  out  in  balances,  f^ITN^,  &^S, 
though  its  weight  was  sometimes  ascertained  by  means  of  an  in- 
strument for  weighing,  answering  to  the  modern  steel-yards.  Mer- 
chants were  accordingly  in  the  habit  of  carrying  about  with 
themselves  balances  and  weights  in  a  sort  of  pouch  or  bag.  The 
weights  Avere  stones ;  hence  they  are  called  C-:rx ,  '^x ,  words  which 
commonly  mean  stones,  Lev.  19:  36.  Dent.  25:  13 — 18.  Pro  v.  11:  1. 
16:  11.  Mic.  6:  11.  Persons  who  were  disposed  to  be  fraudulent, 
sometimes  carried  two  sets  of  weights,  a  heavier  and  a  lighter  set, 
'rx*  "X ,  using  sometimes  the  one  and  sometimes  the  other,  as  best 
suited  their  interest. 

Gold,  even  so  late  as  the  time  of  David,  was  not  used  as  a 
standard  of  value,  but  was  considered  merely  as  a  very  precious 
article  of  commerce,  and  was  weighed  like  other  articles.  The 
oldest  weight  that  is  mentioned,  is  denominated  in  Hebrew 
n::"rp.     The  same  word    is   applied  also  to  a  piece   of  silver  or 


§   IIG.    WKIG1IT5    AND    .MONEY.  127 

gold,  but  the  amount  or  quantity  designated  by  it,  is  in  both  cases  un- 
known, Gen.  33:  19.  Josh.  24:  32.  Job  42:  11.  In  the  time  of  Mo- 
ses, the  weight  most  in  use  \vas  the  shekel,  b;?r ,  its  half,  5)^2 ,  and 
its  twentieth  part,  IT^J.  An  hundred  shekels  made  a  mina,  n:^, 
lam,  2  Chron.  9:  IC.  comp.  1  Kings  10:  17,  and  thirty  minae  or 
three  thousand  shekels  made  a  talent  "33,  Exod.  38:  2^,  2G.  The 
Greek  talent  varied  in  different  countries ;  the  Athenian  was  esti- 
mated at  six  thousand  drachms. 


§  116.    Weights  and  Monet  before  the  Captivity, 

The  Jewish  Rabbins,  in  their  statements  in  regard  to  weights, 
estimate  them,  like  the  modern  Persians,  according  to  the  num- 
ber of  grains  of  barley,  to  which  they  are  equivalent.  That  is  to 
say,  they  make  a  grain  of  barley  the  smallest  weight.  This  is 
the  method  of  the  Rabbins.  The  ancient  Hebrews  undoubtedly, 
as  well  as  certain  nations  of  profane  antiquity,  selected  a  seed  of 
pulse,  (siliqua,)  as  the  representative  of  the  smallest  weight,  with 
which  they  were  acquainted.  The  Hebrew  name  for  this  weight 
is  rt~3.  Fannius,  a  contemporary  with  Augustus,  says  that  six 
such  seeds  made  a  scruple,  and  three  scruples  a  drachm.  Hence, 
a  drachm  contained  eighteen  sillquae,  or  Hebrew  gerahs,  wliich  Ei- 
senschmid,  in  his  treatise  on  weights  and  measures,  p.  23,  finds 
equal  to  eighty  seven  or  eight  Parisian  grains.  Consequently 
twenty  of  them,  which  are  equivalent  to  a  shekel,  would  be  equal 
to  ninety  six  or  seven  Parisian  grains,  or  about  ten  pennyweights, 
English  valuation. 

Beside  the  common  legal  or  sacred  shekel,  there  was  another 
in  the  time  of  the  kings,  called  "  the  king's  shekel."  The  hair  of 
Absalom  was  weighed  with  this  sort  of  shekel,  and  amounted  to  two 
hundred  of  them.  The  heaviest  head  of  hair,  that  has  been  found  in 
P^ngland,  weighed  five  ounces.  Absalom's  we  may  well  suppose, 
could  not  liave  weighed  more  than  ten.  This  supjiosition  would  lead 
us  to  the  conclusion,  that  the  rotjul  did  not  amount  to  more  than  the 
fourth,  perhaps  not  to  more  than  the  fiftli  or  sixth  part  of  tlie  legal 
shekel. 

Gold  was  dealt  out  by  the  weights,  which  have  been  mention- 
ed, but  its  value,  for  instance  the  value  of  a  gerah  or  shekel  of 
gold,  cannot    be    accurately    estimated,    because    we    do    not   know 


128  §  11".    AVKlGinS   AND    :\io.NKy. 

precisclv  uliat  its  wurtli  ^v;L^,  wlien  f<)inj>;u('<l  witli  that  of  silver. 
The  slickel  used  in  weighing  goUl  was  tlie  royal  one.  The  dilHculty 
of  ascertaining  the  true  worth  of  any  (luanlity  of  gold  mentioned  in 
the  Scriptures  is  increased  by  the  circumstance,  that  the  gold  itself 
possessed  different  degrees  of  purity;  in  some  instances  it  was  adul- 
terated, and  in  other  instances  more  fine  than  usual. 

§  117.  "Weights  and  Money  afteu  the  Cai'tivity. 

During  the  captivity  of  the  Jews  and  after  their  return  from  it, 
thev  made  use  of  the  weights  and  the  coin  of  other  nations.  Eze- 
kiel,  accordingly,  (chap.  45:  12)  mentions  foreign  manehs  of  differ- 
ent weight,  viz.  of  fifteen,  of  twenty,  and  of  twenty-five  shekels 
The  coin,  which  the  Jews  used  at  this  period,  was  the  Persian,  Gre 
cian,  and  Roman.  It  was  not  till  the  time  of  the  Maccabean  prin- 
ces, that  they  had  a  mint  of  their  own,  and  coined  gold  and  silver 
for  themselves.  The  most  ancient  coin  of  which  we  have  an}- 
knowledge,  is  the  Persian  gold  coin,  called  the  daric,  8an!iiy.6i, 
V'.^r-T,  V-.r^.^N,  1  Chron.  29:  2.  Ezra  2:  G9.  8:  27.  Neh.  7:  70,  72 
The  name  does  not  take   its  origin  from  Darius  the  king,  but  from 

the  Persian  word  IJo  or  *^MJ>  a  king ;  a  word  which  was  ap- 
plied to  the  coin  in  question  in  order  to  signify,  that  it  was  stamped 
by  the  royal  authority,  and  to  distinguish  it  from  any  coin,  that 
might  be  stamped  and  put  in  circulation  by  private  merchants. 
The  impression  on  this  coin  exhibits  on  one  side  of  it  the  repre- 
sentation of  a  king;  on  the  reverse  an  archer,  holding  in  his  left 
hand  a  bow  and  in  his  right  hand  an  arrow,  and  having  upon  his 
head  an  acuminated  tiara.  Suidas,  the  scholiast  of  Aristophanes, 
E'AY.lrig,  V.  598,  and  Harpocration  represent  the  daric  as  equal 
in  weight  to  twenty  drachms.  ["  According  to  Dr.  Bernard,  the 
daric  weighed  two  grains  more  than  the  English  guinea ;  but  as 
it  was  very  fine  and  contained  little  alloy,  it  may  be  reckoned 
worth  about  twenty-five  shillings  English  money." — Eees'  Cyclop. 
Art.  Daric. 

A  coin,  very  much  in  circulation  among  the  Greeks,,  was  the 
stater,  czaT/jn,  Matt.  17:  26,  equal  in  weight  to  the  shekel  of  the 
Hebrews.  It  was  otherwise  called  tetradrachmon,  TezQaSouxiiOV, 
because  it  weighed  four  drachms;  it  amounted  to  two  shilHngs, 
seven  pence  English.     This  coin  exhibits  on  one  side  the  head  of 


§   117.    WKIGHTS    AND    .MONEY.  129 

I^liiu'iva,  :\ik1  on  the  reveiv-^e  an  owl  logctlier  with  a  short  inscription. 
It  ajtpcais,  thertfbiT,  from  the  above,  that  a  drachma,  di)uyjtt'i,  was 
the  t'uiirth  [)art  of  the  stater.  It  was,  liowever,  of  different  value  in 
different  places ;  t/ie  Alexandrian,  for  instance,  being  of  double  the 
amount  of  the  Grecian.  The  drachma,  although  it  was  in  real  value 
about  a  seventh  part  more,  was  nevertheless  considered,  in  common 
mercantile  exchange,  as  equal  to  the  Roman  denarius,  i.  e.  seven 
pence  two  farthings  English.  Tlie  coin  exhibited  on  one  side  the 
Roman  goddess  of  victory,  and  on  tiie  reverse  a  chariot  drawn  by 
four  horses.  At  a  I'ecent  period  the  reverse  exhibited  the  head  of 
Cesar,  Matt.  22:  19. 

The  Jewish  prince,  Simon,  1  Mac.  15:  16,  struck  off  a  currency 
under  the  denomination  of  shekels,  which  weighed  a  stater  each, 
or  according  to  F.  ]\Iersenne's  estimate,  two  hundred  and  sixty- 
eight  grains.  The  value  of  this  shekel  in  English  money  v,-as 
two  shillings,  t])ree  pence  and  three  farthings.  When  it  was  coined 
in  gold,  its  value  was  £1.  IGs.  Gd.  Of  those  shekels  which  remain, 
tliose  only  are  considered  genuine,  which  have  inscriptions  upon 
tliem  in  the  Samaritan  character.  Some,  that  have  such  inscrip- 
tions, may  have  been  struck  off  at  comparatively  a  recent  period,  in 
imitation  of  those  that  were  really  ancient.  The  inscriptions  on 
them  are  various. 

The  Roman  as,  uaauQiov,  weighed  nine  pennyweights  and  three 
grains ;  its  value  was  three  fartliings  and  one  tenth.  It  was  a  brass 
coin,  and  anciently  exhibited  on  one  side  a  figure  of  Janus,  but  lat- 
terly the  head  of  Cesar.  The  representation  on  the  reverse  was  the 
stern  of  a  ship,  Matt.  10:  29.  Luke  12:  G.  A  quarter  part  of  an  as 
was  called  quadrans,  y.obQavr^g.  The  Greek  coin  called  Isnrop  was 
of  very  small  value,  being  the  fourth  part  of  a  quadrans.  Matt.  5:  2G. 
Mark  12:  42. 

The  weight  denominated  XiiQa  varied  in  different  countries. 
IMany  kinds  of  merchandize  were  sold  according  to  the  Utra  of  the 
particular  country,  from  which  they  were  brought.  Its  amount, 
therefore,  cannot  be  stated,  John  12:  3.  19:  39. 

NoTK. — It  ought  to  be  remarked,  that  silver  and  gold  ancient- 
ly were  more  scarce  than  at  present,  and  consequently  of  greater 
value.  Its  value  in  the  fourth  century  before  Christ  was  to  its 
value   in   England   in    the   year    1780,   as   ten    to    one.      So   that 


130  §  117.    WlilGIlTS,    MEASURES,    ETC. 

four  liuiulrcd  and  forty  grains  of  silver  would  purchase  as  much 
at  the  last  mentioned  period,  as  four  thousand  four  hundred  would 
at  the  first. 

2voTi:. — [The  translator  has  thought  it  best,  in  a  number  of  the 
last  sections,  to  substitute  the  English  modes  of  reckoning  weights 
and  measures,  etc.  instead  of  the  German  and  Parisian,  whicli  are  so 
frequently  referred  to  by  Dr.  Jahn.  This,  which  he  was  bound  to  do 
in  justice  to  the  English  reader,  will  account  for  the  peculiar  aspect, 
which  the  translation  wears  in  the  sections  mentioned,  in  comparison 
with  the  original.  The  following  tables,  which  are  not  in  the  origi- 
nal, are  taken  from  the  third  volume  of  Home's  Introduction  to  the 
Scriptures,  App.  no.  II.  We  are  there  informed,  that  they  are 
extracted  chiefly  from  Dr.  Arbuthnot's  "  Tables  of  ancient  Coins, 
Weights,  and  Measures."] 


TABLES 

OF  WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  MONEY,  MENTIONED  IN  THE  BIBLE. 

1.  Jewish  loeigJds  reduced  to  English  troy  weight. 

lbs.  oz.  pen.  gr. 

The  gcriih,  onc-twcnticth  of  a  shekel,       .        .        .        .        0  0        0  12 

The  bcka,  half  a  shekel, 0  0         5  0 

The  shekel, 0  0  10  0 

The  nianch,  GO  shekels, 2  6        0  0 

The  talent,  no  manehs,  or  3000  shekels,            .        .        .125  0        0  0 

2.  Scripture  measures  of  length  reduced  to  English  measure. 

Eng.  feet.      inch. 

\  digit 0         0.912 

4  I  A  palm, 0        3.648 

12"!      FjAspan, ^     0       ^0'944 


24  I       6  I       2  I  A  cubit, 1         9-883 


90  I    24  I      8  I    4  I  A  fathom, "         3.552 

144  I    36  I    12  I    67    1.5  |  Ezekiel's  reed,     ....         10       11.328 


192  I    48  I    16  I    8  I       2  1    1 .3  1  An  Arabian  pole,  .         .     14         7.104 


1920  I  480  I  160  I  80  I     20  |  13.3  |  10  |  Aschoenus,  or  mcas.  line,  145         11.04 


§  117.    WEIGHTS,    MEASUUES,    ETC  131 

3.   The  long  Scripture  measures. 

Eng.  miles,  paces,  feet. 

A  ciil'it,      ....  00  1.824 


400  I  A  stadium  or  furlong, 0       145      4.6 


-'0(  10  I      5  I  A  sabbath  day's  joumey,      ....        0       729      3.0 


4000  I    10  I    2  I  An  eastern  mile, 1      403      1.0 


liiOOO  I    .30  I    C|    3|Aparasang,  ....        4       153      3.0 


MWKM)  I  240  I  48  I  24  I  S  I  A  day's  journey,     .        .        .        .  33     172      4.0 


4.  Scripture  measures  of  capacity  for  liquids,  reduced  to  English 
wine  measure. 

G.'il.      pints. 
A  caph, 0       0.62.5 


1.3  I  A  log, 0       0.833 


5.3  I       4  I  A  kah, 0       8.333 

16     I  12  I      3  I  A  bin, 12 

32     I  24  I       6  I    2  I  A  scab,     • 2       4 

96     I  72]     18  I    6  \~T'\  A  batb  or  cpbab, 74 


'J  60 


I  720  I  180  I  60  I  20  I  10  I  A  kor  or  cboros,  chomer  or  bomcr,  75       5 


5.  Scripture  measures  of  capacity  for  things  dry,  reduced  to 
English  com  measure. 

A  gacbal, 

~2ir|  A  kab, 

An  omcr  or  gomcr, 0 


36         1.8 


120  I 


360  I     18 
1800  I     90 


ifiOO  I  180 


3.3  I  A  seah. 


10     I    3  I  An  cpbab,       .         .        .        , 
50     flTfT]  A  Ictek, 
100     I  .30  I  10  I  2  I  A  chomer,  homer,  or  kor,     32 


'ecks 
0 

Fil. 
0 

pint<i. 
0.1416 

0 

0 

2.8333 

0 

0 

5.1 

1 

0 

1 

3 

0 

3 

16 

0 

0 

32 

0 

1 

6.  Jewish  money  reduced  to  the  English  standard. 
A  gcnili, 


10  I  A  bckab, 
"20^        2]  A  shekel. 


1200  I    120  I      .50|Amaneh,  or  mina  Hebraica, 

60000  I  6000  I  3000  |  6o"|  A  talent. 


A  solidus  aureus,  or  scxtula,  was  worth, 

A  siculus  aureus,  or  gold  shekel,  was  worth 

A  talent  of  gold  was  worth 547 

In  the  preceding  table,  silver  is  valued  at  5s.  and  gold  at  £4.  per  oanco. 


£. 

s. 

d. 

.     0 

0 

1.2687 

0 

1 

1.6875 

0 

2 

3.375 

5 

14 

0.75 

342 

3 

9 

0 

12 

0.5 

.     I 

16 

6 

475 

0 

0 

132  §   lis.    MATKKIALS    OF    CLOTHS. 

7.    Roman   vionrt/,  incntioned  in  the  New    Testament,  reduced  to  the 
U/ifflish  standard. 


A  mite  (P.i.Tror  or  aaauntov)    . 
A  farthing  (y.odnarr >;<:•)  about 
A  penny  or  denarins  (Strumor) 
A  pound  or  mina     . 


£. 

s. 

</. 

far 

0 

0 

0 

03 

0 

0 

0 

n 

0 

0 

7 

3 

3 

2 

G 

0 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
ON    CLOTHING. 

§  118.  Mati'Pjals  of  wnicii  clothes  avekk  made. 

Our  first  parents,  in  the  first  instance,  protected  themselves 
with  the  leaves  of  the  fig-tree ;  afterwards,  with  the  skins  of  ani- 
mals. Subsequently  some  method,  as  we  may  suppose  was  dis- 
covered for  matting  together  the  liair  of  animals  and  making  a 
sort  of  felt  cloth.  Later  still  the  art  of  weaving  was  introduced, 
and  a  web  was  formed  by  combining  the  hair  of  animals  with 
threads  drawn  from  wool,  cotton,  or  flax.  At  any  rate,  the  art  of 
manufacturing  cloths  by  spinning  and  weaving  is  of  very  great  an- 
tiquity. Gen.  14:  23.  31:  18,  19.  37:  3.  38:  28.  41:  42.  45:  22.  Job 
7:  6.  31:  20.  The  Egyptians  were  very  celebrated  for  such  manu- 
factures. The  Israelites,  while  living  among  them,  learnt  the 
art,  and  even  excelled  their  teachers,  1  Chron.  4:  21.  While 
wandering  in  the  Arabian  wilderness,  they  prepared  the  materi- 
als for  covering  the  tabernacle,  and  wrought  some  of  them  with 
embroidery.  Cotton  cloth  was  esteemed  most  valuable ;  next  to 
that,  woollen  and  linen.  That  which  was  manufactured  from  the 
hair  of  animals,  was  esteemed  of  least  value.  Of  silk  there  is  no 
mention  made  at  a  very  early  period,  unless  perchance  it  be  in 
Ezekiel  (16:  10,  13,)   under  the   word  ^V^,.      This,  however,  is 


§  119.     COLORS    OF    CLOTHS.  133 

clear,  that  Alexander  found  silks  in  Persia,  and  it  is  more  than  prob- 
able, that  the  Median  dress,  which  we  find  was  adopted  by  the  Per- 
sians under  Cyrus,  was  silk.  Silk  was  not  introduced  among  the  na- 
tions of  Europe,  till  a  late  period. 


§119.  Colors  of  Cloths. 

W/iiie  was  esteemed  the  most  appropriate  color  for  cotton 
cloth,  and  purple  for  the  others.  On  festival  days  the  rich  and 
powerful  robed  themselves  in  white  cotton,  which  was  considered 
the  most  splendid  dress.  It  was  denominated  in  the  earlier  He- 
brew by  the  synonymous  words  t'q  and  12,  and  after  the  cap- 
tivity by  another  synonyme,  viz. -j-iia ,  the  Greek  ^vaaog.  The  ful- 
lers, even's ,  had  discovered  the  art,  a  singular  one,  it  is  true,  of 
communicating  a  very  splendid  white  to  cloth  by  the  aid  of  alkali 
and  urine.  Hence,  lest  their  shops  should  communicate  a  fetid- 
ness to  the  atmosphere,  where  it  might  be  of  injury,  they  lived 
out  of  the  city,  Isa.  7:  3.  Cotton  cloth  colored  purple  was  de- 
nominated in  Hebrew  "j^s-i^?  and  n^pl,  and  in  Chaldaic  i;a"is. 
It  was  colored  by  the  blood  taken  from  a  vein  in  the  throat  of  a 
certain  shell-fish.  The  color  was  very  highly  esteemed,  seemed 
to  be  a  medium  hue  between  brown  and  pure  red,  and  was  very 
bright ;  it  was  essentially  the  same  with  the  celebrated  Tynan  pur- 
ple. Kings  and  princes  were  clothed  with  this  purple,  Luke  IG:  19. 
Rev.  18:  12. 

The  scarlet  color  so  called,  first  mentioned  in  Gen.  38:  28, 
and  occurring  frequently  afterwards,  was  very  much  admired.  It 
was  a  difierent  color  from  the  shell-fish  purple,  and  was  extracted 
from  the  insects  or  their  eggs,  found  on  a  species  of  oak;  and 
thence  in  Hebrew  it  is  called  rVin ,  which  means  a  worm  or  in- 
sect. The  cotton  cloth  was  dipped  into  this  color  twice ;  hence 
the  application  of  the  Hebrew  words  ij'j  and  ^r::  r.ri-n,  ticicc- 
chjed.       This   color   is   sometimes   called   \>'^'^^,    2    Chron.    2:    14. 

3:  14,  from  the  Persian  word  (jLe»_^,  wliich  is  the  origin  of  the 
French  word  carmoisin. 

The  hyacinth  or  dark  Hue  color  rsrn,  was  extracted  from  the 
cuttle-fish,  wliich  bears  in  Hebrew  the  same  name  with  the  color 
itself,  and  was  higldy  esteemed,  especially  among  the  Assyrians, 
Ezek.  23:  G. 

12 


134  §  120.  Tin:  TUNIC. 

Black  color  was  iisnl  for  comiuon  -wear,  and  particular]}'  on  occa- 
sions of  mourning. 

Parly-colored  clolhs,  C'^SQ  r.:h3 ,  were  higlily  esteemed,  Gen.  37:  3, 
23.  2  Sam.  13:  18.  '    \ 

As  far  back  as  the  time  of  ]Moses  we  find,  tliat  cloths  were  c/n- 
hroidered,  sometimes  with  the  colored  threads  of  cotton  and  linen, 
and  sometimes  with  threads  of  gold.  When  the  work  was  embroi- 
dered on  both  sides,  the  Hebrew  word  for  fabrics  of  that  kind  appears 
in  the  dual  form,  viz.  t-^rrpn.  Some  of  the  passages  in  relation  to 
embroiderers  and  embroidery  are  as  follows,  Exod.  25:  3G.  35:  35. 
Judg.  5:  30.  Ps.  45:  9.  Ezek.  IG:  10. 

What  the  nature  of  that  garment  was,  which  is  interdicted  to 
the  Hebrews  in  Lev.  19:  19,  and  Dcut.  22:  11,  is  uncertain.  It  is 
said  to  be  a  mixed  garment  of  wool  and  linen,  but  that  does  not 
decide  the  point.  Josephus  says,  an  opinion  p^revailed  in  his  time, 
that  the  garments  in  question  were  embroidered  ones,  which  be- 
longed to  the  priests,  but  the  fact  is,  the  law  was  universal,  and  in- 
terdicted them  to  the  priests,  as  well  as  to  all  others.  Perhaps  the 
warp  was  made  of  wool  and  the  woof  of  linen,  a  common  mode  of 
manufacturing  in  the  East  even  to  this  day,  according  to  the  testi- 
mony of  Aryda.  The  garments  may  have  been  interdicted  to  the 
Hebrews  on  account  of  their  being  so  common  a  dress  among  the 
heathen. 

§  120.  The  Tunic. 

This  was  the  most  simple,  and,  as  we  may  conjecture  from 
that  circumstance,  the  most  ancient  garment.  It  is  a  common  ar- 
ticle of  dress  in  the  East  to  this  day,  and  is  called  in  Arabic 
ahram,  CX"inx.  It  was  a  piece  of  cloth,  commonly  linen,  which 
encircled  the  whole  body,  and  was  bound  with  a  girdle,  and  descend- 
ed to  the  knees.  It  occurs  in  the  Bible  frst,  under  the  Hebrew 
word  r.:ri3,  afterwards,  under  the  word  rn'ir,n,  which  usually 
means  a  (jirdlc.  Those,  who  are  clothed  with  a  tunic  merely, 
arc  sometimes  said  to  be  naked.  Job  24:  7,  10.  Isa.  20:  2 — 4.  Mic. 
1:  8.  John  21:  7.  As  the  fore-part  of  the  tunic  was  liable  to  be 
elevated  with  the  wind,  the  wearer  had  on  also  an  under  garment 
called  in  Hebrew  c-^Ojr-o,  which  in  the  time  of  Moses  reached 
only  from  the  loins  to  the  knees,  Exod.  28:  42 ;  but  in  progress  of 


§  121.   Tin:    (IIKDLF..  13i5 

time  it  was  cxtemlcd  down  to  the  ankles.  Moses  in  Exod.  28:  42. 
commands  the  priests  to  wear  under  garments  of  this  description, 
on  account  of  their  convenience  in  performing  the  sacrillces. 
Hence  it  may  be  inferred,  that  tliey  were  not  used  by  the  people 
<'enerallv,  which  is  found  to  be  tlie  state  of  the  case  at  this  day  in  va- 
rious countries  of  the  East.  If  Strabo  in  page  734  means  to  say, 
that  the  Pei-sians  wore  three  pairs  of  them,  he  certainly  speaks  of  a 
recent  period  in  their  history.  Mention  is  made  of  an  upper  pair 
of  this  ffarment  in  Dan.  3:  21,  called  in  Hebrew  bzio  in  Persian 

JJLi  shah-ar,  in  Syriac  M-^t-^  >  in  Arabic  Jl^v*«-  The  orientals, 
whether  chid  in  the  garment  in  (picstion  or  not,  when  they  lind 
it  necessary  to  emit  urine,  seek  an  obscure  place,  and  in  a  sitting 
posture  discharge  themselves  upon  the  earth ;  with  the  excep- 
tion that  the  meanest  and  lowest  of  the  populace  defile  the  walls. 
Hence  the  peculiar,  proverbial  expressions,  whicli  occur  in  1  Sam. 
25:  22,  34,  etc.  are  to  be  considered,  as  denoting  the  very  lowest 
class  of  people.  The  tunic,  which  at  first  only  covered  the  body. 
was  extended  afterwards  up  round  the  neck,  was  supplied  with 
short  sleeves,  and  eventually  with  long  ones,  covering  the  whole 
arm.  At  first  it  set  close  to  the  bod\',  ])ut  was  afterwai-ds  made  loose 
and  flowing.  The  Babylonians,  Egyptians,  and  Persians  were  clad 
with  another  tunic  externally  to  the  one  described,  and  commonly 
more  precious,  which  we  learn  was  worn  also  by  the  Jews,  Matt.  10; 
10.  Luke  9:  3. 

§  121.  The  Giuulk,  n-sn. 

The  tunic,  when  it  was  not  girded,  impeded  the  person  who 
wore  it  in  walking.  Those  consequently,  who  perhaps  at  home 
were  ungirded,  went  forth  girded,  2  Kings  4:  29.  9:  1.  Isa.  5:  27. 
Jer.  1:  12.  John  21:  7.  Acts  12:  8.  There  were  formerly  and  are  to 
this  dav  two  sorts  of  girdles  in  Asia ;  the  one  a  common  one  of  leath- 
er, six  inches  broad  and  lui-nished  with  clasps,  with  which  it  is  fas- 
tened around  the  body,  (^corij  fitnuaTtrr;,  2  Kings  1:  8.  IMatt.  3:  4. 
Mark  1:0;  the  other,  a  valuable  one  of  cotton  or  flax,  and  sometimes 
indeed  of  silk  or  some  embroidered  fabric,  a  hand's  breadth  broad, 
and  supplied  likewise  with  clasps  by  which  it  was  fastened  over  the 
fore-part  of  the  body,  Jer.  13:  1.  The  girdle  was  bound  round 
the   loins,  whence  the  expressions,  "The  girdle   of   the    loins,  and 


1,3C  §  122.  oi'  irrKu  (iahmkxts. 

gird  up  your  loins,"  1  Kiiijjs  18:  -IG.  Prov.  21:  17.  Isa.  11:  -'>.  Jlt.  1: 
17.  Tlie  girdle  vorii  by  it'inales,  was  sonictinics  oriiaiiK'nted 
with  bosses ;  they  wore  stomachers  also  for  ornament,  Hebrew 
b'^S-'rC.  The  Arabians  carry  a  knife  or  poniard  in  the  girdle. 
This  was  the  custom  likewise  among  the  Hebrews,  2  Sam.  20:  8 — 
10;  a  fact,  which  admits  of  confirmation  from  the  ruins  of  Perse- 
polis.  The  girdle  also  answered  the  purpose  of  a  pouch,  to  carry 
money  and  other  necessary  things,  1  Sam.  2.):  13.  2  Sam.  18:  11. 
Matt.' 10:  9.  Mark  6:  8. 


§  122.  Of  Ui'i'icR  Gakmkxts. 

The  garment  immediately  over  the  tunic  was  denominated 
n^":-' ,  also  n5S ,  Greek  [(idziov;  it  was  very  simple  and  of  course 
we  may  suppose  very  ancient.  It  was  a  piece  of  cloth  nearly 
square,  of  different  sizes,  five  or  six  cubits  long  and  five  or  six 
feet  broad,  and  was  Avrapped  around  the  body.  When  the  weather 
was  serene,  it  was  more  conveniently  Avorn  over  the  shoulders 
than  by  being  wrapped  around  the  body.  The  two  corners,  which 
were  draAvn  over  tlie  shoulders,  were  called  the  skirts,  or  as  it  is  in 
the  Hebrew,  the  Avings  of  the  garment.  Hag.  2:  12.  Zech.  8:  23. 
Frequently  this  garment  Avas  hung  over  the  left  shoulder,  Avhere 
it  accordingly  liung  lengthAvise,  i>artly  over  the  back  and  partly  over 
the  breast,  and  Avas  fastened  by  the  tAvo  corners  under  the  i-ight 
cheek.  While  it  ansAvered  the  purpose  of  a  cloak,  it  was  so  lai-ge, 
that  burdens,  if  necessary,  might  be  carried  in  it,  Exodus  12:  SJ, 
2  Kings  4:  39.  The  poor  Avrapped  themselves  up  Avholly  in  this 
garment  at  night,  spread  their  leathern  girdle  upon  a  rock  and 
rested  their  head  upon  it,  as  is  customary  to  this  day  in  Asia. 
Moses,  therefore,  enacted  as  a  laAV  Avliat  had  before  existed  as  a  cus- 
tom, that  the  upper  garment,  Avhen  given  as  a  pledge,  should  not 
be  retained  over  night.  Job  22:  6.  24:  7.  Exodus  22:  25,  26.  Deut. 
24:  13.  In  the  time  of  Christ  the  creditors  did  not  take  the  upper 
garment  or  cloak,  Avhich  it  Avas  not  laAA'ful  for  them  to  retain, 
but  the  coat  or  tunic,  Avhieh  agrees  with  the  representation 
of  Jesus  in  MattheAv  o:  40.  There  having  occurred  an  instance 
of  the  violation  of  the  sabbath  (Numbers  15:  32 — 41),  Moses 
enacted  a  hnv,  that  there  should  be  a  fringe  upon  the  four 
corners    of    this    garment  .together    Avith    a    blue    ribband,    to    re- 


§   122.    OF    UPPER    GARMKNTS.  137 

mind  the  people  of  his  statutes,  Matthew  9:  20.  Luke  8:  44, 
There  were  oth.er  upper  garments  worn  among  llie  Hebrews  as 
follows. 

I.  ''"vz ,  MiciL,  a  garment  of  cotton,  which  extended  below  the 
knees,  open  at  the  top  so  as  to  be  drawn  over  the  head,  and  having 
holes  for  the  insertion  of  the  arms. 

II.  TEX,  EPiiOD.  It  consisted  of  two  parts,  the  one  of  wliich  was- 
suspended  over  the  back,  the  other  over  the  forepart  of  the  body, 
both  pieces  being  united  by  a  clasp  or  buckle  on  the  shoulders. 
In  the  time  of  Josephus  the  cphod  had  sleeves,  a  circumstance  which 
is  not  mentioned  by  Moses,  Exod.  28:  G,  7.  Joseph.  Antiq.  Bk.  III. 
fh.  7.  5.  According  to  the  Mosaic  law  the  epiiod  and  meil  were 
appropriately  garments  of  the  high  priest,  but  we  learn  that  they 
were  sometimes  worn  by  other  illustrious  men,  Job  29:  14.  1  Sam. 
18:  4.  2  Sam.  G:  14.  Ezek.  2G:  16.  "\Ve  may  infer  from  2  Sam.  6: 
14,  and  1  Chron.  15:  27,  that  i?  -I'SX  and  y-2.  h-^v-z,  [rendered  in  the 
Encrlish  version,  a  linen  ephod,  and  a  fine  linen  robe,']  were  converti- 
ble expressions  for  the  same  thing ;  still  there  is  no  doubt,  that  there 
were  two  kinds  of  ephods. 

m.  r'-S ,  A  HAT  OR  TURBAN,  as  may  be  seen  to  this  day  on  the 
ruins  of  Persepolis.  Garments  of  fur  appear  to  have  been  used  in 
the  East,  although  the  climate  was  warm.  "\Ve  undoubtedly  hear 
of  them  under  the  word  r'^'is.  The  phrase  i^'i  r--^  means 
a  garment  of  hair,  worn  commonly  by  poor  people  and  prophets, 
2  Kings  1:  8.  2:  8.  13:  14.  Zech.  13:  4.  Heb.  11:  37.  There  were 
certain  garments  of  hair,  whicli  were  precious  and  were  worn  by 
the  rich  and  princes.  Josh.  7:  21,  24.  1  Kings  19:  13,  19.  Jonah  3:  6. 
The  words  l-'-O  and  airSar,  though  the  same,  signified  different 
things  ;  '^■"iri  was  a  precious  tunic  of  cotton,  Judg.  14:  12,  13,  19. 
Prov.  31:  24.  Isa.  3:  23,  but  cn8cov  was  a  sort  of  coverlet,  under 
which  the  people  slept  at  night,  Mark  14:  51,  52.  15:  46.  Luke 
23:  53.  Xhmvg  is  the  name  of  a  robe,  common  among  the  Greeks, 
which  extended  down  to  the  knees,  and  was  fastened  over  the 
breast,  but  the  ylauvg  y.oy./.iir,,  which  is  mentioned  Matt.  27:  28, 
and  3Iark  15:  17,  called  in  common  speech  noQCfvmc  or  the  pur- 
ple, was  a  red  robe  of  the  Roman  military,  nearly  of  the  same 
length  with  the  Greek  robe.  The  word  ylauvg  is  not  to  be  collated 
in  this  case  with  the  Ileb.  ="5;,  for  the  rbrrn  -:-?:  mentioned 
in   Ezek.   27:  24.  were  not   Grecian   robes,  but  blue  cloths,  brought 

12* 


138  §   12.').    SANDALS    AND    SIIOKS. 

fruin  Araliia.  Tin.'  cloak,  nieiitioiicd  2  Tim.  1:  l-'\  in  Greek  C(i-}.o- 
vi,',-  or  ijiii/Mit,^',  was  a  Roman  garment,  meant  for  protection  against 
the  rain,  and  to  bo  worn  on  journeys.  It  was  closed  thronghont  ex- 
cept an  open  neck,  l>y  which  it  was  admitted  over  the  heail  and  sup- 
ported on  the  shoulders. 

§  123.  Sandals  and  Shots. 

At  first  in  order  to  prevent  the  feet  from  being  cut  by  sharp  rocks, 
or  burnt  by  tlie  hot  sand,  or  injured  by  pinching  cold,  small  pieces 
of  wood  or  leather  were  bound  to  the  bottom  of  tlie  feet.  Sandals 
of  this  kind  ai'e  still  seen  in  the  East ;  afterwards  shoes  were  made, 
and  greaves,  as  may  be  seen  on  the  ruins  of  Persepohs,  and  as  is  re- 
lated by  Strabo.  Originally  no  covering  of  the  ibot  was  used  at  all, 
but  sandals,  S"];"?,  auvddha,  v7iod/i(ittTu;  whicli  were  bound  around 
the  feet  with  leather  thongs,  Tp'^',  <"«'»>  'V«''?«*»  Gen.  14:  23.  Exod. 
12:  11.  Isa.  5:  27.  Judith  10:  4.'  INIatt.  3:  11.  10:  10.  Mark  1:  7.  G: 
9.  John  1:  27.  These  sandals  were  held  at  a  very  low  price,  Amos 
2:6.  8:  G.  Matrons  sometimes  Avore  elegant  ones,  Judith  10:  3.  16: 
11.  ITow  precious  the  sandal  was,  mentioned  in  Ezek.  16:  10.  of 
badger's  skin,  is  not  clear.  The  people  put  off  their  sandals  when 
they  entered  a  house,  and  put  them  on  when  they  left  it.  "Whence 
the  phrases,  to  loose  one's  sandals  from  off  his  feet,  etc.  Exod.  3:  5. 
Deut.  25:  9.  Isa.  20:  4.  Ruth  4:  7,  8.  Ezek.  24:  7.  To  loose  and  to 
bind  on  sandals  was  the  business  of  the  lowest  servants.  Disciples 
performed  this  office,  however,  for  their  teachers  ;  but  the  Rabbins 
advised  them  not  to  do  it  before  strangers,  lest  they  should  be  mistak- 
en for  servants.  The  business  of  a  servant  recently  purchased  was 
to  loose  and  carry  about  his  master's  sandals ;  whence  the  expres- 
sions in  Mark  1:  7  and  Matt.  3:  11,  "to  loose  one's  shoes,"  and  "to 
bear  them,"  are  proverbial,  and  mean  the  same  thing.  As  the  wear- 
ers did  not  have  on  stockings,  their  feet  became  dusty  and  soiled ;  ac- 
cordingly when  they  had  laid  aside  their  sandals  and  entered  a 
house,  they  washed  their  feet ;  which  also  was  the  office  of  the  lowest 
servants.  In  some  instances  where  the  guests  were  very  distinguish- 
ed men,  the  master  of  the  family  performed  this  office.  Gen.  18:  4. 
Luke  7:  44.  The  poor  sometimes  went  barefoot ;  the  more  rich 
and  honored  never,  except  in  case  of  mourning,  2  Sam.  15:  30. 
Jer.  2:  25      In  contracts  the  seller  gave  his  sandals  to  the  buyer 


§  12o.  OF  Tin;  u\ui.         .  139 

ill  confu-mation  of  the  bargain.  Hence,  " a  man  without  sandals" 
became  proverbial  expressions,  implying  the  reproach  of  proiligahty, 
Deut.  25:  9.  Ruth  4:  7. 


§  124.  The  Beard,  -iirj. 

Tlie  bearil  Avas  considered  a  great  ornament  among  the  Hebrews, 
as  it  is  to  this  day,  among  oriental  nations.  !Xo  one  was  allowed,  to 
touch  it  except  for  the  purpose  of  kissing  it.  To  pluck  or  to  shave 
the  beard,  or  to  mar  it  in  any  way,  was  considered  a  great  disgrace, 

1  Chron.  19:  3 — 5.  2  Sam.  10:  4 — 10.  Hence  the  beard  is  used 
tropically  for  the  distinguished  men  of  any  people,  and  the  shaving 
of  the  beard  was  considered  a  mark,  and  used  tropically  as  a  repre- 
sentation of  servitude,  Isa.  7:  20.  The  beard  was  preserved  in  differ- 
ent ways  by  different  people,  2  Sam.  19:  24.  The  Hebrews  alone 
were  forbidden  to  shave  the  beard,  i.  e.  as  the  phrase  is  to  be  inter- 
preted, to  round  the  corners  of  the  beard  where  it  joins  the  hair  of 
the  head.  Lev.  19:  27 ;  because  the  Arabian  tribes,  by  shaving  off  or 
rather  rounding  the  beard,  where  it  connects  with  the  hair  of  the 
head,  devoted  themselves  to  a  certain  deity,  who  held  the  place  among 
them,  that  Bacchus  did  among  the  Greeks.  Herodot.  HI.  8.  Jer.  9: 
2G.  '2o:  23.  49:  32.  To  pull  out  or  cut  off  the  beard  was  an  indica- 
tion of  great  grief,  and  mourning ;  every  ornament  whatever,  at  such 
a  time,  being  laid  aside.  This,  however,  must  be  done  by  the  person 
himself.  If  a  stranger  should  undertake  to  pull  out  his  beard,  it 
would  be  the  greatest  insult. 

§  125.  Oi'  THE  IlAin,  "ri;. 

Anciently  the  Egyptians  alone,  and  some  of  the  Arabians  were  in 
the  habit  of  shaving  their  beards ;  the  Hebrews  and  otiier  nations 
let  them  grow.  Sometimes  indeed  they  applied  the  razor,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Xazarites,  to  whom  shaving  was  absolutely 
interdicted,  Num.  G:  5.  Judg.  13:  7.  IG:  17.  1  Sam.  1:  11.  2  Sam. 
14:  20.  Isa.  7:  20.  Ezek.  5:  1.     Baldness  was  a  source  of  contempt, 

2  Kings  2:  23 ;  a  heavy  head  of  hair  was  esteemed  a  great  orna- 
ment, 2  Sam.  14:  2G.  Cant,  o:  11 ;  the  hair  was  combed  and  set  in 
order,  (Isa.  3:  24,)  and  anointed,  especially  on  festival  occasions,  Ps. 
23:  5.  92:  10.  133:  2.  2  Sam.  14:  2.    Ruth  3:  3.    Prov.  21:  17.     The 


140  §  120.  covKui.Nos  i-ou  Till-:  head. 

oinlmeiU  iisc-d  was  the  very  i)iX'c-ioiis  oil  of  olives,  inixcil  with  sj)ice.s, 
particiilaily  s]»ikcnaii.l,  wliieli  was  biouglit  from  India,  but  was  eoni- 
monly  ailultcratt'tl.  Tlie  spikenard,  nientioned  Mark  14:  3,  random 
TiiaTi/.i],  scL-nis  to  have  been  pure.  The  color  of  the  hair  of  the  peo- 
ple of  the  Kast,  is  commonly  black,  rarely  red,  which  was  esteemed  a 
favorite  color.  Females,  as  is  commoidy  the  case,  let  the  hair  grow 
Ion"-,  Luke  7:  38.  1  Cor.  11:  G — 12,  and  braided  it,  Num.  b:  18.  Ju- 
dith 10:  3.  1  Peter  3:  3  ;  which  is  clear  also  from  the  Talmud. 
They  interwove  into  their  hair  gems  and  gold,  2  Kings  9:  30. 

§  12G.    COVICRIXGS    I'OU    TIIK    IllCAD. 

At  first  the  hair  of  the  head  was  its  only  covering.  To  prevent 
its  being  dishevelled  by  the  wind,  it  was  at  length  bound  around 
the  head  by  a  fillet,  as  is  now  customai-y  among  the  servants  in 
the  East,  and  as  may  be  seen  on  the  ruins  of  Persepolis.  Sub- 
sequently a  piece  of  cloth  was  worn  upon  the  head,  which  was 
afterwards  converted  into  mitres  of  different  forms.  There  were 
two  kinds  of  mitres  among  the  ancients;  the  one  mentioned  in 
PLsther  8:  lo.  of  fine  linen,  purple  in  color,  and  enriched  with 
gold;  the  other  resembled  a  triangle  in  form,  being  pointed  at 
the  top,  though  not  always  made  in  the  same  way;  it  is  denomi- 
nated in  Dan.  3:  21,  i<'52-3  and  in  the  Greek  y.vQ^aot^  and  y.VQ- 
^aaia.  Josephus  speaks  of  a  piece  of  cloth,  which  was  rolled 
around  the  head  exterior  to  the  mitre.  Antiq.  Bk.  III.  ch.  7.  §  3.  and 
7  ;  but  of  this  article  of  head-dress  it  is  not  clear,  that  there  is  any 
express  mention  made  in  Scripture.  We  must  supi)ose,  therefore, 
it  was  introduced  at  a  late  period,  certainly  after  the  captivity. 
The  Hebrew  word  ■>rvi  was  aj>plied  to  the  mitres  in  common 
use  worn  by  both  sexes;  the  word  n^'s:-:  to  the  mitres  of  priests, 
which  were  of  greater  height,  Exod.  28:  40.  29:  9.  39:  28.  The 
mitre  of  the  high  priest,  called  Ttv^-z ,  was  distinguished  from  that 
of  the  priests  by  a  plate  of  gold  bound  in  front  of  it.  The  mitres 
worn  by  princes  and  illustrious  men,  were  the  same  with  those  of 
the  ymests  and  the  high  priests,  Exod.  28:  4,  37.  29:  G.  39:  31.  Lev. 
8:  9.  IG:  4.  In  the  progress  of  time  new  and  more  elegant  head- 
dresses, called  ^^52,  were  introiluced,  and  were  common  to  both 
sexes.  The  phrase  tr^XEn  r-.-^S'^  and  the  ^vord  r'r.-z'Z  mean  a 
head-dress  or  turban  of  much  splendor ;    the  words  it;  and  !"~'.;?i 


§   127.    OK    THK    VKIL.  141 

mean  a  diadem,  and  not  a  mitre.  Both  men  and  women,  ai  is  now 
common  in  llio  East,  remained  with  their  heads  covered  both  at 
prayers  and  in  the  temple. 

§  127.  Of  tue  Veil. 

The  difference  between  the  dress  of  the  men  and  the  women 
was  small.  It  consisted  chiefly  in  the  fineness  of  the  materials  and 
in  the  length  of  the  garment.  The  dress  of  the  hair  in  the  two 
sexes  was  different,  as  already  observed,  and  another  mark  of 
distinction  was,  that  the  women  wore  a  veil.  This  distinction  of 
dress,  small  as  it  was,  was  the  ground  of  the  command,  prohib- 
iting the  assumption  by  one  sex  of  the  dress,  which  was  appro- 
priate to  the  other,  Deut.  22:  5.  All  females,  excepting  maid- 
servants and  others  in  a  low  condition  in  life,  wore  the  veil,  nor 
did  they  ever  lay  it  aside,  except  in  the  presence  of  servants  asul 
those  relations,  with  whom  nuptials  were  interdicted,  Lev.  xviii. 
comp.  Koran  24:  34.  33:  54.  This  custom  in  regard  to  the  veil 
still  prevails  in  the  East.  When  journeying,  the  ladies  threw  the 
veil  over  the  hinder  part  of  the  head ;  but  if  they  saw  a  man  ap 
preaching,  they  restored  it  to  its  original  position.  Gen.  24:  05. 
When  at  home  they  did  not  speak  with  a  guest,  without  being 
veiled  and  in  the  presence  of  maids.  They  never  entered  the 
<»uest's  chamber,  but  standing  at  the  door,  made  known  to  the  ser- 
vant what  they  wanted,  2  Kings  4:  13.  This  is  observed  to  be  the 
case  in  Homer.  It  scarcely  needs  to  be  observed,  that  prostitutes 
went  unveiled.  Taraar,  who  Avas  one  of  that  class,  assumed  a  veil 
merelv  for  the  purpose  of  concealing  herself  from  her  father-in- 
law  Judah.  The  position  which  some  maintain  from  Gen.  20: 
1 G,  viz.  that  virgins  did  not  wear  the  veil,  is  not  clear  from  that 
passage ;  and  is  the  less  so,  when  the  fact  is  taken  into  considera- 
tion, tliat  the  custom  of  modern  orientals  is  an  evidence  that  tiiey 
did.  In  Asia  there  are  various  kinds  of  veils  in  use,  which  cor- 
respond with  those  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  Like  the  matrons  of 
the  Ea.-t  at  the  present  day,  those  of  antiquity  used  veils  of  four 
kinds. 

I.  -— -  .  It  somewhat  resembled  the  hood  of  the  French  country- 
women, covering  the  top  of  the  head  and  extending  down  behind  the 
back.  Cant.  5:  7.  Isa.  3:  23. 


112  §  128.    STAFF,    SEAL,    AND    RING. 

II.  n"2"J .  TIlis  covered  tlie  breast,  neck,  and  cliin  to  the  nose, 
Cant.  [■.\,3.  G:  7.  Isa.  47:  2. 

III.  nbrn.  It  hung  down  from  the  eyes  over  the  face,  [called  in 
the  English  version  mvfflcrs,']  Isa.  3:  19. 

IV.  The  fourth  kind  of  veil  received  different  names,  viz. 
ns-r-?  for  the  Aishion  of  the  winter,  and  n-Q:;":  for  that  of  the  sum- 
mer. It  covered  the  whole  body  from  the  top  of  the  head  to  tlie  sole 
of  the  foot,  Isa.  3:  22.  Ruth  3:  15.  Gen.  38:  14. 

y.  r-'rri ,  or  the  double  veil,  in  as  much  as  it  fulfilled  the  office  of 
two  other  veils,  covering  the  top  of  the  head,  and  falling  down  both 
behind  and  before.  It  was  so  large,  that  in  many  countries  the  ma- 
trons who  wore  it  dispensed  with  any  other. 

VI.  C"^0'::"i^  a  thin  gauze-like  fabric,  [denominated  in  the  Eng- 
lish version  a  ccml,~\  which  was  used  as  a  veil,  comp.  the  correspond- 
ing Arabic.  The  phrase  C'la'^s  n^iSS,  Gen.  20:  16,  probably  does 
not  mean  a  veil ;  perhaps  the  reading,  as  Michaelis  conjectures, 
should  be  t'rr  P'SS,  that  is,  the  fine  or  punishment  of  the  eyes, 
viz.  of  Ahimclech.  What  sort  of  a  veil  it  is,  called  in  the  Greek  of 
the  Kew  Testament  itovaia  im  rFjg  xtqr«?.^>,  is  not  known,  1  Cor. 
11:  10. 

§  128.  Staff,  Seal,  and  Rings. 

The  Hebrews  bore  a  staff,  frj-c ,  i;?-; ,  etc. ;  not  only  the  traveller, 
as  a  help  to  him  on  his  journey,  but  others  also,  who,  like  the  Baby- 
lonians, must  necessarily  have  carried  one  merely  for  ornament, 
and  not  for  any  positive  benefit,  Exod.  12:  11.  Gen.  38:  18,  25. 
The  Hebrews  wore  also,  in  imitation  of  the  Babylonians,  a  seal 
or  signet,  cn"in ,  which  was  suspended  from  the  neck  over  the 
breast.  Gen.'  38:  18.  Cant.  8:  6.  Hag.  2:  23.  Sometimes  merely 
the  name  of  the  owner,  and  sometimes  an  additional  sentence  was 
enfrraved  upon  the  signet.  If  a  door  or  box  was  to  be  sealed,  it 
was  first  fastened  with  some  ligament,  over  which  was  placed 
some  clay  or  wax,  which  then  received  an  impression  from  the 
seal  or  signet.  Frequently  a  ring,  with  some  inscription  upon  it, 
was  used  as  a  seal,  by  a  delivery  or  transfer  of  which,  from  a  mon- 
arch, the  highest  offices  of  the  kingdom  were  created,  Gen.  41: 
42.  Esth.  3:  10,  12.  8:  2.  Jer.  22:  24.  Dan.  G:  10.  13:  17.  Rings, 
fi-om  the  circumstance  of  their  being  employed  for  the  same  purpose 


§   loO.    NF.CKLACliS,    BKACELETS,    KTC.  lio 

as  seals,  were  called  rrvz'q ,  which  is  derived  from  a  verb,  signify- 
iuT  to  imprint,  and  also  to  seal ;  they  were  worn  commonly  as  an  or- 
nament on  a  linger  of  the  right  hand,  Isa.  22:  24.  Exod.  35:  22. 
Luke  i:»:  22.  James  2:  2. 


§  120.  Ladiks'  IxixGs  AND  Pkndants,  r""ru,  """:j:. 

The  ladies  wore  a  number  of  rings  upon  their  lingers,  also  pen- 
dants in  the  ear  and  nose.  Gen.  24:  22.  Exod.  32:  2,  3.  oo:  22.  Isa. 
3:  21.  Ezek.  IG:  12.  The  rings  were  made  of  silver,  gold,  or  other 
metal  according  to  the  person's  property ;  the  pendants,  also,  which 
sometimes,  however,  consisted  of  pearls,  merely  suspended  by  a 
thread.  When  the  pendants  were  of  gold,  they  were  denominated 
T^'S,  when  of  precious  stones,  r'lS"::: ,  Num.  31:  50.  Ezek.  16:  12. 
Ear-pendants  may  be  seen  sculptured  out  on  the  ruins  of  Persepolis, 
tor  they  were  worn  by  men  as  well  as  women,  among  other  nations. 
But  this  was  not  often  the  case  among  the  Hebrews,  Pliny  II.  50. 
Judg.  8:  24.  The  women  also  wore  rings  of  silver  and  gold  and 
other  matei'ials  around  the  ankles,  Hebrew  -"3=?..  The  rings  of  the 
two  ankles  were  sometimes  connected  with  each  other  by  a  chain, 
called  rrriV'J, ;  perhaps  the  chain  was  comprehended  also  under  the 
name  above  given  for  the  rings,  Isa.  3:  18. 

§  130.  Necklaces,  Bkacelets,  etc. 

The  dress  of  the  ladies  in  the  East  was  always  expensive,  Gen. 
24:  22,  23,  53.  Num.  31:  50.  Isa.  3:  IG— 2G.  Ezek.  IG:  10  et  seq. 
They  wear  at  the  present  diiy,  as  formerly,  not  only  rings  and 
pendants,  but  necklaces,  bracelets,  etc.  These  ornaments  were 
worn  also  in  some  cases  by  distinguished  men,  as  a  ])resent  from 
the  monarch,  as  may  be  seen  on  the  Persepolitan  figures,  Gen.  41: 
42.  Prov.  3:  3,  22.  6:  21.  Cant.  1:  11.  Dan.  5:  7.  Necklaces 
and  bracelets  were  made,  sometimes  of  silver  and  gold,  sometimes 
of  a  series  of  jewels,  sometimes  of  coral,  z":"':3,  Num.  31:  50. 
Exod.  35:  22.  Three  necklaces  were  commonly  worn,  one  reach- 
ing lower  than  the  other ;  from  (he  one,  that  was  suspended  to 
the  waisi,  there  was  hung  a  bottle  of  perfume,  lilled  with  amber 
and  musk,  called  in  Isa.  3:  20,  rs:  'r.z  .  Half-moons  also  of  silver 
and  gold   were  suspended   in   this   way,  as  may  be  inferred  from  the 


144  §  133.  ruusK  and  napkin. 

word  C^:'"::!.'-' itself  conip.  ^—^ — m.-     ^Villl  these;  the  Arabians  orna- 
mented the  necks  of  their  camels,  Isa.  3:  18.  Judg.  8:  21,  2G. 


§  131.  Amulkts,  n-£-^-j. 

The  orientals,  from  the  earliest  ages,  have  believed  in  the  influ- 
ence of  the  stars,  in  incantations,  and  other  magic  arts.  To  defend 
themselves  against  them,  they  wore  amulets,  which  consisted  of  pre- 
cious stones,  gems,  gold,  and  sometimes  of  pieces  of  parchment,  writ- 
ten over  with  some  inscription.  The  small  gold  elligies  of  serpents, 
D^winb,  which  the  Hebrew  women  carried  about  in  tiieir  hands, 
were  amulets,  and  like  the  others,  while  they  served  to  keep  otl"  in- 
cantations, served  none  the  less  for  ornament,  Isa.  3:  20.  Exod.  38:  8. 

§  132.  Mirrors,  r^s";-?,  -^x^. 

Mirrors  Avere  made  of  molten  brass  polished ;  hence  they  were 
called  fii-iVj  or  shining.  In  Job  37:  18,  the  heavens  are  compared 
to  a  molten  mirror.  The  ladies  carried  their  mirrors  in  their  hands. 
Their  chambers  were  not  orntmiented  with  them,  but  the  chamber 
doors  latterly  Avere  made  of  a  polished  stone,  in  which  objects  might 
be  obscurely  seen,  1  Cor.  13:  12. 

§  133.  Purse  and  Napkin. 

A  man's  girdle  fullilled  for  him  all  the  purjioses  of  a  purse.  The 
purse  of  a  lady,  which  was  made  of  solid  metal,  sometimes  of  pure 
gold,  and  fashioned  like  a  cone  with  a  border  of  rich  cloth  at  the  top, 
was  suspended  from  the  girdle  which  she  wore ;  these  purses  were 
called  in  Hebrew  ni-J''in ,  Isa.  3:  22.  2  Kings  5:  23.  15oth  sexes 
either  wore  napkins  attached  to  their  girdle,  or  bore  them  upon  the 
hand  or  left  arm ;  those  of  the  rich  and  powerful  were  valuable  and 
ornamented  with  embroidery.  They  were  frequently  employed  to 
carry  things  in,  and  were  wrapped  around  the  heads  of  those  who 
had  departed  from  life,  Luke  19:  20.  John  11:  44.  The  aprons  so 
called  in  Acts  19:  12,  were  a  sort  of  napkin,  Avhich  were  placed 
around  the  neck  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  the  sweat. 


§  loo.    DRKSS    AT    FKSTIVALS,    KTC.  115 


§  134.  Painting  and  Branding  or  Sealing. 

Various  kinds  of  painting  liave  been  practised  by  all  nations  in 
all  ages.  It  is  onr  object,  however,  at  the  present  time,  only  to 
speak  of  that  mode  of  painting,  which  in  the   Bible  is  denominated 

-•3.  and  in  the  Arabic  J-S^J.  The  principal  material  used  in 
tiiis  mode  of  painting,  the  object  of  which  is  to  communicate  a  dark 
tint  to  the  eyebrows,  is  a  sort  of  black  lead,  which  is  found  to  be  used 
throughout  all  the  East  as  far  as  India.  It  is  applied  to  the  eye- 
brows by  a  silver  instrument,  so  as  to  give  them  the  appearance  of 
being  very  long,  which  is  esteemed  a  great  ornament,  2  Kings  9:  30. 
Jer.  4:  30.  Ezek.  23:  40.  The  paint,  which  is  prepared  from  the 
ashes  of  the  plant  Alkanet,  and  which  is  used  by  oriental  matrons  to 
communicate  a  yellow  color  to  the  arms  and  feet,  and  a  tint  of  red- 
ness to  the  nails,  though  very  ancient,  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Bible ; 
a  mere  allusion  to  it  occurs  in  Jer.  2:  22,  under  the  word  cr:: . 
The  red  paint  in  use  among  the  Roman  matrons,  which  was  spread 
upon  the  idols  on  festival  days,  is  mentioned  in  the  book  of  Wisdom, 
13:  14.  A  custom,  which  prevailed  in  the  East  anciently,  and  which 
is  connected  with  this  subject,  has  been  perpetuated  in  that  region 
even  to  our  day ;  viz.  that  whoever  visited  a  temple  should  either  de- 
vote himself  to  some  god,  or  brand  the  image  of  the  temple  or  the 
name  of  the  god  on  his  right  arm.  This  custom  as  far  as  concerned 
the  Hebrews  was  interdicted  in  Lev.  1 9:  28,  but  the  words  '  branding,' 
'marking,'  and  'sealing,'  frequently  occur  with  a  tropical  signification, 
Gal.  6:  17.  Eph.  1:  13.  Eev.  7:  4,  8.  14:  1—5.  13:  17,  18.  Ezek.  9: 
2—12. 

§  135.  Dress  at  Festi\\\i,s  and  on  OccAsroNs  of  3Iourning. 

The  festival  dress  was  very  splendid ;  it  was  white,  and  as  often 
as  the  festival  returned,  was  newly  washed  and  perfumed  with  myrrh, 
cassia,  and  aloes,  Gen.  27:  27.  Ps.  45:  8.  Cant.  4:  11.  It  was 
worn  on  the  festivals  of  the  family,  of  the  state,  and  of  religion. 
but  when  the  festival  was  over,  it  was  laid  aside.  The  splendid 
garments  of  festivals  were  denominated  in  Hebrew  n^nn  it'iV'z , 
-•n'p  ^~i~t^,  etc.  Vast  expense  was  bestowed  upon  them  both  as 
respected  their  quality  and  number,  2  Kings  5:  5.  Matt.  10:  10.  James 

13 


MG  §   \'X>.    DKI.SS    AT    l-KSTIVALS,    KTC. 

o:  2.  The  inoiiniiiij:  dress,  Hebrew  pr  or  satMutli,  is  well  known. 
It  was  in  truth  a  suck,  which  was  thrown  over  the  person  and  ex- 
tended down  to  the  knees,  but  which,  nevertheless,  had  arm-holes  ibr 
the  admission  of  the  arms.     It  derives  its  name  from  the  Arabic  verb, 

i^^-w  to  (('((>•  asi>n(/n;  because  in  the  moment  of  the  pei'son's  grief  it 
was  torn  from  the  neck  down  to  the  breast,  and  sonjctinics  as  iiir  as 
(lie  girdle.  The  materials  were  a  coarse  dark  cloth  of  goat's  hair, 
,]()\)  Id:  l.j.  Jonah  o:  5. 

NoTK. — In  the  book  of  Leviticus,  13:  47 — 59,  we  aie  informed 
of  the  leprosy  of  garments  in  the  following  terms :  "  tltc  (jarnicnt  also, 
that  the  fhujue  of  leprosy  is  in,  lohether  it  be  a  looollen  f/ar)nent  or  a 
linen  garment,  whether  it  be  in  the  warp  or  woof,  whether  in  a  shin,  or 
anything  viade  ofsh'n,"  etc.  The  marks  or  indications  of  the  exist- 
ence and  nature  of  this  leprosy  are  also  stated  with  some  particularity 
in  the  verses  referred  to.  What  this  plague,  as  it  is  termed,  was,  it 
is  difficult  to  state  with  much  certainty,  since  the  conjectures,  which 
the  learned  have  hazarded  in  regard  to  it,  are  by  no  means  satisfac- 
tory. Without  doubt  the  Hebrews  had  observed  certain  destructive 
effects  wrought  upon  clothing,  whether  made  of  wool  or  cotton,  or 
leather,  and  not  understanding  their  origin  or  their  nature,  they  chose 
to  call  them  from  certain  resemblances  as  much  apparent  as  real,  the 
corroding  plague  or  leprosy,  rns"?^  I^t^?-  Altogether  the  most 
])robable  conjecture  in  regard  to  these  effects  is,  that  they  were 
merely  the  depredations  of  certain  little  insects,  which  could  not  be 
seen  by  the  naked  eye.  The  Hebrews  without  doubt,  considered  the 
clothes'  leprosy,  as  they  termed  it,  contagious,  and  consequently  a  se- 
rious and  fearful  evil.  This  opinion  was  the  ground  of  the  rigid 
laws,  which  are  laid  down  in  respect  to  it  in  Leviticus  12:  47 — 50. 


m; 


CHAPTER  IX. 
CONCERNING    FOOD    AND    FEASTS. 

§  136.  Of  Food  ix  general. 

At  first,  men  lived  upon  the  fruits  of  trees,  upon  herbs,  roots, 
and  seeds,  and  \Yhatevcr  else  they  could  find  in  the  vegetable  king- 
dom, that  might  conduce  to  tlie  support  of  life,  all  which  was  ex- 
pressed in  Hebrew  by  the  word  rr;5 .  in  tlie  broadest  sense  of  the 
word.  Gen.  1:  29.  2:  16.  Afterwards  a  melliod  was  invented  to 
bruise  grain,  and  to  reduce  it  to  a  mass,  to  ferment  it,  and  bake  it, 
and  thus  to  make  bread,  which  is  also  expressed  by  cnb,  in  the 
more  limited  sense  of  the  word.  Still  later,  not  only  water,  but  milk, 
oil,  and  honey,  were  mingled  with  the  meal,  and  bread  was  made 
of  a  richer  and  more  valuable  kind.  Even  so  early  as  the  time  of 
Abraham,  the  art  of  preparing  bread  was  carried  to  some  degree  of 
perfection.  Before  the  deluge  the  flesh  of  animals  was  convert- 
ed into  food,  as  may  be  inferred  from  the  division  of  animals  into 
clean  and  unclean,  Gen.  7:  2.  8  ;  after  the  deluge  animals  are  ex- 
pressly mentioned,  as  being  slain  for  food.  Gen.  9:  3 — 6.  But 
meat  is  not  so  palatable  and  nutritious  in  warm  climates  as  in  others, 
and  fruits,  consequenlly,  bread,  olives,  and  milk,  are  the  customary 
food. 

§  137.  Pkei'aratiox  of  Food  by  Fire. 

Originally  food  of  every  kind  was  eaten  without  being  cooked, 
because  there  was  no  fire.  If  there  had  been  fire,  it  would  have 
been  of  no  consequence  in  this  case,  seeing  that  its  use  in  the 
preparation  of  food  was  unknown.  Men  were  undoubtedly  taught 
by  chance  to  roast  flesh  and  eventually  to  boil  it.  It  was  found 
so  much  more  agreeable,  when  prepared  in  this  way,  that  men 
were  careful  not  to  let  the  fire,  which  they  had  now  found,  be- 
come extinguished.  Their  method  of  obtaining  fire  was,  to  elicit 
sparks  by  the  collision  of  stone  and  flint,  or  by  the  friction  of  pieces 


148  §  \'-jS.  ok  .mills. 

of  wooil,  ami  altirwanls  to  excite  :v  blaze.  This  method  of  obtaining 
fire  was  very  ancient,  as  we  may  learn  from  the  etymology  of  the 
word  nn-,  Isa.  50:  11.  Gl:  1. 

§  138.  Of  Mills. 

Corn  was  eaten  at  first  without  any  prejiaration  of  it  at  ali ;  the 
custom  of  thus  eating  it  had  not  gone  into  total  desuetude  in  the 
time  of  Christ,  Malt.  1 2:  1.  Lev.  2:  12.  Deut.  20:  25.  After  the 
uses  of  lire  were  known,  it  was  parched.  Parching  it  became  so 
common,  that  the  words  i"-;?,-";;^  and  ki;;^,  which  properly  mean 
parched,  mean  also  corn  or  meal,  2  Sam.  17:  28.  Lev.  2:  12,  14. 
Ruth  2:  14,  18.  Some,  who  found  a  difficulty  in  mastication,  broke 
to  pieces  the  kernels  of  corn  with  stones  or  pieces  of  wood ;  this 
suggested  the  idea  of  mortars,  and  eventually  of  mills.  The  mortar, 
n^'T;  ,  ~rir  :  >  '^^'^^  "^'-"^^^  "^  ^'^g  time  of  Moses  for  bruising  corn,  also 
the  mill,  "i'n'J,  Num.  11:  8.  Fine  meal,  i.  e.  corn  or  grain  ground 
or  beaten  fine,  is  spoken  of  as  far  back  as  the  time  of  Abraham,  Gen. 
18:  G ;  hence  mills  and  mortars  must  have  been  known  before  his 
time.  The  mill  common  among  the  Hebrews,  scarcely  differed  at  all 
from  that,  which  is  used  at  this  day  in  Egypt  and  the  East.  It  con- 
sisted of  two  cii'cular  stones,  two  feet  in  diameter  and  half  a  foot 
thick.  The  lower  one  was  called  "inrin  and  ribs ,  Deut.  24:  G.  Job 
41:  15,  IG;  it  exhibited  a  slight  rise  or  elevation  on  the  centre,  and 
was  fixed  in  the  floor.  The  upper  one  was  called  :ii"; ,  Judg.  9:  53  ; 
was  movable,  and  in  order  to  make  it  fit  precisely  to  the  nether  one, 
was  shghtly  hollowed.  In  the  middle  of  it  was  a  hole,  through  which 
the  corn  to  be  ground  Avas  admitted.  The  u^tper  stone  had  a  handle 
attached  to  it,  by  which  it  was  moved  upon  the  lower,  and  the  corn 
and  grain  were  in  this  way  broken.  There  were  sieves  attached  to 
the  mill,  which  separated  the  flour  i'rom  the  bran ;  the  bran  was  put 
into  the  mill  again  and  ground  over.  The  sieves  were  made  of 
reeds ;  those  made  of  horse-hair  were  a  later  invention,  not  earlier 
than  the  time  of  Pliny. 


§  240.    BAKIXG    BREAD    IX    AN    OVEX.  149 


§  139.  GnixDixG. 

Since  there  were  neither  public  mills  nor  bakers,  except  the 
king's,  Gen.  40:  2.  Hos.  7:  4 — 10,  each  one  by  consequence  owned 
a  mill  himself;  hence  it  was  made  an  infringement  of  the  law,  for 
a  person  to  take  another's  mill  or  millstone,  as  a  pledge,  Deut.  24:  G, 
for  without  his  mill,  there  being  no  public  ones,  he  would  have 
been  in  a  bad  situation.  At  first  barley  alone  Avas  gi'ound,  but  af- 
terwards wheat  more  commonly,  as  the  poor  alone  used  bai'ley. 
Barley  bread  answers  better  in  the  warm  climate  of  the  East,  than 
among  us.  On  the  second  day  it  becomes  insipid  and  rough  to  the 
palate ;  and  this  is  the  case  also  in  warm  climates  with  wheat 
bread.  Hence  the  necessity  of  baking  every  day,  and  hence  also 
the  daily  grinding  at  the  mills  about  evening.  The  sound  of  the 
millstones,  probably  at  this  time,  is  spoken  of  by  the  prophet,  Jer. 
25:  10.  The  mill  was  commonly  turned  by  two  persons,  the  low- 
est maid-servants.  They  sat  opposite  to  each  other,  facing,  the 
one  on  one  side,  the  other  on  the  other  side.  One  took  hold  of  the 
mill  handle  and  impelled  it  half  way  round ;  the  other  then  seized 
it  and  completed  its  revolution,  Exod.  11:  5.  Job  31:  10,  11.  Isa.  47: 
2.  Matt-  24:  41.  The  labor  was  severe  and  menial ;  frequently 
enemies,  taken  in  war,  were  condemned  to  perform  it,  Judg.  IG:  21. 
Lam.  5:  13. 

§  140,  Bakixg  Bkead  ix  ax  Ovex. 

The  business  of  baking  was  performed  anciently  by  women, 
however  high  their  stations.  Gen.  18:  G.  Lev.  26:  26.  2  Sam.  13: 
6,  8.  Jer.  7:  18,  19.  When  luxury  afterwards  prevailed  among 
them,  the  matrons  and  their  daughters  gave  it  up  to  their  maids, 
1  Sam.  8:  13.  These  maids  were  so  numerous  in  the  palace  of 
David,  that  a  portion  of  bread,  etc.  was  distributed  to  them,  the 
same  as  to  a  large  multitude  of  men,  2  Sam.  6:  19.  In  Egypt 
there  were  king's  bakers  very  early;  they  make  their  appearance 
in  Palestine  also,  but  at  a  much  later  period,  Hos.  7:  4 — 7.  Jer.  37: 
2L 

Kneading  troughs  were  a  sort  of  wooden  trays,  in  which  the 
flour,  being  mingled  with  water,  was  reduced  to  a  solid  mass,  and 

13* 


150  §  140.  HAKIXC  UHEAI)  IX  AN  OVKX. 

after  remaining  a  lillle  time,  was  kneaded,  pome  leaven  being  add- 
ed to  it,  Exod.  12:  ol.  Dent.  28:  5,  17.  In  case  it  Avas  necessary  to 
prepare  the  bread  very  hastily,  the  leaven  was  left  out,  Gen.  18:  G. 
19:  3.  Judg.  6:  19.  1  Kings  17:  12.  Exod.  12:  15,  34.  13:  3,  7.  Lev. 
2:  11.  Deut.  16:  3.  Amos  4:  5,  The  cakes  when  made  were  round, 
nn^  nii33,  Judg.  8:  5,  and  nine  or  ten  inches  in  diameter.  The 
unleavened  cakes  were  not  thicker  than  a  knife,  but  the  leavened 
were  as  thick  as  a  man's  little  finger.  The  bread  was  not  cut  with 
a  knife  but  broken,  Hebrew  B-^Q,  Isa.  58:  7.  Lara.  4:  4.  Matt.  14: 
19.  15:  36.  26:  26,  Of  ovens  or  places  for  baking  there  are  four 
kinds ; 

I.  The  mere  sand,  heated  by  a  fire,  which  was  subsequently 
removed.  The  raw  cakes  were  placed  upon  it ;  in  a  little  while 
they  were  turned,  and  afterwards,  to  complete  the  process,  were 
covered  with  warm  ashes  and  coals.  Unless  they  were  turned,  they 
were  not  thoroughly  baked.  This  explains  Hos.  7:  8.  The  ashes 
or  coal-baked  cakes  so  called,  Hebrew  nisr ,  were  prepared  in  this 
way,  Gen.  18:  6.  19:  3.  1  Kings  19:  6. 

II.  The  second  sort  of  oven  was  an  excavation  in  the  earth,  two 
and  a  half  feet  in  diameter,  of  different  depths  from  five  to  six  feet, 
as  we  may  suppose  fx'om  those  which  still  exist  in  Persia.  This  sort 
of  oven  occurs  under  the  word  ti^ys,  and  in  Lev.  11:  35,  is  mention- 
ed in  connection  with  the  word  ^^irri .  The  bottom  is  paved  w  ith 
stones ;  when  the  oven  is  sufficiently  Avarmed,  the  fire  is  taken  away, 
the  cakes  are  placed  upon  the  warm  stones,  and  the  mouth  of  the 
oven  is  shut. 

HI.  A  movable  oven,  called  n^irn ,  which  was  besmeared  within 
and  without  with  clay,  being  constructed  of  brick.  A  fire  was  kin- 
dled within  it,  and  the  dough  was  placed  upon  the  side,  where  it 
baked,  and  was  called  n^sn  nsx^ ,  Lev.  2:  4. 

IV.  A  plate  of  iron,  placed  upon  three  stones ;  the  fire  was 
kindled  beneath  it,  and  the  raw  cakes  placed  on  the  upper  sur- 
face. The  cake  baked  in  this  way  is  perhaps  the  rnn-;,  men- 
tioned in  Lev.  2:  5.  6:  14.  Not  only  leavened,  and  unleavened  cakes 
were  baked  in  these  ovens,  but  other  kinds,  which  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  mention.  We  shall  have  to  pass  by  the  rest  of  the  culinary 
apparatus. 


§  141.     ox    THE    DIFFEUKNT    KINDS    OF    FOOD.  151 


§  141.    O.V    THE    DIFFEIiENT    KINDS    OF   FOOD. 

Cooking,  h'^2 ,  was  done  by  the  matron  of  the  family,  unless,  when 
intent  on  the  adorning  of  her  person,  she  thought  proper  to  commit 
it  to  the  maid.  Vegetables,  lentils  especially,  which  are  greatly 
esteemed  even  to  this  day  among  the  Orientals,  were  the  principal 
food.  Gen.  '25:  30,  04;  cakes  also  mixed  with  honey,  were  frequent- 
ly used,  Ezek,  IG:  13.  Flesh  was  not  served  up,  except  when  a 
stranger  was  present,  and  on  the  occasion  of  a  feast.  Gen.  18:  7. 
Deut.  15:  20.  Luke  15:  23.  The  Orientals  at  the  present  day  are 
very  spai-ing  in  the  use  of  flesh ;  too  long  an  abstinence  from  it, 
however,  produces  a  great  appetite  for  it,  and  generates  a  disease 

5-- 

also,  which  is  known  among  the  Arabians  under  the  word  r^Ji, 
Num.  11:  4,  12.  As  luxury  increased,  the  flesh  of  animals  began  to 
be  more  used  for  food ;  venison  and  the  meat  of  the  "fatted  calf," 
were  peculiarly  esteemed,  also  of  fatted  oxen,  Gen.  18:  7.  41:  2. 
1  Sam.  IG:  20.  28:  24.  2  Sam.  G:  13.  The  flesh  of  the  sheep  and 
goat  kind,  particularly  of  lambs  and  kids,  were  esteemed  the  choicest 
dish  of  any,  and  it  was  for  the  estimation  in  which  they  were  held  on 
this  account,  that  they  were  so  much  used  in  sacrifices.  In  the  most 
ancient  ages  the  animal  to  be  slain  was  taken  by  the  master  of  the 
family  himself,  although  he  were  a  prince,  and  was  slain.  The 
cooking  also  M'as  done  by  his  wife,  though  she  were  a  princess,  Gen. 
18:  2 — G.  Judg.  6:  19.  The  process  of  cooking  seems  to  have  been 
very  expeditiously  performed.  Gen.  27:  3,  4,  9,  10.  All  the  flesh  of 
the  slain  animal,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  preserving  it  in  a  warm 
climate  uncorrupted,  was  commonly  cooked  at  once.  This  is  the 
custom  at  the  present  day,  although  the  art  of  drying  and  preserving 
it  by  the  sun  is  known  among  the  Nomades.  The  flesh  when  cook- 
ed, was  divided  into  small  pieces,  and  a  sauce  was  prepared  for 
it  of  brolh  and  vegetables,  in  Jlebrew  p^'j,  Judg.  6:  19,  20.  Isa.  64: 
4. 


152  §  142.  OF  noASTiN'G. 


§  142.  Of  Roasting,  h)-s,  nsN. 

Roasting  was  the  earliest  inelliod  of  prcjiariiig  the  flesh  of  ani- 
mals ;  it  seems  to  have  been  discovered  at  first  by  chance,  as  al- 
ready observed,  and  became  in  time  a  favorite  method  of  cook- 
ing. Tlie  Nomades  of  the  present  day,  following  a  very  ancient 
custom,  divide  the  flesh  to  be  roasted  into  small  pieces,  salt  it, 
and  fix  it  upon  a  wooden  spit.  They  turn  one  part  of  it  to  the 
fire,  and  when  this  is  roasted,  turn  the  other.  Fowls  are  roasted 
whole  on  a  spit,  which  revolves  in  two  or  more  crotched  sticks, 
placed  on  the  ground  on  each  side  of  the  fire.  AYhen  sheep  and 
lambs  are  to  be  roasted  whole,  they  thrust  a  sharp  stick  through 
from  the  tail  to  the  head  of  the  animal,  another  transversely  through 
the  fore  feet,  and  roast  it  in  the  oven  described  in  section  140.  No. 
II. ;  which  mode  of  roasting  is  expressed  in  Arabic  by  the  verb 

^_>-Lo ,  meaning  to  crucify.  In  the  countries  of  the  East,  locusts 
are  frequently  roasted  for  the  use  of  the  common  people.  Their 
win<TS  and  feet  are  taken  off  and  their  intestines  extracted ;  they 
are  salted,  fixed  upon  a  sharp  piece  of  wood,  placed  over  the  fire, 
and  at  length  eaten.  They  are  likewise  prepared  by  boihng  them. 
In  summer  they  are  dried  and  ground,  and  bread  is  made  of  them. 
Sometimes  they  are  salted  and  preserved  in  bottles,  and  as  occasion 
requires,  are  cut  in  pieces  and  eaten,  Lev.  11:  22.  Matt.  3:  4.  Some 
species  of  locusts  are  esteemed  noxious,  and  are,  therefore,  reckoned 
among  the  unclean  animals.  Lev.  11:  22.  The  Heb.  word,  c^'bu;, 
[rendered  in  the  English  version  quails,']  is  not  to  be  regarded 
as  a  name  lor  any  species  of  locusts  for  isb  is  to  this  day  in  the 
East  the  name  of  a  migratory  bird  of  the  quail  kind.  They  come 
over  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  and  being  weary  descend  in  great  num- 
bers on  Arabia  Petrea,  so  as  to  be  easily  taken  by  the  hands,  Diod. 
Sic.  I.  Gl.  Niebuhr's  Travels,  Part  L  p.  17G.  The  flesh  of  these 
birds  is  less  esteemed  on  account  of  their  living  in  a  measure  upon 
grasshoppers,  Num.  11:  32. 

XoTE. — The  use  of  salt  is  very  ancient,  see  Num.  18:  19,  com- 
)iared  with  2  Chron.  13:  o.  In  Exod.  30:  35,  a  kind  of  salt  called 
pure  salt  is  distinguished  from  common  salt.     Among  the  orientals 


§   143.    IXTHRDICTED    FOOD.  153 

salt  is  the  symbol  of  inviolable  iVieiul^hip ;  '  a  covenant  of  salt,'  ac- 
coi-diii"-h',  means  an  everlasting  or  perpetual  covenant.  It  is  used 
tropically  for  uisdom,  and  for  preservation,  jNIark  9:  49,  oO.  Coloss. 
4:  G,  and  salt  that  has  lost  its  savor,  on  the  contrary,  for  fully,  Matt. 
o:  13. 


^   143.    IXTKRDICTED    FoOD. 

Some  sorts  of  food  were  interdicted  to  the  Hebrews;  some  ani- 
mals  being  unclean  according  to  the  jNEosaic  law,  such,  for  instance, 
as  were  actually  unpalatable  and  noxious,  or  were  esteemed  so ; 
others  being  set  apart  for  the  altar,  certain  parts  of  which  it  was 
consequently  not  lawful  to  eat.  The  object  of  interdicting  so  many 
sorts  of  food,  was  to  prevent  the  Hebrews  from  eating  with  the  Gen- 
tiles, or  frequenting  Iheir  idolatrous  feasts,  by  means  of  which  they 
might,  and  probably  would,  have  been  seduced  to  idolatry.  They 
are  reckoned  unclean. 

I.  Quadrupeds,  which  do  not  ruminate,  or  have  cloven  feet. 

II.  Serpents,  and  creeping  insects ;  also  certain  insects  which 
sometimes  fly  and  sometimes  advance  upon  their  feet. 

III.  Certain  species  of  birds,  many  of  the  names  of  which  are  ob- 
scure. 

IV.  Fishes  without  scales ;  also  those  without  fins. 

V.  All  food,  all  liquids  standing  in  a  vessel,  and  all  wet  seed,  into 
which  the  dead  body  of  any  unclean  insect  had  fallen.  Water  in 
cisterns,  wells,  and  fountains,  could  not  be  contaminated  in  this  way. 
Lev.  11:  1—38. 

VI.  All  food  and  liquids,  which  stood  in  the  tent  or  chamber  of  a 
dying  or  dead  man,  remaining  meanwhile  in  an  uncovered  vessel, 
Num.  19:  15. 

VII.  Everything  which  was  consecrated  by  any  one  to  idols  or 
gods,  Exod.  34:  15.  It  was  this  prohibition  which  in  the  primitive 
church  occasioned  certain  dissensions,  which  Paul  frequently  remarks 
upon,  especially  in  1  Cor.  8:  10. 

VIII.  The  kid  boiled  in  the  milk  of  its  mother,  Exod.  23:  19. 
34:  2G.  Dent.  14:  21.  The  reason  of  this  law  is  somewhat  obscure. 
"Whether  there  was  some  superstition  on  the  subject,  or  whether 
it  was  meant  as  a  lesson  on  humanity  to  animals,  or  whether  it  is 
to  be   understood  as  a  tacit  commendation  of  oil  in  i)reference  to 


151  §  144.    KEVEUAGE. 

butter  anil  milk,  is  not  clear.  The  consecrated  animal  substance 
which  it  was  not  lawful  to  cat,  was, 

I.  Blood,  Lev.  3:  9,  10,  17.  7:  2G,  27.  17:  10—14.  19:  2G.  Deut. 
12:  IG,  23,  25.  15:  23. 

IT.  An  animal  which  died  of  itself,  or  was  torn  to  pieces  by  wild 
beasts,  in  as  much  as  the  blood  remained  in  the  body,  Exod.  22:  31. 
Deut.  14:  21. 

III.  The  fat  covering  the  intestines,  the  large  lobe  of  the  liver,  the 
kidneys  and  the  fat  upon  them,  Exod.  29:  13,  22.  Lev.  3:  4,  10,  15. 
4:  9.  9:  10,  19 ;  also  the  fat  tail  of  a  certain  class  of  sheep,  in  Hcb. 
n^^x,  Exod.  19:  22.  Lev.  3:  9.  7:  3.  8:  20.  9:  19  ;  all  of  which  were 
devoted  and  set  apart  for  the  altar.  The  Hebrews  abstained  also 
from  the  haunches  of  animals ;  the  later  Jews  extended  this  absti- 
nence to  the  whole  hind  quarter.  The  custom  originated  from  the 
account  given  in  Gen.  32:  25,  32. 

§  144.  Beverage. 

The  commonalty  among  the  Mohammedans  drink  water;  the 
rich  and  noble  drink  a  beverage  called  sherbet,  which  was  for- 
merly used  only  jn  Egypt,  Gen.  40:  11,  where  ale  or  beer,  Cv{}og, 
olvo'i  y.Qi&iiog,  was  also  used,  though  probably  not  so  far  back 
as  the  time  of  iMoses.  The  orientals  frequently  used  wine  to  such 
an  extent  as  to  occasion  ebriety,  from  which  circumstance  many 
tropes  are  drawn,  Isa.  5:  11—22.  28:  1—11.  49:  26.  Jer.  8:  14.  9: 
14,  16:  48.  Deut.  32:  42.  Ps.  78:  65,  etc.  Wine,  although  in  East- 
ern climates  it  is  very  rich,  was  at  times  mixed  with  spices,  espe- 
cially myrrh,  and  this  mixture  was  sometimes  denominated  from  a 
Hebrew  word,  which  signifies  ttiixed.  But  tlie  word  in  question, 
viz.  ^^n-c,  for  the  most  part,  means  a  wine  diluted  with  water, 
which  was  given  to  the  buyer  instead  of  good  wine,  and  was  con- 
sequently used  tropically  for  any  kind  of  adulteration,  Isa.  1:  22. 
2  Cor.  2:  17.  Wine  in  the  East  was  frequently  diluted  after  it  was 
bought,  as  we  may  infer  from  the  fact,  that  two  Ai-abic  verbs 
still   remain  which   indicate   tlie   dilution   of  this   beverage.      The 

words  are  io^v-l/  and    %!^ .      There    is    a    sort    of  wine  called 

-s'j,  orA8na,  or  strong  drink.     It  was  made  of  dates,  and  of  va- 
rious sorts  of  seeds  and  roots,  and  was  sufficiently  powerful  at  any 


§  145.    TIIK    TIME    OV   TAKING    REFUESIIirejfT.  155 

rate  to  occasion  intoxication.  It  was  drunk,  mixed  with  water. 
From  the  pure  wine  and  silera,  there  was  made  an  artificial  drink, 
yrn  which  was  taken  at  meals  witli  vegetables  and  bread,  Ruth  2: 14. 
It  was  also  a  common  drink,  Num.  G:  3,  and  was  used  by  the  Roman 
soldiers,  Matt.  27:  48.  Further,  there  is  a  wine  called  by  the  Tal- 
mudists  vinegar,  Avhence  the  passage  in  Matt.  27;  34  may  be  ox- 
plained.  The  vessels  used  for  drinking  were  at  first  horns  ;  but  the 
Hebrews  used  horns  only  for  the  purpose  of  performing  the  ceremony 
of  anointing.     The  other  drinking-vessels  were, 

I.  A  cup  of  brass  covered  with  tin,  in  form  resembling  a  lily, 
though  sometimes  circular ;  it  is  used  by  travellers  to  this  day,  and 
may  be  seen  in  both  shapes  on  the  ruins  of  Persepolis,  comp.  1  Kings 
7:26. 

II.  The  bowl,  Hebrew  V"z:^ .  It  resembled  a  lily,  Exod.  25:  33  ; 
although  it  seems  to  have  varied  in  form,  for  it  had  many  names, 
as,  c-3 ,  nks ,  rrap .  Those  called  v^^  >  ^^"^^^  >  ^^''^'R '  ^^^^  "^  cover, 
and  probably  were  of  a  circular  form,  as  the  names  seem  to  indicate. 
The  bowls  of  this  kind,  which  belonged  to  the  rich  were,  in  the  time 
of  Closes,  made  of  silver  and  gold,  as  appears  from  Num.  7:  12 — 
83,  comp.  1  Kings  10:  21.  The  larger  vessels,  from  which  wine 
was  poured  out  into  cups,  were  called  urns,  n'Ts;??^ ;  bottles,  nrn , 
r^'zr, ,  -ix: ,  '^r; ,  small  bottles,  ^^'n ;  and  a  bottle  of  shell,  13 ,  with  a 
small  orifice. 

§  145.  The  Time  and  Cikcumstances  of  taking  Refreshment. 

Not  only  the  inhabitants  of  the  East,  generally,  but  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  also,  were  in  the  habit  of  taking  a  slight  dinner  about 
ten  or  eleven  o'clock  of  our  time,  wliich  consisted  chiefly  of  fruits, 
milk,  cheese,  etc.  Their  principal  meal  was  about  six  or  seven  in 
the  afternoon;  their  feasts  were  always  appointed  at  supper-time, 
for  the  burning  heat  of  noon  in  Eastern  climates  diminishes  the 
appetite  for  food  and  suppresses  the  disposition  to  cheerfulness, 
Eccles.  5:  IG.  Matt.  3:26.  Mark  6:  21.  Luke  14:  24.  John  12: 
2.  The  hands  were  washed  before  meals,  as  was  rendered  ne- 
cessary from  the  method  of  eating;  prayers  also  were  offered,  1 
Sam.  9:  13.  The  form  of  the  short  prayer,  which  in  the  time  of 
Christ,  was  uttered  before  and  after  meals,  has  been  preserved  by 
the  Talmudists.      It  is  as  follows,  "Blessed  be  thou,  0  Lord,  our 


156  §  14G.  tadm:  and  mktiiod  of  sitting. 

God,  the  kii)g  of"  the  world,  wlio  h:ist  produced  this  food,  or  tliis 
drink,  (as  the  case  may  be,)  from  the  earth  or  the  vine"  3Iatt. 
14:  r.».  1.'):  3G.  20:  27.  Mark  14:  22.  1  Cor.  10:  ^30.  1  Tim.  4:  4,  5. 
The  Ilclirews  wei-e  not  very  j'articular  about  the  position,  which 
their  guests  occupied  at  table,  at  least  not  so  much  so  as  the  Egyp- 
tians were  anciently.  Gen.  43:  32 ;  still  eticjuette  was  not  wholly 
neglected,  1  Sam.  9:  22.  In  the  time  of  Christ,  the  arrogant  Pha- 
risees, who,  imitating  the  example  of  the  heathen  philosophers,  wish- 
ed to  secure  the  highest  marks  of  distinction,  sought  of  course  the 
most  honorable  seal  at  the  feasts,  Luke  14:  8. 

§  14G.  Table  and  Method  of  Sitti.n-g. 

The  taljle  in  the  East,  is  a  piece  of  round  leather,  spread  up- 
on the  Hooi",  upon  which  is  jdaced  a  sort  of  stool,  called  'nVcJ. 
This  supports  nothing  but  a  platter.  The  seat  was  the  floor, 
spread  with  a  mattress,  carpet,  or  cushion,  upon  which  those  who 
ate  sat  with  legs  bent  and  crossed.  They  sat  in  a  circle  round 
the  piece  of  leather  with  the  right  side  towards  the  table,  so  that 
one  might  be  said  to  lean  upon  the  bosom  of  another.  Keither 
knife,  fork,  nor  spoon  was  used,  but  a  cloth  was  spread  round  the 
circular  leather,  to  prevent  the  mats  from  being  soiled,  which  is 
the  custom  in  the  East  to  the  present  day.  In  the  time  of  Christ 
the  Persian  custom  prevailed  of  reclining  at  table.  Three  sat  up- 
on one  mat  or  cushion,  which  was  large  enough  to  hold  that 
number  merely ;  hence  the  origin  of  the  word  dQ^itQiy-hvog,  i.  e. 
the  master  of  the  feast.  The  guests  reclined  upon  the  left  side 
with  their  faces  towards  the  table,  so  that  the  head  of  the  second 
approached  the  breast  of  the  first,  and  the  head  of  the  third  ap- 
proached the  breast  of  the  second.  In  this  mode  of  reclining  we 
see  the  propriety  of  the  expressions,  "leaning  upon  one's  bosom," 
Luke  7:  36,  38.  16:  22,  23.  John  2:  8,  13,  23.  The  middle  mat  or 
cushion,  and  the  centre  position  on  any  given  mat  was  the  most 
honorable,  and  was  the  one  coveted  by  the  Pharisees,  Luke  14: 
8,  10.  Anciently  females  were  not  admitted  to  the  tables  of  the 
men,  but  had  a  table  set  in  their  own  appropriate  apartment,  Esth. 
1:  6,  9.  Babylon  and  Persia  must  however,  be  looked  upon  as  ex- 
ceptions, Avhere  the  ladies  were  not  excluded  from  the  festivals 
of  the  men,  Dan.  5:  2 ;    and  if  we  may  believe  the  testimony  of 


§  1-18.     OF    FEASTS.  157 

ancient  authors  at   Babylon,  they  were  not   remarkable   for   their 
modesty  on  such  occasions. 

§  147.  3I0DE  OF  Eating. 

The  food  was  conveyed  from  the  dish  to  the  mouth  by  the  right 
hand;  this  custom  still  prevails  in  the  East,  Ruth  2:  14.  Prov.  20: 
15.  John  13:  26.  There  was  no  need  of  a  knife  and  fork;  the  flesh 
hook  or  fork,  mentioned  1  Sam.  2:  12,  sstr,  having  three  prongs, 
belonging  to  the  cooking  apparatus,  and  not  to  the  table,  and  was 
employed  to  take  the  flesh  out  of  the  pot.  In  ancient  times  a 
separate  portion  seems  to  have  been  assigned  to  each  guest,  and  he 
was  considered  as  much  honored,  who  received  two  or  more  por- 
tions, 1  Sam.  1:  4,  5.  9:  22 — 24.  At  a  more  recent  period,  all  the 
guests  sitting  or  reclining  at  the  table  ate  from  a  common  dish. 
Drink  was  handed  to  each  one  of  the  guests,  in  the  cups  and  bowls 
already  described,  and  at  a  very  ancient  period  in  a  separate  cup  to 
each  one.  A  cup,  therefore,  is  frequently  used  tropically  for  a  man's 
lot  or  destiny,  Ps.  11:  6.  75:  8.  Isa.  51:  22.  Jer.  25:  15,  27.  35:  5. 
49:  12.  Ezek.  23:  31—34.  Matt.  26:  39.  The  Egyptians,  like  the 
modern  orientals,  drank  after  supper.  The  servants,  standing  by, 
observed  the  nod  of  their  master  and  obeyed  it ;  hence  the  phrases, 
« to  stand  before  or  to  walk  before  the  master,"  are  the  same  as  to 
serve  him.  These  phrases  are  used  tropically  also  in  respect  to  God, 
Gen.  5:  22,  24.  17:  1.  24:  40.  1  Sam.  2:  35. 

§  148.   Of  Feasts. 

When  men  are  prospered,  they  are  disposed  to  indulge  their 
joyful  feelings  in  the  company  of  jovial  companions.  Hence 
feasts  are  mentioned  at  an  early  period.  Gen.  21:  8.  29:  22.  31: 
27,  54.  40:  20.  In  respect  to  the  second  tithes,  Avhich  originated 
from  the  vow  of  Jacob,  Gen.  28:  22,  and  which  were  set  apart,  not 
only  as  a  sacrifice,  but  a  feast,  Moses  was  very  particular  in  his 
laws.  Dent.  12:  4— 18.  14:22—29.  16:10,11.  26:10,11.  He 
also  enacted,  that  at  the  festival  of  the  second  sort  of  first  fruits, 
[denominated  by  Michaelis  the  second  first  fruits,]  servants  and 
widows,  orphans  and  Levites,  should  be  made  free  partakers,  Deut. 
16: 11 — 14.  12: 12 — 18.     Jesus  alludes  to  this  festival,  which  was  de- 

14 


ir>8  §  148.    OF   FEASTS. 

signed  for  the  poor,  and  which  received  its  reward  from  God,  in 
Luke  14:  13.  Tlie  guests  were  invited  by  the  servants,  and  were 
requested  to  come  at  a  particular  time,  Matt.  22:  4.  Luke  14:  7. 
The  guests  were  anointed  with  precious  oil,  Ps.  23:  5.  45:  7.  Amos 
G:  G.  Eccles.  9:  8.  Luke  7:  37,  38.  Anciently,  (and  the  same  is  the 
custom  now  in  Asia,)  the  persons  invited,  before  their  departure, 
were  perfumed,  especially  upon  the  beard,  as  we  may  gather  from 
Exod.  30:  37,  38.  We  are  hardly  at  liberty  to  conclude,  as  some 
have  done,  from  Isa.  28:  1,  and  Wisd.  2:  7,  that  the  Hebrews  were 
sometimes  crowned  with  flowers  at  their  festivals  in  the  manner  of 
the  Greeks.  They  appeared  on  such  occasions  in  white  robes,  Eccles. 
9:  8.  They  gratified  their  taste  by  the  exhibition  of  large  quantities 
of  provisions  of  the  same  kind,  Gen.  18:  G.  27:  9.  Job  3G:  IG;  and 
also  by  a  diversity  in  the  kinds,  Amos  G:  4,  5.  Esth.  1:  o — 8.  Xeh. 
5:  18.  Flesh  and  wine  were  the  principal  articles ;  hence  a  feast  is 
sometimes  called  the  season  of  drinking,  f.rfdi:,  Isa.  22:  13.  As  lux- 
ury increased,  drinking  on  festival  occasions  was  carried  to  great  ex- 
cess; it  was  continued  from  evening  till  morning.  Such  riotous 
meetings  were  called  more  recently  in  the  Greek  tongue,  y.wiwi,  and 
are  deservedly  condemned,  Rom.  13:  13.  Gal.  5:  21.  1  Pet.  4:  3. 
As  the  feasts  were  always  held  towards  evening,  the  room  or  rooms, 
where  they  were  held,  were  lighted  up,  and  the  fact,  that  in  the  cli- 
mate of  Palestine,  the  night,  at  least  as  it  approached  towards  the 
morning,  was  cold,  will  attord  a  clew  to  the  explanation  of  JNIatt.  8: 
12.  22:  13.  25:  30,  etc.  From  feasts,  jests,  music,  and  riddles,  were 
not  excluded  ;  feasts,  therefore,  were  symbolic  of  a  state  of  prosperity, 
and  exclusion  from  them  was  symbolic  of  sorrow  and  misery,  Prov. 
9:  2  et  seq.  Amos  6:  4,  5.  Isa.  5:  12.  24:  7,  9.  Hence  also  the  king- 
dom of  the  Messiah  is  represented  under  the  image  or  symbol  of  a 
feast.  This  metaphorical  rein-escntation  was  so  common,  and  so  well 
understood,  that  the  ancient  interpreters  use  the  words  joy  and  re- 
joice, feast  and  feasting,  as  interchangeable  terms  ;  compare  Ps.  G8: 
4,  and  Esth.  9:  18,  19,  with  tlie  Alexandrine  version  and  Vulgate. 
In  the  New  Testament,  the  word  yund  or  joy,  is  sometimes  put  for  a 
feast.  Matt.  25:  21,  23.  As  many  of  the  Hebrew  feasts  were  the  re- 
mains of  sacrifices,  the  guests  were  required  to  be  pure  or  clean,  to 
which  a  reference  is  made  in  various  allegories  and  tropes,  Ezek.  39: 
16,  20.  Isa.  34:  4.  Rev.  19:  17,  18. 


§  1-10   IlOSriTALITT   OF   TUE    ORIENTALS.  159 


§  149.  Hospitality  of  the  Orientals. 

In  the  primitive  ages  of  the  world  there  were  no  public  inns,  or 
taverns.  In  those  days  the  voluntary  exhibition  of  hospitahty  to 
one,  who  stood  in  need  of  it,  was  highly  lionorable.  Tlie  glory  of  an 
open  hearted  and  generous  hospitality  continued  even  after  public 
inns  were  erected,  and  continues  even  to  this  day  in  the  East,  Job 
22:  7.  31:  17.  Gen.  18:  3—9.  19:  2—10.  Exod.  2:20.  Judg.  19:2— 
10.  Acts  IG:  15.  17:  7.  28:  7.  Matt.  25:  35.  Mark  9:  41.  Rom.  12: 
13.  1  Tim.  3:  2.  5:  10.  Heb.  13:  2.  Hence  not  only  the  >«'omades 
or  wandering  shepherds  hospittibly  receive  among  themselves  stran- 
gers, but  there  are  also  persons  in  cities  who  go  about  the  streets 
and  offer  to  each  one,  whom  they  meet,  water  freely,  which  is  a 
great  favor  in  the  hot  countries  of  the  East ;  this  liberality  customa- 
rih'  meets  with  some  little  reward,  Malt.  10:  42.  Mark  9:  41.  The 
high  spirit  of  honor,  that  is  characteristic  of  the  orientals,  is  exhibited 
in  a  custom,  which  prevails  to  this  day.  If  a  man  receice  another, 
though  he  be  a  robber,  into  his  house,  if  he  eat  with  Lim  even  a 
crust  of  bread,  he  is  bound  to  treat  him  as  a  friend,  to  defend  him 
even  at  the  hazard  of  his  own  life,  unless  he  is  williim  to  meet  with 
the  scorn  and  contempt  of  all  his  countrymen,  Gen.  1'.):  I — 9.  Josh. 
2:  1 — 6.  9:  19.  Judg.  4:  17 — 22.  An  allusion  is  made  to  this  cus- 
tom in  Ps.  41:  9.  91:  1.  119:  19.  2  Sam.  12:  3.  Luke  7:  34.  John 
13:  18.  comp.  Iliad  YI.  210—231.  The  feet  of  the  guests,  as  before 
observed,  were  washed ;  whence  washing  of  feet  also  is  used  as  a 
symbol  of  hospitality.  Gen.  18:  4.  John  13:  5.  1  Tim.  5:  10. 


J60 


CHAPTEK  X. 
ON    THE    STATE    OF    DOMESTIC    SOCIETY. 

§  150.    PUKCAUTIONS    AGAINST    FOKNICATIOX. 

Both  polygamy  and  fornication  were  condemned  by  tliat  pri- 
meval institution,  which,  in  order  to  secure  the  propagation  of 
the  species,  joined  in  marriage  one  man  and  one  woman,  Gen.  1: 
27,  28.  The  old  and  i)ious  pati-iarchs  religiously  observed  this 
institution.  IJut  before  tlie  time  of  ]Moses,  morals  had  become  very 
much  corrupted,  and  not  only  the  })rostitution  of  females,  but  of 
boys,  -was  very  common  among  many  nations,  and  even  made  a 
part  of  th<;  divine  worship  as  indeed  may  be  inferred  from  the 
words,  -r-p ,  a  prostitute  boy,  and  !t^"'3P  ,  the  feminine  of  it,  which 
properly  and  originally  mean  a  person  religiously  set  apart  and  con- 
secrated to  the  llagitious  vice  in  question.  To  prevent  tliese  evils 
to  which  the  Greek  and  Roman  philosophers  refused  in  progress 
of  time  to  oppose  any  decided  resistance,  Moses  made  the  following 
regulations, 

I.  That  among  the  Israelites  no  prostitute,  neither  male  nor  fe- 
male, should  be  tolerated,  and  that  if  the  daughter  of  a  priest  espe- 
cially, were  guilty  of  whoredom,  she  should  be  stoned  and  her  body 
burnt,  Lev.  21:  9;  because  these  things,  as  Moses  observes  in  Lev. 
19:  29.  Deut.  23: 18, 19,  were  a  great  abomination  in  the  sight  of  God. 
Further,  for  fear  that  some  priests  of  low  and  avaricious  minds  should, 
in  imitation  of  other  nations,  make  crimes  of  this  kind  a  part  of  the 
divine  worship,  he  enacted, 

II.  That  the  price  of  Avhoredom,  though  presented  in  n^turn 
for  a  vow,  should  not  be  received  at  the  sanctuary,  Deut.  23:  19. 
This  law  it  seems  was  sometimes  violated  in  the  times  of  the  kings, 
2  Kings  23:  G,  7,  To  stop  the  evil  at  the  commencement,  he  enact- 
ed likewise, 

III.  That  the  man,  who  had  seduced  a  female,  should  marry 
Vier,  and  in  case  the  father  would  not  consent,  should  pay  the  cus- 


§  151.    I'UI.YGAMY.  161 

.  jiiiarv  ilowrv,  viz.  thirty  shekels :  in  case  violence  had  been  of- 
tered/lifty  shekels,  Exod.  22:  IG.  Deut.  22:  23—29.  This  law  seems 
to  have  ori-^inated  in  an  ancient  custom  alluded  to  in  Gen.  34: 1 — 12. 
Finally,  to  secure  the  great  object,  he  enacted, 

IV.  That  a  person  who  when  married  was  not  found  to  be  a  vir- 
"•in,  as  she  professed  before  marriage,  should  be  stoned  before  ber 
father's  house,  Deut.  22:  20,  21.  These  laws  it  must  be  admitted, 
were  severe,  but  prostitutes  of  both  sexes,  notwithstanding  their  se- 
verity, were  set  apai't  in  the  time  of  the  kings  for  the  service  of  idols, 
Prov.  2:  IG— 19.  5:  3— G.  7:  5—27.  Amos  2:  7.  7:  17.  Jer.  3:  2.  5; 
7.  1  Kings  14:  24.  15:  12,  etc. 

§  151.  Polygamy. 

By  the  same  primeval  institution,  just  now  referred  to,  polygamy 
was  also  forbidden.  Lamech  is  the  first  mentioned,  as  having  two 
wives,  and  the  example  which  he  set,  found  no  lack  of  imitators,  see 
Gen.  4:  19,  compared  with  Matt.  19:  4 — 8.  After  the  deluge  the 
example  of  Noah  and  his  sons  was  a  good  one,  but  it  Avas  not  follow- 
ed. Polygamy  very  much  prevailed  among  the  Hebrews  in  the  time 
of  Moses,  as  we  may  gather  from  the  fact,  that  the  first  born  of  six 
hundred  and  three  thousand  five  hundred  and  fifty  men,  above  twenty 
years  of  age,  amounted  merely  to  the  number  of  twenty-two  thousand 
three  hundred  and  seventy-three,  Xiim.  3:  42.  That  this  evil  might 
in  progress  of  time  be  diminished,  Moses  gave  a  narration,  how  the 
institution  originally  stood.  Gen.  1:  27,  28.  2:  23,  24;  stated  the  first 
transgression  of  it,  Gen.  4:  29,  and  the  inconveniences,  which  had 
subsequently  resulted  from  having  a  plurality  of  wives,  Gen.  16:  4 — 
10.  30:  1 — 3,  15  ;  evils,  which  travellers  in  eastern  countries  assure 
us  are  very  great. 

II.  lie  interdicted  to  the  kings,  whom  the  Hebrews  should  there- 
after elect,  a  multiplicity  of  wives.  It  is  true  he  did  not  say  pre- 
cisely how  many  they  should  have,  but  probably  meant  the.  number 
should  be  limited  by  the  custom  of  his  time.  Perhaps,  therefore, 
the  number  was  four,  which  is  the  exposition,  advanced  by  the  Eab- 
bins  and  Mohammedans,  and  is  in  a  measure  supported  by  the  exam- 
ple of  Jacob,  Deut.  17:  17. 

ni.  He  obligated  the  husband  to  bestow  himself  at  certain 
times    upon    each    one    of   his    wives,  Exod.  21:  10,  11,  compared 

14* 


1G2  §  152.  TiiK  CHOICE  or  a  whk. 

with  Gen.  30:  14 — IG,  jK'rhaps  a  week  at  a  tiiiu'  iipoii  cacli,  as  is 
the  custom  to  this  day  in  the  East.  lie  excepted,  however,  the  sea- 
son of  the  metises,  when  sexual  intercourse  Avas  prohiljited  on  penahy 
of  punishment  with  death,  either  because  the  offspring  of  siuh  inter- 
course was  supposed  to  be  leprous,  or  for  some  other  reason  it  was 
deemed  injurious. 

IV.  The  imcleanness,  contracted  by  sexual  conneetion,  continued 
thronaU  a  whole  day,  Lev.  15:  18.  Under  these  circumstances,  a 
man  could  not  well  have  more  than  four  wives ;  and  in  progress  of 
time  polygamy  was  much  diminished. 

§  152.  The  Choice  iOf  a  Wife. 

The  father  of  a  family  selected  wives  for  his  sons,  and  hu.Nbands 
for  his  daughters,  Gen.  21:  21.  24:  31.  Exod.  21:  9.  Deut.  22:  10. 
Jud'^  14:  1 — 4.  If  a  son  had  a  preference  for  any  person  as  his 
wife,  he  asked  his  father  to  obtain  her  from  her  father,  Gen.  34:  2 — 
5.  Judg.  14:  1,  2.  We  may  therefore,  well  conclude,  that  the  ex- 
pressions in  Jer.  31:  22,  and  Isa.  4:  1,  2,  are  descriptive  of  a  very 
great  scarcity  of  men.  But  the  father  could  not  marry  the  daughter 
without  the  consent  of  the  brothers,  Gen.  24:  50.  34: 11 — 27.  2  Sam. 
13:  20—29.  comp.  Gen.  12:  11—13.  20:  2— G.  2G:  7—17.  The  re- 
straints, by  which  the  fathers  of  Aimilies  were  limited  in  making 
choice  of  wives  for  their  children,  are  mentioned  in  Lev.  18:  7 — 18. 
20:  11 — 20.  Intermarriages,  moreover,  were  prohibited  with  the 
Canaanites,  for  fear  that  the  Hebrews  should  be  seduced  to  idolatry, 
Exod.  34:  15,  16.  Deut.  7:  3.  The  law  was  extended  by  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah  to  intermarriages  with  all  foreigners,  on  the  ground  that 
there  was  as  much  danger  of  contamination  from  other  nations  in 
their  time,  as  there  was  from  the  Canaanites  anciently,  Ezra  9:  2 — 
12.  10:  3.  Neh.  13:  23.  It  was  not  lawful  for  a  priest  to  marry  a 
prostitute,  a  divorced,  or  a  profane  woman,  and  in  the  case  of  a  high- 
priest  the  interdiction  was  extended  to  widows,  and  to  women  of  for- 
eign extraction,  Lev.  21:  7,  13,  14.  Daughters,  wlio  through  a  want 
of  brothers  were  heiresses  to  an  estate,  were  commanded  to  marry 
some  one  of  their  own  tribe,  and  indeed  some  kinsman,  if  [lossible, 
of  more  or  less  remote  relationship,  lest  the  estate  sliould  go  to  an- 
other tribe  or  family,  Num.  27:  1 — 11.  3G:  1 — 12. 


§  153.  Tin:  mauui.vge  vo^v  and  dowry.  1G3 


§  153.  The  Mariu.voe  Vow  and  Dowry. 

The  marriage  vow,  -")X ,  was  a  covenant  between  the  father  and 
the  brothers  of  the  bride,  and  the  father  of  the  bridegroom,  made 
in  the  presence  of  witnesses.  At  a  somewhat  recent  period,  the 
covenant  was  submitted  to  Avriting,  and  was  sometimes  confirmed  by 
the  additional  precaution  of  an  oath,  Prov.  2:  17.  Ezek.  IG:  8.  Mai. 
2:  14.  A  reference  seems  to  have  been  had  to  this  oath  in  the  nup- 
tial sacrifices,  of  which  mention  is  made  by  Josephus,  Antiq.  IV.  8. 
23.  By  the  marriage  vow  or  covenant,  not  only  the  wedlock  was 
confirmed,  but  the  amount  of  presents  was  determined,  which  was  to 
be  given  to  the  brothers;  and  also  the  dowry,  "inia,  which  went  to 
the  father,  for  the  bride  formerly  was  estimated  at  a  certain  price, 
Gen.  29:  18,  27.  34:  11,  12.  Josh.  15:  IG.  1  Sam.  18:  23—26,  which 
varied  according  to  circumstances.  In  the  time  of  Moses  the  medium 
estimation  was  thirty  shekels,  and  the  highest  fifty,  Deut.  22:  29. 
comp.  Hos.  3: 1,  2.  Wives,  who  were  thus  purchased,  were  too  apt  to 
be  regarded  as  mere  servants  by  their  husbands,  though  there  are  not 
wanting  instances,  where  they  obtained  the  ascendency  and  reduced 
their  husbands  to  subjection,  1  Sam.  25:  19 — 30.  1  Kings  11:  2 — 5. 
19:  1,  2.  21:  7,  8.  The  honor,  which  is  now  rendered  to  the  female 
sex,  orionnates  from  the  instructions  of  the  apostles,  and  the  only 
fear  is,  lest  it  should  become  too  great,  Eph.  5:  25 — 33.  1  Peter  3: 
7. 

Tiie  wife,  who  was  freely  given  up  by  her  father,  without  his  re- 
ceiving for  her  any  pecuniary  compensation,  was  the  more  highly 
esteemed,  and  being  herself  conscious  of  her  dignity,  she  arrogated 
not  a  little  in  her  own  behalf.  Gen.  IG:  5,  G.  21:  9 — 11.  comp.  31:  15. 
Some  obtained  a  wife,  as  the  reward  of  their  bravery.  Josh.  15:  15 — 
19.  Judg.  1:  15.  1  Sam.  18:  24 — 27 ;  and  it  was  sometimes,  though 
rarely  the  case,  that  the  bride,  instead  of  being  purchased  by  the 
bridegroom,  received  a  dowry  from  her  father,  Josh.  15:  18,  19. 
Judg.  1:  IG,  17.  1  Kings  9:  16. 


1G4  §   1.11.    C  1  l.KIiKATIOX    or    NLTTIAI.S. 


§  \-')\.  C'i:i.r.i'.KAT]<j\  OK  NurriALS. 

There  was  eoniinoiily  ;ui  interval  ol"  ten  or  tuehe  nioutlis,  be- 
tween tlie  time  when  the  agreement  to  marry  was  made,  and  the 
time  when  the  marriage  was  celebrated,  Gen.  24:  55.  Judg.  14:  8 
From  the  lime  of  the  agreement  till  its  consummation  by  mar- 
riage, although  there  was  no  intercourse  between  the  bride  and 
bridegroom,  not  even  so  much  as  an  interchange  of  conversation, 
they  were,  nevertheless,  considered  and  spoken  of  as  man  and 
wife.  If  at  the  close  of  this  probationary  period,  the  bridegroom 
were  unwilling  for  any  cause  to  solemnize  his  engagements  by  the 
marriage  of  t^c  bride,  he  was  bound  to  give  her  a  bill  of  divorce, 
the  same  as  if  she  had  been  his  wife.  If  the  bride  on  the  contrary 
should  be  convicted  of  having  any  illicit  intercourse  with  any  person 
between  the  period  of  the  promise  and  its  consummation,  she  was 
condemned  to  be  stoned,  the  same  as  if  she  had  been  married.  Matt. 
1:  18—20.  Luke  2:  5. 

"When  the  day  of  marriage  had  arrived,  the  bride,  having  pre- 
viously visited  the  bath,  adorned  herself  very  richly  with  the 
choicest  of  those  ornaments,  which  are  considered  appropriate  to 
the  women.  Her  head  was  encircled  with  a  crown ;  a  fact,  wliich 
is  a  sufficient  reason  of  itself,  why  n^3 ,  wliich  primarily  means  a 
person  that  is  a-oivned,  should  possess  the  secondary  signification 
of  hride.  It  was  the  duty  of  the  bridegroom  to  see  that  a  feast 
was  made  ready  on  the  occasion,  and  in  case  he  was  a  person  of 
wealth,  it  was  customarily  prolonged  through  the  week,  Judg.  14:  17. 
About  evening,  the  bridegroom,  clothed  in  the  festival  robe,  Isa. 
19:  10,  attended  with  a  company  of  young  men  of  about  the  same 
ao^e,  01  v'toi  tov  ri'itrfMrog,  and  cheered  with  songs  and  instrumen- 
tal music,  conducted  from  her  father's  house  tlie  bride,  Avho  was 
in  like  manner  sui-rounded  with  virgins  of  her  own  age  to  his 
father's  house,  Judg.  14:  11— IG.  1  Mac.  9:  37—47.  John  3:  29. 
comp.  Jcr.  7:  34.  25:  10.  33:  11.  In  the  time  of  Christ,  whenever 
the  bride  was  conducted  by  the  bridegroom  and  his  attendants 
to  the  house  of  the  bridegroom's  father,  in  case  it  was  evening, 
the  way  before  them  was  lighted  up  by  the  second  sort  of  flambeaux, 
that  are  mentioned  in  the  fortieth  section ;  as  we  learn  not  only 
from   the    statement  in  the  Talmud,  but  also  from  intimations  in 


§  1."),").  coNCir.ixES.  I  Go 

Matt.  2'r.  1 — 10.  Having  arrived  at  the  \)h\vi;  wliere  the  nup- 
tials were  to  be  celebrated,  the  men  began  to  indulge  tliemselves 
in  feasting  and  conviviality ;  vvliile  the  women,  who  were  assem- 
lh(l  in  an  ai)artment  appropriated  to  themselves,  were  equallv 
prcnipt  in  partaking  of  the  feast,  and  in  the  exhibition  of  their 
gaiety  and  cheerfulness.  At  length  the  nuptial  blessing,  viz.  a 
numerous  offspring,  was  implored  upon  the  parties  concerned,  Gen. 
24:  GO.  Kuth  4:  11,  12;  a  ceremony,  which,  simple  and  concise  as 
ii  was,  apiM?ais  anciently  to  have  been  the  only  one,  that  was  per- 
formed at  the  consummation  of  the  marriage.  At  a  later  period, 
there  v.ere  probably  some  additional  ceix-monies,  for  we  read  in 
Tobit  7:  15,  that  the  father  took  the  right  hand  of  his  beautiful 
daughter,  and  placetl  it  on  the  right  hand  of  young  Tobi;i.«,  before  he 
uttered  his  solemn  and  impressive  blessing.  The  spouse,  who  to  this 
time  had  been  veiled  from  head  to  foot,  was  at  last  led  into  the  bed 
chamher,  n2"~ . 

§  15o.  CoxcuiiixEs,  £"'r;3-'E,  -■53^2. 

The  ceremonies,  mentioned  in  the  preceding  section,  took 
place  only  in  case  of  the  marriage  of  a  wife  properli/  so  called. 
Concubines,  (some  of  whom  had  previously  acted  in  the  humble 
capacity  of  maid  servants,  and  others  were  females  who  had  pos- 
sessed their  freedom.)  were  sometimes  permanently  associated  by 
mutual  consent  with  individuals  of  the  other  sex ;  but,  although  this 
connection  was  in  fact  a  marriage,  and  a  legitimate  one,  it  was  not, 
nevertheless,  celebrated  and  confirmed  by  the  ceremonies  above 
related.  The  concubine  thus  associated  had  a  right  to  claim  the 
privileges  of  a  wife  ;  and  it  was  no  longer  in  the  power  of  her  hus- 
band to  dispose  of  her  by  public  sale,  even  if  she  had  previously  been 
his  slave,  Deut.  20: 10 — 12.  In  order  to  prevent  worse  consequences, 
FATiiiciiS  frequently  gave  concubines  to  their  sons;  and,  whenever 
this  was  the  case,  they  were  bound  by  the  laws  of  the  state  to  treat 
them  with  the  same  tenderness,  that  they  would  a  daughter  or  a 
daughter  in  law,  Exod.  21:  9 — 12.  If  a  woman  were  made  cai)tive 
in  war,  she  was  allowed  a  month,  as  a  period  in  which  she  was  at 
liberty  to  mourn  the  loss  of  her  parents  and  friends ;  and  neither 
father  nor  son  was  permitted  to  take  her  as  a  concubine,  till  the  ex- 
piration of  that  time,  Deut.  20:  10 — 14. 


166  §  1-37.    MAKUIAGE,  KTC. 


§  150.  FklitI'ULNlss  in  tiik  Mauuiagi:  State. 

This  was  greatly  desired.  A  large  number  of  offspring  was  con- 
sidered an  instance  of  the  divine  favor  of  the  highest  kind.  Sons 
were  generally  more  desired  than  daughters,  because  they  ti'ansmit- 
ted  the  name  of  tlic  father  in  genealogies.  StcriUt>/  was  looked  upon, 
not  only  as  a  ground  of  great  reproach,  especially  to  wives,  but  as  a 
punishment  from  God,  1  Sam.  1:  6,  7.  Ps.  127:  3—5.  128:  4.  IIos. 
8:  14.  Prov.  12:  G.  Eccles.  G:  3. 

Hardly  less  reproach  was  attached  to  a  lift;  of  celibacy,  and  no 
prospect,  accordingly,  was  more  unpropitious  and  forbidding  to  vir- 
gins, than  that  of  living  and  dying  unwed  and  childless.  Gen.  IC: 
2—14.  19:  30—32.  30:  13.  Isa.  4:  1.  47:  9.  In  such  a  state  of 
things,  barren  wives  thought  it  expedient  to  make  use  of  various 
means  to  produce  or  to  increase  fruitfulness.  Gen.  30:  15,  16.  Cant. 
7:  18.  They  even  offered  their  maids  to  their  husbands,  whose  off- 
spring they  adopted,  Gen.  IG:  1 — 3.  30:  1 — 18. 

§  157.  Marriage  of  a  Childless  Brother's  Widoav. 

There  was  an  ancient  law,  existing  prior  to  the  time  of  Moses, 
Gen.  38:  8 — 12,  to  this  effect.  If  in  any  case  the  husband  died 
without  issue,  leaving  a  widow;  the  brother  of  the  deceased,  or  the 
nearest  male  relation,  VsJ,  was  bound  to  marry  (ca';)  the  widow, 
to  give  to  the  first-born  son  the  name  of  the  deceased  kinsman, 
to  insert  his  name  in  the  genealogical  register,  and  to  deliver  into 
his  possession  the  estate  of  the  deceased.  This  peculiar  law  is 
technically  denominated  tlie  Levirate  laio,  and  had  its  origin  with- 
out doubt  in  that  strong  desire  of  offspring,  which  has  been  men- 
tioned in  the  preceding  section.  Moses  was  aware,  that  the  Levi- 
rate Laav  was  in  some  respects  pernicious ;  but  when  he  recollect- 
ed the  feeling  which  was  at  the  bottom  of  it,  and  the  importance  of 
that  feeling  being  cherished,  he  did  not  think  proper  to  abolish  it. 
AViiile,  therefore,  he  did  not  withhold  from  it  his  sanction,  and 
thought  proper  to  make  it  one  of  the  permanent  laws  of  the  Jew- 
ish state,  he  reduced  it  within  certain  limits,  and  thereby  rendered 
the  injurious  consequences  as  small  as  possible.  He,  accordingly, 
enacted,  that  whoever  was  unwilling  to  marry  the  wife  of  his  dcceas- 


§  loS.    CONCERNING  ADULTERY.  167 

ed  kinsman,  might  ck'cline  it  in  the  presence  of  judges,  in  case  he 
would  allow  the  woman  the  privilege  of  taking  off  liis  shoes,  of  spit- 
tin'^  in  his  face,  and  of  addressing  him  with  the  dlscreditahlc  salu- 
tation of  unshod,  an  appellation,  which  in  effect  would  be  the  same 
with  stigmatizing  him,  as  the  destrorjer  of  his  father''s  house,  Deut. 
25:  5 — 10.  The  disgrace,  which  would  be  the  consequence  of  such 
treatment  from  the  widow,  was  not  so  great,  but  a  person,  who  was 
determined  not  to  man-y,  would  dare  to  encounter  it,  Kuth  4:  7,  8. 
Matt.  22:  23—28. 


§  158.   Concerning  Ai)Ui.tei:y. 

In  those  countries  where  jjolygamy  prevails,  the  sentiment  in  re- 
spect to  the  peri)etration  of  adultery  is  this.  If  a  married  man 
has  criminal  intercourse  with  a  married  woman,  or  with  one  promised 
in  marriage,  or  with  a  widow  expecting  to  be  married  with  a  brother 
in  law,  it  is  accounted  adultery.  If  he  is  guilty  of  such  intercourse 
with  a  woman  who  is  unmarried,  it  is  considered  fornication,  -""\. 
Adultery,  even  before  the  time  of  Moses,  Gen.  38:  24,  was  reckon- 
ed a  crime  of  a  very  heinous  nature,  and  was  accordingly  punished. 
In  Egvpt  the  nose  of  the  adulteress,  in  Persia  the  nose  and  ears  were 
cut  off,  Ezek.  23:  2o.  In  the  penal  code  of  Moses  the  punishment 
annexed  to  this  ci-ime  was  that  of  death,  but  the  mode  of  being  put 
•to  death  is  not  particularly  mentioned,  because  it  was  known  from 
custom,  Lev.  20:  10.  It  was  not,  however,  as  the  Talmudists  contend, 
strangulation  but  stoning,  as  we  may  learn  from  various  parts  of 
Scripture,  for  instance  Ezek.  IG:  38,  40.  John  8:  5,  and  as  in  fact 
Moses  himself  testifies,  if  we  compare  Exod.  31: 14.  35:  2,  with  Num. 
15:  35,  3G.  If  the  adulteress  were  a  slave,  the  persons  guilty  were 
both  scourged  with  a  Icather-u-hip,  r^ps ,  the  number  of  the  blows 
not  exceeding  forty.  The  adulterer  in  this  instance,  in  addition  to 
the  scourging,  was  subjected  to  the  further  penalty  of  bringing  a 
trespass  offering,  viz.  a  ram,  to  the  door  of  the  tabernacle  of  the 
congregation,  to  be  offered  in  his  behalf  by  the  priest,  Lev.  19:  20 — 
22.° 


168  §  IGO.    BILL    OF    DIVORCE. 


§  159.  TiiK  SusinxTKD  "Wifk. 

Tlie  power  was  given  (o  tlie  Imsband,  who  suspected  his  wife 
cf  iuHdehty,  of  exacting  from  her  in  the  temple  or  tabernacle  what 
may  be  termed  fhe  ordeal  oath,  Num.  5:  11 — 31.  To  this  oath  were 
attached  such  dreadful  penalties,  that  a  person  really  guilty  certainly 
could  not  take  it  without  betraying  her  criminality  by  some  indica- 
tions, unless  she  possessed  the  extremity  of  hardihood.  Moses  ap- 
pears to  have  substituted  this  oath  and  the  ceremonies  attending  it, 
instead  of  an  ancient  and  pernicious  custom,  of  which  some  traces 
still  remain  in  Africa;  see  Oldendorp's  Geschichte  der  Mission,  S. 
266,  267.  Dreadful  as  it  was,  there  were  not  wanting  wives,  who 
set  it  at  defiance  ;  licentiousness  increased,  and  adulteries  were  mul- 
tiplied, especially  in  the  later  periods  of  the  Jewish  state.  The  Tal- 
mudists  themselves  state,  Sota  c.  9,  that  the  law  in  regard  to  the 
suspected  wife  was  abrogated  as  much  as  forty  years  before 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  The  reason  they  assign  for  it  is,  that 
the  men  themselves  were  at  that  period  generally  adulterers,  and  that 
God  would  not  fuKil  the  horrid  imprecations  of  the  ordeal  oath  upon 
the  wife  alone,  while  the  husband  was  guilty  of  the  same  crime,  comj). 
John  S:  1—8. 


§  160.  Bill  of  Divorce. 

As  th-G  ancient  Hebrews  paid  a  stipulated  price  for  the  privi- 
lece  of  marrving,  they  seemed  to  consider  it  the  natural  conse- 
quence of  making  a  payment  of  that  kind,  that  they  should  be  at 
liberty  to  exercise  a  very  arbitrary  power  over  their  wives,  and 
to  renounce  or  divorce  them  whenever  they  chose.  This  state  of 
things,  as  Moses  himself  very  clearly  saw,  was  not  equitable  as  re- 
spected the  woman,  and  was  very  often  injurious  to  both  parties. 
Finding  himself,  however,  unable  to  overrule  feelings  and  practices 
of  very  ancient  standing,  he  merely  annexed  to  the  original  institu- 
tion of  marriage  a  very  serious  admonition  to  this  effect,  viz.  that 
it  would  be  less  criminal  for  a  man  to  desert  his  father  and  mother, 
than  without  adequate  cause  to  desert  his  wife.  Gen.  2:  14,  com- 
pared with  Mic.  2:  9,  and  Malachi  2:  11 — 14.  He  also  laid  a  re- 
striction upon  the  power  of   the  husband  as  far  as  this,  that  he 


§  IGO.    lULL    OK    DIVORCE.  169 

would  not  permit  him  to  repudiate  the  wife  without  giving  her 
a  bill  of  divorce.  He  further  enacted  in  reference  to  this  sub- 
ject, that  the  husband  might  receive  the  repudiated  wife  back,  in 
case  she  had  not  in  the  mean  while  been  married  to  another  person ; 
but  if  she  had  been  thus  married,  she  could  never  afterwards  become 
the  wife  of  her  fii-st  husband;  a  law,  which  the  faith  due  to  the 
second  husband  clearly  required,  Deut.  21:  1 — 4.  comp.  .Jer.  3:  l,and 
Mutt.  1:  19.  19:  8. 

The  inquiry,  '*  AVhat  should  be  considered  an  adequate  cause  of 
divorce,"  was  left  by  Closes  to  be  determined  by  the  husband  him- 
self. He  had  liberty  to  divorce  her,  if  he  saw  in  her  the  nakedness 
of  a  tiling,  "c'n  r]";r,  i.  e.  anything  displeasing  or  improper,  as  may 
be  learnt  by  comparing  the  same  expressions  in  Deut.  23:  14,  15; 
anything  so  much  at  war  with  jjropriety,  and  a  source  of  so  much 
dissatisihction,  as  to  be,  in  the  estimation  of  the  husband,  sufficient 
ground  for  separation.  These  expressions,  however,  were  sharply 
contested  as  to  their  meaning  in  the  later  times  of  the  Jewish  nation. 
The  school  of  Ilillel  contended,  that  the  husband  might  lawfully  put 
away  the  wife  for  any  cause,  even  the  smallest.  The  mistake  com- 
mitted by  the  school  of  Hillel  in  taking  this  ground  was,  that  they 
confounded  moral  and  civil  law.  It  is  true,  as  far  as  the  Mosaic  sta- 
tute or  the  civil  law  was  concerned,  the  husband  had  a  right  thus 
to  do ;  but  it  is  equally  clear,  that  the  ground  of  legal  separation 
must  have  been,  not  a  trivial,  but  a  prominent  and  important  one, 
wiien  it  is  considered,  that  he  was  bound  to  consult  the  rights  of  the 
woman,  and  Avas  amenable  to  his  conscience  and  his  God.  The 
school  of  Shammai  explained  the  phrase,  nakedness  of  a  thing, 
to  mean  actual  adultc^'y.  This  interpretation  of  the  phrase  gives 
to  the  law  a  moral  aspect,  and  assigns  a  reason,  as  the  ground  of 
divorce,  of  the  truest  moral  nature ;  but  the  truth  is,  that  the  phrase, 
in  itself  considered,  will  not  bear  this  interpretation,  and  the  law 
beyond  question  was  designed  to  be  merely  a  civil,  and  not  a  moral 
one. 

Jesus,  who  did  not  so  much  explain,  as  fill  up  the  deficiencies 
of  the  Mosaic  institutes,  agreed  with  the  school  of  Shammai  as  far 
as  this,  that  the  ground  of  divorce  should  be  one  of  a  moral  nature, 
but  he  does  not  appear  to  have  agreed  with  them  in  their  opin- 
ion in  respect  to  the  Mosaic  statute.  On  the  contrary  he  denied  the 
equity,  tiie  moral  correctn'jss  of   that  statute,  and  in  justification  of 


170  §  IGl.  ciiiLi>r.ii:rn. 

Moses  maiiUainc'd,  that  he  suflfered  it.  1(.  !  >■  .sun-tioiiod  Ijy  liis  au- 
thority, only  in  consequence  of  the  hardness  of  the  people's  hearts, 
Matt.  5:  31,  32.  19:1—0.  Mark  10:  2— 12.  l.uke  IG:  18.  Wives, 
who  were  considered  the  property  of  tlitir  Imsbands  did  Jiot  en- 
joy by  the  Mosaic  statutes  a  reciprocal  riglit,  and  were  not  at 
liberty  to  dissolve  the  matrimonial  alliance  by  giving  a  bill  of  di- 
vorce to  that  effect.  In  the  later  periods,  however,  of  the  Jewish 
state,  the  Jewish  matrons,  the  more  powerful  of  them  at  least,  ap- 
pear to  have  imbibed  the  spirit  of  the  ladies  of  Eome,  and  to  have 
exercised  in  their  own  behalf  the  same  power,  that  was  granted  by 
the  Mosaic  law  to  their  husbands,  Josephus,  Antiq.  XV.  7,  10, 
Mark  G:  17 — 29.  10:  12.  In  case  the  wife  felt  herself  injured  and 
atro-rieved,  we  may  infer,  from  the  fact  of  the  concubine's  possessing 
that  right,  who  had  previously  been  a  maid-servant,  that  the  wife  also 
possessed  the  right  of  obtaining  a  bill  of  divorce  from  a  judge,  Exod. 
21:  10. 

§  IGl.  Childbirth. 

In  oriental  countries  childbirth  is  not  an  event  of  much  diffi- 
culty, and  mothers  at  such  a  season  were  originally  the  only  assist- 
ants of  their  daughters,  as  any  further  aid  was  deemed  unnecessary, 
Exod.  1:  19.  In  cases  of  more  than  ordinary  difficulty,  those  ma- 
trons, who  had  acquired  some  celebrity  for  skill  and  expertness  on 
occasions  of  this  kind,  were  invited  in ;  and  in  this  way  there  even- 
tually rose  into  notice  that  class  of  women  denominated  midwives. 
The  child  was  no  sooner  born,  than  it  was  washed  in  a  bath,  rubbed 
with  salt,  and  wrapped  in  swaddling  clothes,  ^nnn,  Ezek.  IG:  4. 
It  was  the  custom  at  a  very  ancient  period,  for  the  father,  while  mu- 
sic in  the  meanwhile  was  heard  to  sound,  to  clasp  the  newborn  child 
to  his  bosom,  and  by  this  ceremony  he  was  understood  to  declare  it 
to  be  his  own.  Gen.  50:  23.  Job  3:  12,  Ps.  22:  11.  This  practice 
was  imitated  by  those  wives,  who  adopted  the  children  of  their  maids, 
Gen.  IG:  2.  30:  3—5. 

The  BIRTHDAY  OF  A  SON,  especially,  was  made  a  festival,  and 
on  each  successive  year  was  celebrated  with  renewed  demon- 
strations of  festivity  and  joy.  Gen.  40:  20.  Job  1:  4.  Matt.  14:  6. 
Herodot.  I.  133.  Cyropaed.  I.  3,  9.  The  messenger,  who  brought 
the  news   of  the  birth  of  a  son,  was  received  with  pleasure,  and 


§  1G3.    ANTIQUITY    OK    CIUCUMCI3I0X.  771 

rewarded  witli  presents,  Job  3:  3.  Jer.  20:  15.     This  is  the  case  at 
the  present  day  in  Persia. 

The  MOTHiCR  after  the  birth  of  a  son  was  unclean  for  seven 
davs,  and  during  the  thirty-three  days  succeeding  the  seven  of  un- 
oU-anncss  remained  at  home.  If  a  daughter  were  born,  the  num- 
ber of  the  days  of  uncleanness  and  seclusion  at  home  was  doubled. 
After  the  expiration  of  this  period,  she  went  into  the  tabernacle  or 
temple  and  offered  a  lamb  of  a  year  old ;  or  if  she  was  poor,  two 
turtle  doves,  and  two  young  pigeons,  for  a  sacrifice  of  purification, 
Lev.  12:  1—8.  Luke  2:  22. 


§  1G2.  CiiicuMCisiox. 

The  son  on  the  eighth  day  after  its  birth,  was  circumcised. 
By  the  fulfilment  of  this  rite,  it  was  consecrated  to  the  service  of  the 
true  God,  Gen.  17:  10.  comp.  Eom.  4:  11.  This,  no  doubt,  was  the 
principal  end  of  circumcision,  but  there  do  not  appear  to  have  been 
wanting  other  subsidiary  objects,  comp.  John  7:  23. 

L  Circumcision'  was  a  preventive  o'f  the  disease  called  the  ax- 
THiiAX  or  carbuncle.  Tlie  disease  originates  from  the  impurities, 
which  collect  under  the  prepuce,  and  is  fatal  in  its  effects,  Herodot. 
IL  45.  Josephus  against  Apion,  IL  13.  Philo  on  Circumcision. 

IL  Circumcision  may  have  had  the  beneficial  tendency  of  in- 
creasing the  population,  for  when  the  prepuce,  in  such  a  climate  as 
that  of  Palestine,  is  long,  it  is  an  obstacle  to  fruitfulness.  The  pains, 
resulting  from  circumcision,  if  we  may  believe  the  Mohammedans, 
are  severest  on  the  third  day.  Gen.  34:  25. 


§  1G3.  Antiquity  of  Circumcision. 

The  command,  given  in  Gen.  17:  10 — 14,  to  practise  circum- 
cision, is  expressed  in  such  terms,  as  to  leave  it  quite  evident,  that 
the  rite  in  question  was  known  previous  to  the  time  of  Abraham. 
AVe  learn  from  Herodotus,  Diodorus  Siculus,  Strabo,  and  from  the 
prophet  Jeremiah,  9:  25,  26,  that  in  Egypt  all  the  priests  and  not 
a  few  of  the  laity,  were  circumcised.  No  one  certainly  will  un- 
dertake to  say,  that  tlie  Egyptians  borrowed  the  rite  from  tlie  He- 
brews ;  and  if  this  were  not  the  case,  it  seems  to  be  a  very  plain 


172  §  104.  (IN  Tin;  naming  of  ciiildukn. 

and  natunil  (■diiclii-idii,  lliat  AKraliain  hiniscll"  first  learnt  it  in  Egypt, 
Gen.  12:  10— Iw. 

If  it  !)('  olijcctcil  to  this  statement,  that  unciucujicisiox  is  de- 
noniinatcd  in  .loslnia  .">:  !>,  tlic  reproach  of  Egypt,  (expressions,  which 
ini|)ly  that  the  Egyptians  were  not  rirciinicised,)  the  answer  is, 
those  expressions  might  be  very  naturally  and  very  properly  used, 
j)ro\  ideil  oidy  a  part  of  the  Egyptians,  as  above  stated,  wei-c  cirenm- 
cised ;  inasmuch  as  the  Hebrews  esteemed  circumeision  an  honor 
of  such  a  high  and  indispensable  nature,  that  it  eonld  not  be  with- 
held, Irom  a  single  individual,  without  discredit  and  disgrace.  Gen. 
34:  1.").  Josh.  '.:  0.  Jer.  9:  24,  2").  It  ought  to  be  remarked,  how- 
ever, that  notwitlisianding  the  high  estimation  in  which  the  He- 
brews held  this  rite,  the  numbers  of  them,  who  in  the  age  of  the 
Maccabees,  took  a  part  in  the  gymnastic  exercises  of  the  Greeks  and 
of  course  appeared  naked  on  such  occasions,  considered  circumcision 
a  discredit  to  them  ;  and,  by  an  operation,  described  in  Celsns,  Lib. 
VII.  c.  25,  and  designated  I)y  the  Greek  verb  tntanuoiJiiH,  they  con- 
trive to  restore  the  prepuce  to  its  original  form,  1  IVIac.  1:  1.3.  1  Cor. 
7:  18. 


§  164.  On  the  Naming  of  Children. 

A  NA^iE  was  given  to  the  male  child  at  the  time  of  its  circum- 
cision, but  it  is  probable,  that  previous  to  the  introduction  of  that 
rite,  the  name  was  given  immediately  after  its  birth.  Among  the 
orientals  the  appellations  given  as  names  are  always  significant.  In 
the  Old  Testament,  we  find  that  the  child  was  named  in  many  in- 
stances from  the  circumstances  of  its  birth,  or  from  some  pecu- 
liarities in  the  history  of  the  family  to  which  it  belonged.  Gen.  16: 
11.  19:  37.  2o:  25,  26.  Exod.  2:  10.  18:  3,  4.  Frequently  the  name 
was  a  compound  one,  one  part  being  the  name  of  the  Deity,  and 
among  idolatrous  nations  the  name  of  an  idol.  Tiie  following  in- 
stances may  be  mentioned  among  others,  and  may  stand  as  specimens 
of  the  whole,  viz.  ^s^'.^r,  Samuel,  heard  of  God;  n^D^N,  Adoni- 
JAH,  God  is  lord;  p"!::"in"^ ,  JosEDECii,  God  is  just;  ?r'srx ,  Etiiisa- 
AL,  a  Canaanitish  name,  tlie  latter  i)art  of  the  compound  being  the 
name  of  the  idol  deity  Baal;  "iaxr"-2,  Belsiiazzar,  Bel,  (a  Baby- 
lonish deity,)  is  rider  and  king.     Sometimes  the  name  had  a  pro- 


§  IGO.    CONCKIININ'G    TIIK    FIRST    150 UX.  173 

phftic  meaning,  Gen.  17:  lo.  Isa.  7:  14.  8:  3.    IIos.  1:  4,  G,  9.  Matt 
1:  21.  Luke  1:  13,  GO,  G3. 

In  the  latter  times,  names  were  selected  from  those  of  the  pro 
crcnitors  of  a  family  ;  hence  in  the  New  Testament,  hardly  any 
other  than  ancient  names  occur,  Matt.  1:  12.  Luke  1:  Gl.  3:  23  ct 
seq.  The  inhabitants  of  the  East  very  frequently  change  their 
names,  and  sometimes  do  it  for  very  slight  reasons.  This  ac- 
counts for  the  fact  of  so  many  persons  having  two  names  in  Scrip- 
ture ;  consult  Ruth  1:  20,  21.  1  Sam.  14:  49.  31:  2.  1  Chron.  10:  2. 
Judg.  C:  32.  7:  1.  2  Sam.  23:  8.  Kings  and  princes  very  often 
changed  the  names  of  those  who  held  offices  under  them,  particu- 
larly when  they  first  attracted  their  notice  and  were  taken  into 
their  employ,  and  Avhen  subsequently  they  were  elevated  to  some 
new  station  and  crowned  with  additional  honors.  Gen.  41:  45.  17:  5. 
32:  28.  35:  10.  2  Kings  23:  34,  35.  24:  17.  Dan.  1:  G.  John  1:  42. 
Mark  3:  17.  Hence  A  xame  (a  neiv  name)  occurs  tropically,  as  a 
token  or  proof  of  distinction  and  honor  in  the  following  among 
other  passages,  Philip.  2:  9.  Heb.  1:  4.  Rev.  2:  17.  Sometimes 
the  names  of  the  dead  were  changed,  for  instance  that  of  AiiEi., 
bsn,  a  Avord  which  signifies  Ireath,  or  something  transitory,  as  a 
breath,  given  to  him  after  his  death  in  allusion  to  the  shortness  of 
his  life,  Gen.  2:  8.  Sometimes  proper  names  are  translated  into 
other  languages,  losing  their  original  form,  while  they  preserve 
their  signification.  This  appears  to  have  been  the  case  with  the 
proper  names,  which  occur  in  the  eleven  first  chapters  of  Gen- 
esis, and  which  were  translated  into  Hebrew  from  a  language 
still  more  ancient.  The  orientals  in  some  instances,  in  order  to 
distinguish  themselves  from  others  of  the  same  name,  added  to  their 
own  name,  the  name  of  their  father,  grand-father,  and  even  great 
grand-father. 

§  IGo.  Concerning  the  First  Born,  ~"=^. 

The  jirst  hoim,  who  was  the  object  of  special  affection  to  his 
parents,  was  denominated  by  way  of  eminence,  rr-;  ""^2,  the  open- 
ing of  the  womb.  In  case  a  man  married  with  a  widow  who  by  a 
previous  marriage  had  become  the  mother  of  children,  the  first 
born  as  respected  the  second  husband  was  the  child  that  was  eld- 
est by  the  second  marriage.      Before  the  time  of  Closes,  the  fa- 

15* 


174  §  lGi5.    CONCKRXIXG    TIIK    FIRST    BORN. 

ther  might,  if  he  chose,  transfer  the  right  of  primogeniture  to  a 
younger  child,  but  the  practice  occasioned  much  contention,  Gen.  25: 
31,  32,  and  a  law  was  enacted  overruling  it,  Deut.  21:  15 — 17. 
The  Jirst  horn  inherited  peculiar  rights  and  privileges : 

I.  He  received  a  double  portion  of  the  estate.  Jacob  in  the  case 
of  Reuben,  his  first  born,  bestowed  his  additional  portion  upon  Joseph, 
by  adopting  his  two  sons.  Gen.  48:  5 — 8.  Deut.  21:  17.  This  was 
done  as  a  reprimand,  and  a  punishment  of  his  incestuous  conduct, 
Gen.  35:  22 ;  but  Eeuben,  notwithstanding,  was  enrolled  as  the  first 
born  in  the  genealogical  registers,  1  Chron.  5:  1. 

II.  TJie  Jirst  horn  was  the  priest  of  the  whole  family.  The  honor 
of  exercising  the  priesthood  was  transferred,  by  the  command  of  God 
communicated  through  Moses,  from  the  tribe  of  Reuben,  to  whom  it 
belonged  by  right  of  primogeniture,  to  that  of  Levi,  Num.  3:  12 — 18. 
8:  18.  In  consequence  of  this  fact,  that  God  had  taken  the  Levites 
from  among  the  children  of  Israel  instead  of  all  the  first  born  to  serve 
him  as  priests,  the  first  born  of  the  other  tribes  were  to  be  redeemed, 
at  a  valuation  made  by  the  priest  not  exceeding  five  shekels,  from 
serving  God  in  that  capacity,  Num.  18:  15,  IG.  comp.  Luke  2:  22  et 
seq. 

III.  TJie  first  horn  enjoyed  an  authority  over  those,  who  were 
younger,  similar  to  that  possessed  by  a  father,  Gen.  25:  23  et  seq.  2 
Chron.  21:  3.  Gen.  27:  29.  Exod.  12:  29,  which  was  transferred  in 
the  case  of  Reuben  by  Jacob  their  father  to  Judah,  Gen.  49:  8 — 10. 
The  tribe  of  Judah,  accordingly,  even  before  it  gave  kings  to  the 
Hebrews,  was  everywhere  distinguished  from  the  other  tribes.  In 
consequence  of  the  authority,  which  was  thus  attached  to  the  first 
born,  he  was  also  made  the  successor  in  the  kingdom.  There  was  an 
exception  to  this  in  the  case  of  Solomon,  who,  though  a  younger 
brother,  was  made  his  successor  by  David  at  the  special  appointment 
of  God.  It  is  very  easy  to  see  in  view  of  these  facts,  how  the  word 
first  born,  came  to  express  sometimes  a  great,  and  sometimes  the 
highest  dignity,  Isa.  14:  30.  Ps.  89:  27.  Rom.  8:  29.  CoL  1:  15—18. 
Heb.  12:  2°3.  Rev.  1:  5,  11.  Job  18:  13. 


§  IGG.    THE  NURTUni:  OF  CIIILDREli  175 


§  100.  Tin:  NuuTiiu:  of  CiiiLDnF.x. 

Mothrrs.  ill  tlie  earliest  times,  suckled  (p"?"")  their  offspring 
themselves,  and  that  from  thirty  to  thirty-six  months.  The  day  when 
the  child  was  weaned,  was  made  a  festival,  Gen.  21:  8.  Exod.  2:  7,  9. 
1  Sam  1:  22—24.  2  Chron.  31:  IG.  2  Mace.  7:  27,  28.  Matt.  21:  IG. 
Josepluis,  Antiq.  XI.  0. 

Surses  (rip":"-)  were  employed,  in  case  the  mother  died  be- 
fore the  child  was  old  enough  to  be  weaned,  and  when,  from  any 
circumstances,  she  was  unable  to  afford  a  sufficient  supply  of  milk 
for  its  nourishment. 

In  later  ages,  when  matrons  liad  become  more  delicate,  and  thought 
themselves  too  infirm  to  fulfil  the  duties  which  naturally  devolved 
upon  them,  nurses  were  employed  to  take  their  place,  and  were 
reckoned  among  the  principal  members  of  the  family.  They  are, 
accordingly,  in  consequence  of  the  respectable  station  which  they  sus- 
tained, frequently  mentioned  in  sacred  history.  Gen.  35:  8.  2  Kings  11: 
2.    2  Chron.  22:  11. 

The  sons  remained  till  the  fifth  year  in  the  care  of  the  women ; 
they  then  came  into  the  father's  hands,  and  were  taught  not  only  the 
arts  and  duties  of  life,  but  were  instructed  in  the  Mosaic  law,  and  in 
all  parts  of  their  country's  religion,  Deut.  G:  20 — 25.  7:  19.  11:  19. 
Those,  who  wished  to  have  them  further  instructed,  provided  they 
did  not  deem  it  preferable  to  employ  private  teachers,  sent  them  away 
to  some  priest  or  Levite,  who  sometimes  had  a  number  of  other  chil- 
dren to  instruct.  It  appears  from  1  Sam.  1:  24 — 28,  that  there  was  a 
school  near  the  holy  tabernacle,  dedicated  to  the  instruction  of  youth. 
There  had  been  many  other  schools  of  this  kind,  which  had  fallen 
into  discredit,  but  were  restored  again  hy  the  prophet  Samuel ;  after 
whose  time  the  members  of  the  seminaries  in  question,  who  were  de- 
nominated by  way  of  distinction  tJte  sons  of  the  prophets,  acquired  no 
little  notoriety. 

The  daughters  rarely  departed  from  the  apartments  ap])ropriated 
to  the  females,  except  when  they  went  out  with  an  urn  ("sr)  to  draw 
water,  which  was  the  practice  with  those  who  belonged  to  those 
humbler  stations  in  life,  where  the  ancient  simplicity  of  manners 
had  not  lost  its  prevalence,  Exod.  2:  12.  Gen.  24:  10.  29:  10. 
1   Sam.  9:  11,  12.    John  4:  9.     Thr-y  spent  their  time  in  learnins?^ 


176  §    1(17.    TIIK   I'OWKR  OK  TIIK   lATIIKH. 

tlio?e  doinrslic  aiul  other  arts  wliicli  arc  befitting  a  woman's  situation 
and  character,  till  they  arrived  at  that  period  in  life,  when  they  were 
to  be  sold,  or  by  a  better  fortune  given  away  in  marriage,  Prov.  31: 
13.  2  Sam.  10:  7.  I'he  daughters  of  those,  who  by  their  wealth 
had  been  elevated  to  high  stations  in  life,  so  for  from  going  out 
to  draw  Avatcr  in  urns,  might  be  said  to  spend  the  whole  of  their 
time  within  the  walls  of  their  palaces.  In  imitation  of  their  mothers, 
(hoy  were  occupied  with  dressing,  with  singing,  and  with  dancing ; 
and,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  representations  of  modern  travellers, 
their  apartments  were  sometimes  the  scenes  of  vice,  Ezek.  23:  18. 
They  went  abroad  but  very  rarely,  as  already  intimated,  and  the 
more  rarely,  the  higher  they  were  in  i)oint  of  rank;  but  they  re- 
ceived with  cordiality  female  visitants.  The  virtues  of  a  good 
woman,  of  one  that  is  determined,  whatever  her  station,  to  discharge 
each  incumbent  duty  and  to  avoid  the  frivolities  and  vices,  at 
which  we  have  briefly  hinted,  are  mentioned  in  terms  of  approba- 
tion and  praise  in  Prov.  31:  10 — 31. 

§  1G7.   The  Power  of  the  Father. 

The  autliority  to  Avhich  a  father  was  entitled,  extended  not  only  to 
his  wife,  to  his  own  children,  and  to  his  servants  of  both  sexes,  but 
to  his  children's  children  also.  It  was  the  custom  anciently  for  sons 
newly  married  to  remain  at  their  father's  house,  unless  it  had  been 
their  fortune  to  marry  a  daughter  who,  having  no  brothers,  Avas  heir- 
ess to  an  estate ;  or  unless,  by  some  trade  or  by  commerce,  they  liad 
acquired  sufficient  property  to  enable  them  to  support  their  own  fam- 
ily. It  might  of  course  be  expected,  while  they  lived  in  their  father's 
hou?e  and  were  in  a  manner  the  pensioners  on  his  bounty,  that  he 
would  exercise  his  authority  over  the  children  of  his  sons,  as  well  as 
over  the  sons  themselves. 

If  it  be  asked  "  What  the  power  of  tlie  fothcr  was  in  such  a 
case  ?"  the  answer  is,  that  it  had  no  narrow  limits,  and,  whenever 
he  found  it  necessary  to  resort  to  measures  of  severity,  he  was  at 
liberty  to  inflict  the  extremity  of  punishment.  Gen.  21:  14.  38:  24. 
This  power  was  so  restricted  by  Moses,  that  the  father,  if  he  judg- 
ed the  son  worthy  of  death,  was  bound  to  bring  the  cause  before 
a  judge.  But  he  enacted  at  the  same  time,  that  the  judge  should 
pronounce  sentence  of  death   upon  the  son,  if  on  inquiry  it  could 


§  1G8    OF    TIIK    TK.STAMKNT    OK    WII.I..  177 

be  provi-tl,  that  he  liiul  beaten  or  cursetl  his  father  or  mother,  or 
that  he  was  a  spendthrift,  or  saucy,  or  contumacious,  and  could 
not  be  reformed,  Exod.  21:  15,  17.  Lev.  20:  9.  Deut.  21:  18—21. 
The  autlioritv  of  the  parents,  and  tlie  service  and  love  due  to  them, 
are  recognized  in  the  most  prominent  and  fundamental  of  the  moral 
hues  of  the  Jewish   polity,  viz.  the  ten  commandments,  Exod.   20: 

12. 

Tlie  son,  who  had  acquired  property,  was  commanded  to  exhi- 
bit his  gi-atitudc  to  his  parents,  not  only  by  words  and  in  feeling,  but 
by  gifts,  ]Matt.  lo:  5,  Ik  ]Mark  7:  11 — 13.  The  power  of  the  fiither 
over  his  oUspriiig  in  tlie  ancient  times  was  not  only  very  great  for 
the  time  being,  and  while  he  sojourned  with  them  in  the  land  of 
the  living;  he  was  allowed  also  to  cast  his  eye  into  the  future,  and 
his  prophetic  curse  or  blessing  possessed  no  little  efficacy,  Gen.  49: 
2—28. 

§  IGS.  Of  the  Thstamext  ou  Will. 

I.  As  it  respected  sons.  The  property  or  estate  of  the  father 
fell  after  his  decease  into  the  possession  of  his  sons ;  who  divided 
it  among  themselves  equally,  with  this  exception,  that  the  eldest  son 
received  two  portions.  The  father  expressed  his  last  wishes  or 
will  in  the  presence  of  witnesses,  and  probably  in  the  presence  of 
the  heirs,  2  Kings  20:  1.  At  a  recent  period  the  %dll  was  made  out 
in  writing. 

II.  As  it  respected  the  sons  of  concidnnes.  The  portion,  that  was 
Tiven  to  the  sons  of  co?icubines,  depended  altogether  upon  the  feel- 
ings of  the  father.  Abraham  gave  presents,  to  what  amount  is  not 
known,  both  to  Ishmael,  and  to  the  sons  whom  he  had  by  Kcturah, 
and  sent  them  away  before  his  death.  It  does  not  appear,  that  they 
had  any  other  portion  in  the  estate.  But  Jacob  made  the  sons, 
whom  he  had  by  his  concubines  heirs,  as  well  as  the  others,  Gen. 
21:  8 — 21.  25:  1 — G.  49:  1 — 27.  Moses  laid  no  restrictions  upon 
the  choice  of  fathers  in  this  respect;  and  we  should  infer,  that  the 
sons  of  concubines,  for  the  most  pait,  received  an  equal  share  with 
the  other  sons  from  the  fact,  that  .Jephthah,  the  son  of  a  concubine, 
complained,  that  he  was  excluded  without  any  portion  from  his  fa- 
ther's house,  Judg.  11:  1 — 7. 

m.  As  it  respected  daughters.     The  daughters  not  only  had  no 


178  §  1C9.  KEsri:cTi\G  slaves. 

portion  in  the  estate,  but  if  ihcy  -wltc  inunaiTicd,  ^Vl'l•e  coiisidci-ed  as 
making  a  part  of"  it,  and  wore  sold  1)y  tlieir  brothers  into  matrimony. 
In  ease  there  were  no  brothers,  or  they  all  had  died,  they  took  the 
estate,  Num.  27:  1 — 8.  If  any  one  died  intestate,  and  without 
any  offspring,  the  property  ■was  disjiosed  of  according  to  Num.  27: 
8—11. 

TV.  As  it  respected  servants.  The  servants  or  tJic  slaves  in  a 
family  could  not  claim  any  share  in  the  estate  as  a  right,  but  the  per- 
son, who  made  a  will,  might,  if  he  chose,  make  them  his  heirs,  comp. 
Gen.  15:  3.  Indeed  in  some  instances,  those  who  had  heii'S  recog- 
nized as  such  by  the  law,  did  not  deem  it  unbecoming  to  Ijestow  the 
whole  or  a  portion  of  their  estates  on  faithful  and  deserving  servants, 
Prov.  17:  2. 

\.  As  it  respected  widows.  The  widoiv  of  the  deceased,  like  his 
daughters,  had  no  legal  right  to  a  share  in  the  estate.  The  sons, 
however,  or  other  relations  were  bound  to  afford  her  an  adequate 
maintehancc,  unless  it  had  been  otherwise  arranged  in  the  ^cill.  She 
sometimes  returned  back  again  to  her  father's  house,  particularly  if  the 
support,  which  the  heirs  gave  her,  was  not  such  as  liad  been  prom- 
ised, or  was  not  sufficient,  Gen.  38:  11 ;  compare  also  the  story  of 
Ruth.  The  prophets  very  frequently,  and  undoubtedly  )iot  without 
cause,  exclaim  against  the  neglect  and  injustice  shown  to  widows,  Isa. 
1:  17.  10:  2.  Jer.  7:  6.  22:  3.  Ezek.  22:  7.  comp.  Exod.  22:  22—24. 
Deut.  10:  18.  24:  17. 

§  169.  Respecting  Slaves,  n^'inr,  rinsr . 

The  number  in  a  family  was  very  much  increased  by  the  slaves, 
that  were  attached  to  it.  It  is  probable,  that  some  of  the  patriarchs, 
as  was  sometimes  the  case  at  a  later  period  with  individuals  in 
Greece  and  Italy,  possessed  many  thousands  of  them.  Slavery  ex- 
isted and  prevailed  before  the  deluge,  Gen.  9:  25.  jMoses  therefore, 
although  he  saw  the  evils  of  slavery,  was  not  in  a  condition  to  abol- 
ish it,  and  it  would  not  have  been  wise  for  him  to  have  made  tlie  at- 
tempt. He  accordingly  permitted  the  Hebrews  to  possess  fbieigners 
both  male  and  female  in  the  character  of  slaves ;  but  the  owners  of 
them  were  bound  by  the  laws  to  circumcise  them,  if  they  had  not  pre- 
viously been  so,  and  to  instruct  them  in  the  worshiu  of  the  oidy  true 
God,  Gen.  17:  13—17. 


§  170.    -WAYS  IN   WHICH  Ml.N  HIXAMK  SLAVICS.  179 

"We  have  said  that  the  Hebrews  were  permitted  to  hold  foreigners 
in  slavery,  but  to  this  statement  there  are  some  exceptions,  which 
are  to  be  mentioned.  The  Canaanites  could  not  be  held  in  sla- 
very. For  f/iem,  under  the  then  existing  circumstances,  slavery  was 
regarded  too  great  a  privilege,  or  rather  it  would  have  subjected 
the  Jews  to  too  great  a  hazard.  Such  was  the  bad  faith  of  the 
Canaanites,  the  greatness  of  their  numbers,  and  their  deep-rooted 
idolatry,  that,  had  they  been  introduced  under  any  circumstances 
whatever  into  the  Israelitish  community,  they  would  certainly  have 
endangered  their  existence,  as  a  people  of  God.  The  Gibeonites,  the 
Kephirites,  the  Beerothites,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Kirjath-jearira, 
having  surreptitiously  obtained  a  treaty  with  the  Israelites,  were 
made  exceptions  also,  and  were  employed  in  the  service  of  the  taber- 
nacle. Josh.  9:  1 — 27. 

§  170.  Ways  in  which  men  became  Slaves. 

Men  lost  their  freedom  in  ancient  times  in  so  many  ways,  that 
it  is  dfflicult,  perhaps  impossible,  to  assert  of  any  07ie  of  them, 
that  it  was  the  origin  or  first  occasion  of  slavery.  "\Ye  shall  there- 
fore content  ourselves  with  merely  mentioning  the  various  ways, 
in  which  they  plunged  into  so  unfortunate  and  debasing  a  con- 
dition. 

I.  Captivity  in  tear.  Some  suppose  this  to  have  been  the  origin 
of  slavery,  Deut.  20:  14.  21:  10,  11.    Gen.  xiv. 

II.  Debts.  These,  as  Avell  as  captivity  in  war,  became  an  occasion 
of  slavery,  when  they  were  so  large,  that  the  debtor  was  unable  to 
pay  them,  2  Kings  4:  1.    Isa.  50;  1.    Matt.  18:  25. 

III.  Theft.  Slavoy  was  the  consequence  of  theft,  when  the 
thief  was  not  able  to  repay  the  amount  of  the  projjcrty,  which  he  had 
taken,  Exod.  22:  2.  Neh.  5:  4,  5. 

IV.  Man-stealivg.  By  this  is  to  be  understood  that  act  of  violence, 
by  which  an  individual  in  time  of  peace  is  unjustly  sold  into  slavery, 
or  is  retained  as  a  slave  in  the  jwssession  of  the  author  of  the  crime 
himself  Moses  enacted  laws  of  very  gi'eat  severity  against  this 
crime,  but  they  were  restricted  in  their  operation  to  those,  who  had 
by  violence  taken  and  made  a  slave,  or  sold  for  one,  a  free  Hebrew, 
Exod.  21:  IG.   Deut.  24:  7. 

Y.    Tlie  children  of  slaves.     Children,  who  were  slaves  by  birth, 


ISO  §  171.    CONDITION  or  .SLAVICS  AMONG  THF.  IIICBKF.WS. 

:irc  nicntioiicd  in  tlic  Scriptiiivs  uiiiler  llu'  following  Hebrew 
phni^es : 

r.'^s  ■iT'b"^ ,  t/tosc  horn  hi  one's  house  ; 

nriB'rn  •'rs,  rrrsn  ""ra,  i/ie  children  of  maid-servf/nfs  ; 

pin  "^ra ,  (he  so)is  or  children  of  the  house. 

Consult  Gon.  14:  14.    15:  3.    17:23.    21:10.   Ps.  80:  IG.    IIG:  IG. 

VI.  Purchase.  This  lia])i)ened,  -when  a  man,  oppressed  with 
poverty  sold  himself,  or  when  a  master  sold  his  slave.  Purchas- 
ing' slaves  of  a  person  who  possessed  them,  was  the  most  com- 
mon method  of  obtaining  them,  Num.  31:  4,  14 — 18,  35.  Hence 
slaves  are  denominated  rc;.  n:;r-a  the  property  or  the  purchase 
of  silver,  i.  e.  those  purchased  with  silver.  The  price  of  a  slave 
was  different  at  different  times,  varying  with  the  age,  sex,  health, 
skill,  etc.  of  the  individual  sold.  We  may  infer  from  Exod.  21: 
32,  that  the  medium  i)rice  of  a  slave  was  thirty  shekels;  and, 
by  an  examination  of  Lev.  27:  1 — 8,  form  a  probable  opinion  as 
to  the  difference  of  the  valuation  of  a  slave  in  the  different  period:5 
of   his    life. 

§  171.  Condition  of  Si-aves  among  the  Hedreavs. 

Both  the  food  and  the  clothing  of  those  who,  from  any  cause, 
whatever  it  might  be,  had  lost  their  freedom,  were  of  the  poorest 
description.  All  their  earnings  went  to  their  master,  and  their 
labor  was  worth  to  him  double  that  of  a  merely  hired  servant. 
Deut.  15:  18.  They  commonly  had  the  consent  of  their  masters 
to  marry,  or  rather  to  connect  themselves  with  a  woman  in  that 
way,  which  is  denominated  by  a  Latin  law-term  contuhernium. 
The  children,  that  proceeded  from  this  sort  of  marriages,  were 
the  property  not  of  the  parents,  but  of  their  owners.  The  chil- 
dren, however,  never  addressed  their  owners  as  a  father,  but  al- 
ways as  a  lord  or  master.  Gal.  4:  6.  Rom.  8:  15.  Although  the 
children  born  in  his  house  were  the  slaves  of  the  owner,  they 
were  as  devoted  and  as  true  to  him,  as  if  they  had  sustained  to 
him  the  actual  relationship  of  children.  It  was  in  view  of  this 
fact,  that  the  patriarchs  thought  proper  to  trust  them  with  arms, 
and  to  train  them  up  to  war,  Gen.  14:  14.  32:  6.  33:  1.  They 
were  expected  to  perform  any  labor,  which  their  masters  deemed 
it   expedient   to   require    of    them  ;    but  their   common   avocation 


§  171.    CONDITION'  OF  SLAVES  AMONG  TIIIC  IIKBREWS.  181 

wa?  that  (if  liiisliaiulry,  and  the  tending  ot^  flook-s  and  herds.  Tlie 
maid-servants  were  employed  in  domestic  concerns,  though  not  un- 
freciuently  they  Avere  comi)elled  to  engage  in  those  duties,  which 
from  their  nature  were  more  befitting  the  other  sex. 

Tiie  servant,  who  was  found  to  be  most  faithful  and  discreet,  was 
placed  over  the  others,  and  was  called  r^2  )p\ ,  oixovofio^;  or  t/ie 
steu-ard.  Gen  24:  2.  47:  6.  1  Sam.  24:  7.  1  Chron.  27:  29,  30. 
Rutli  2:  o.  It  was  the  duty  of  the  ruling  servant  or  steward  to  allot 
to  the  others  their  various  duties,  and  likewise  to  see  their  food  pre- 
pared, except  wlicn,  as  was  sometimes  the  case,  a  female  servant, 
Avho  had  been  found  esi>ecially  worthy  to  be  trusted,  hud  assumed  the 
charge  of  the  latter,  Prov.  31:  15.  1  Chr.  4:  1,  2.  Gal.  4:  2.  Eph. 
3:  2.   Tit.  1:  7.    1  Pet.  4:  10. 

It  was  the  business  of  some  of  the  servants  to  instruct  the  children 
of  their  owners,  while  some  waited  upon  their  mistress,  and  others 
upon  their  master.  The  condition  of  these  was  in  some  respects  less 
hard  than  that  of  the  others,  although  it  is  natural  to  suppose,  that 
those  masters,  who  had  any  sense  of  the  duties,  Avhich  every  man 
owes  to  another,  whatever  his  condition,  exhibited  to  all  of  their 
slaves  acts  of  kindness  and  humanity.  Job  31:  13. 

Moses,  in  order  to  render  the  condition  of  those  who  had  lost  their 
liberty,  as  free  from  misery  and  as  favorable  as  possible,  made  the 
following  regulations : 

I.  That  servants  or  slaves  should  be  treated  with  humanity. 
The  law,  which  is  given  in  Lev.  25:  38 — 53,  speaks  very  ex- 
pressly in  relation  to  the  treatment  of  servants  that  were  of  He- 
brew origin,  and  in  truth  of  those  only ;  but  as  the  slaves  that  were 
of  foreign  origin,  when  once  circumcised,  were  reckoned  among 
the  Hebrews,  it  may  be  considered  as  applying,  in  some  degree 
at  least,  to  all. 

n.  That  the  master,  who  slew  a  servant  of  whatever  origin, 
with  a  rod  or  by  means  of  blows,  should  be  punished  according  to 
the  will  and  pleasure  of  the  judge.  In  case  the  servant  did  not  die 
till  a  day  or  two  after  being  smitten,  the  master  went  unpunished, 
because  the  design  of  murdering  the  servant  could  not  in  that  case 
be  presumed,  and  the  loss  of  the  servant  itself  was  deemed  a  suf- 
ficient punishment,  Exod.  21:  20,  21. 

III.  He  further  enacted,  if  the  master  injured  the  servant  in  eye 
or  tooth,  that  is,  according  to  tlie  spirit  of  the  law,  in  any  member 

16 


182  §  171.    COXDITIOX  OF  SI.AVKS  AMONG  THE  IIEHnEWS. 

whatever,  the  serv.-lnt  in  coiiseciiieiiee  of  such  tiviitment,  should  re- 
ceive his  freedom,  Exod.  21:  26,  27. 

IV.  That  the  servants,  on  every  sabbath  and  on  all  festival  occa- 
sions, should  enjoy  a  cessation  from  their  labors,  Exod.  20:  10.  Deut. 
5:  11. 

V.  That  they  should  be  invited  to  those  feasts,  which  -vvere  made 
from  the  second  tythes,  Deut.  12:  17,  18.  16:  11.  comp.  Matt.  25:  21 
—23. 

YI.  That  the  servants,  in  accordance  ■with  an  ancient  law  or 
custom  to  which  there  is  an  allusion  in  Job  24:  10,  11,  wore  en- 
titled to  and  should  receive  an  adequate  subsistence  from  those, 
to  whom  they  were  subject,  Deut.  25:  4.  comp.  1  Tim.  5:  18.  1  Cor. 
9:9. 

YII.  The  master  was  bound  to  provide  for  the  marriage  of  maid- 
servants, unless  he  took  them  to  himself  as  concubines,  or  gave  them 
to  his  son,  Exod.  21:  8. 

VIII.  A  servant  of  Hebrew  origin  was  not  obliged  to  serve 
longer  than  six  years,  after  which  time  he  was  to  be  dismissed 
Avith  presents  of  considerable  amount,  and  with  the  wife,  whom 
he  had  married  previous  to  having  lost  his  freedom,  Exod.  21:  2 — 
4.  Lev.  25:  1 — 17.  In  case  he  had  become  a  slave,  while  unmar- 
ried, and  had  married  with  the  consent  of  his  master  during  the 
period  of  his  slavery,  the  wife  could  not  go  out  with  him  to 
the  enjoyment  of  freedom,  till  she  had  first  completed  her  seven 
years  of  servitude,  Exod.  21:  4.  Lev.  25:  39—41.  Deut.  15:  12—17. 
Of  this  privilege,  for  such  it  may  be  considered,  the  Hebrew  maid- 
servants were,  at  first,  for  some  reason,  wholly  deprived,  Exod.  21: 
7  et  seq. ;  but  at  a  later  period,  when  the  face  of  things  had  pro- 
bably undergone  some  changes,  the  Hebrew  legislator  thought  fit 
to  grant  it  to  them,  Deut.  15:  12 — 17.  The  person,  who  had 
once  been  a  slave,  but  had  afterwards  obtained  his  freedom,  was 
denominated  in  Hebrew,  *^"i"Eri .  If  the  servant,  too  much  attach- 
ed to  his  master,  his  wife,  and  the  children  of  whom  he  had  be- 
come the  father  in  his  servitude,  refused  to  accept  the  freedom, 
which  had  been  offered  him ;  the  master  in  the  presence  of  a 
judge  had  liberty  to  receive  him,  and  in  sign  of  perpetual  servi- 
tude was  to  thrust  an  awl  through  his  ear  into  the  door-post, 
Exod.  21:  5,  6.  Deut.  15:  16.  It  was  not  in  the  power  of  their 
masters,  however,  to  sell  slaves  of  this  description,  notwithstanding 


§  172.    SI.AVKS    AMONC.    OTIIKR    NATIONS.  183 

ihey  had  voluntarily  subjectcil  tlicniselves  to  pej'petual  servitude,  to 
any  person  living  out  of  the  Hebrew  territories,  Exod.  21:  7,  8.  In 
regard  to  those  slaves  who  had  not  completed  the  six  years  of  their 
service,  it  njay  be  further  remarked  here,  that,  if  they  were  Hebrews 
by  origin,  and  had  been  sold  to  persons  dwelling  in  the  Hebrew  ter- 
ritory, their  relations  or  any  other  person  might  redeem  them,  or  they 
might  redeem  themselves,  if  they  had  property  suineient,  by  pa}iiig  a 
price  adequate  to  the  remaining  years  of  service,  making  six  in  tlie 
whole.  Lev.  25:  47 — 55. 

IX.  On  the  year  of  jubilee,  all  the  servants  or  slaves  of  Hebrew 
descent  were  to  be  emancipated,  Lev.  39:  25 — 41. 

X.  Slaves,  who  were  Hebrews  by  birth,  were  permitted  to  possess 
some  little  property  of  their  own,  as  may  be  learnt  from  Lev.  25:  49, 
compared  with  2  Sam.  9:  10. 

Finally,  a  slave  who  had  fled  from  another  nation  and  sought  a 
refuge  among  the  Hebrews,  was  to  be  received  and  treated  with 
kindness,  and  not  to  be  forcibly  returned  back  again,  Deut.  23:  15, 
1(5. 


§  172.  The  Condition  of  Slaves  among  other  Nations. 

Notwithstanding  Moses  inculcated  in  many  instances  hu- 
manity toward  sla^■es,  and  protected  them  also  by  special  laws 
enacted  in  their  favor ;  they  Avere  sometimes  the  subjects  of 
undue  severity  of  treatment,  and  of  sufferings  in  various  ways, 
Jer.  34:  8 — 22.  Still  it  cannot  be  denied,  that  their  condition  was 
better  among  the  Hebrews,  than  among  some  other  nations ;  as 
may  be  learnt  from  their  well  known  rebellions  against  the  Greeks 
and  Eomiuis.  Nor  is  it  at  all  wonderful,  that  the  Hebrews  dif- 
fered from  other  nations  in  the  treatment  of  their  slaves  in  a  way 
so  much  to  their  credit,  when  Ave  consider  the  many  and  weighty 
motives,  that  were  presented  to  them  thus  to  act.  Especially 
when  we  consider,  that  in  other  countries,  there  was  no  sabbath 
for  the  slave,  no  day  of  rest,  and  no  laws  sanctioned  by  the  Divinity. 

Runaway  slaves,  and  those  who  were  suspected  of  an  intention 
to  do  it,  were  branded,  for  the  most  part  in  the  forehead,  to  which 
custom  there  are  allusions  in  Galatians  6:  17,  and  Revelation  14:  9. 
22:  4.  Slaves  in  heathen  nations  were  debarred  from  a  participa- 
tion both   in   all   the   civil   festivals,   and  in   all   the   religious  exer- 


184  §  172.    SLAVKS    AMONG    OTHKIt    NATIONS. 

cises,  wliidi  was  a  very  clifTerent  siatc  of  things  from  that  among  the 
Hebrews.  After  Christianity  liail  peneti-ated  into  those  nations,  the 
state  of  things  Avas  in  some  degree  changed;  and  slaves,  in  the 
Cliristian  ehnrcli.  enjoyed  equal  privileges  with  any  others,  as  far  as 
the  Church  was  concerned,  Gal.  3:  28.  Coloss.  3: 10,  11.  Philem.  10. 
1  Cor.  12:  1.3.  Eph.  G:  8. 

Slaves  in  other  nations  were  not  supported  by  those  witli  whom 
they  labored;  consult  Pollux  on  the  word  novaiy.uTZ);.  They  were 
very  rarely  permitted  to  marry,  or  to  enter  into  that  state  called  by 
a  Roman  law-term  contuukuniU-ai  ;  their  private  possessions  were 
subjected  to  tlie  will  of  their  master ;  and  they  were  obliged  to  make 
him  presents  from  it.  AVhenever  they  were  so  happy  as  to  be  manu- 
mitted, they  were  still  under  the  necessity  of  retaining  the  name  of 
frecdmen,  liberti,  ro&oi,  in  allusion  to  their  previous  condition ;  and 
their  children,  as  if  the  disgrace  were  designed  to  be  perpetuated, 
were  denominated  Uhertini,  freedmen's  sons.  We  have  not  time  to 
dwell  upon  the  occasional,  we  might  say  frequent,  and  excessive  cru- 
elty of  their  masters. 

In  a  Avord  then,  the  condition  of  slaves  Avas  miserable,  and  the  Jcavs 
Avere  not  to  blame  for  boasting  that  they  Avcre  the  freemen  of  Abra- 
ham, John  8:  8.  Paul  himself  acknoAvledges,  that  the  condition  of 
freedom  is  Avorthy  of  being  eagerly  embraced,  Avhen  it  can  be  em- 
braced AA'ithout  dishonesty  or  injustice ;  but  the  freedom  Avhich  he  es- 
teemed most  Avorthy  in  its  nature  and  most  important  in  its  conse- 
quences, Avas  that  Avhich  is  given  through  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
1  Cor.  7:  21 — 23.  Rom.  8:  lo.  Having  this  statement  in  regard  to 
the  slavery  of  other  nations  in  vIcaa-,  one  is  in  a  condition  to  under- 
stand the  force  of  that  comparison  introduced  at  times  in  the  Ncav 
Testament,  Avhich  represents  the  Jews  under  the  Mosaic  laAv,  as  in  a 
stiite  of  servitude,  and  Christians  as  in  a  state  of  freedom,  John  8:  32, 
34.  Rom.  6:  17.  James  1:  25.  It  is  a  comparison,  not  only  lively 
and  impressive,  but  one  Avhich,  under  the  circumstances  that  existed 
in  the  time  of  our  Saviour  and  the  apostles,  Avas  very  naturally  made. 
This  comparison,  as  far  as  respected  sinners,  had  already  been  made 
by  philosophers,  and  the  meaning  and  emphasis  attached  to  it  Avere 
sufficiently  Avell  known  to  the  Jcavs  in  the  time  of  Christ.  They 
must,  therefore,  have  readily  understood  the  expressions  of  Christ  in 
John  8:  31 — 34,  unless  they  AvilfuHy  preferred  making  a  mistake  in  a 
case  that  Avas  sufficiently  plain. 


185 


CPIAPTER  XI. 

CHARACTER   AND    SOCIAL    INTERCOURSE 
OF    THE    HEBREWS. 


§  173.  Character  of  the  Hebkews. 

The  character  of  the  Hebrews  exhibits  the  vices  common  among 
oriental  nations,  viz.  luxury,  pomp,  effeminacy,  and  arrogance.  The 
arrogance  of  the  Hebrews  in  later  times  was  very  great,  see  Tal- 
raud°Baba  Metzia,  p.  83.  John  8:  33.  Among  the  great,  there  was 
too  great  a  prevalence  of  extortion,  of  oppression,  and  of  hypocritical 
friendships,  that  sought  to  cover  the  hoUowness  of  the  heart  be- 
neath the  external  appearance.  We  find  that  vices  of  this  de- 
scription were  a  ground  of  complaint  among  the  prophets,  and  the 
subjects  of  their  reprehensions  in  all  parts  of  their  writings;  and 
still  it  cannot  be  denied,  that  there  occur  in  the  history  of  the  He- 
brews examples  of  creat  magnanimity,  Gen.  14:  23.  44:  34.  Judg. 
8:  23.  1  Sam.  12:  3,  4.  18:  1.  20:  4^-8,  41,  42.  23:  16—18.  24:  7— 
12.  2G:  9—12.  1  Kings  20:  31.  Of  the  various  traits  in  the  char- 
acter of  the  Hebrews,  which  are  developed  in  the  course  of  their 
history,  the  most  striking  beyond  any  question  is  that  of  stubborn- 
ness and  inflexibility,  gee  Acts  vii.  The  disposition  for  idolatry 
ceased  after  the  captivity.  If  it  be  the  fact,  that  the  madness  of 
worshipping  idols  seized  upon  some  of  the  nobler  sort  of  ])eople, 
so  late  as  the  time  of  the  Maccabees,  it  is  sufficienlly  evident,  that 
it  did  not  extend  to  the  great  body  of  the  nation.  The  public  or 
political  virtues  of  the  people  may  perhaps  be  summed  up  by  say- 
ing, that  tliey  were  industrious  in  the  culture  of  their  fields,  and 
brave  on  the  field  of  battle.  If  we  should  assume  the  province  of 
mentioning  any  particular  period  in  their  history,  during  which, 
more  than  at  any  other  time,  they  appear  to  have  excelled  in  brave- 

IG* 


186  §  173.    CUARACTSS    C.7   THE    IIKP.RETVS. 

ry  and  in  warlike  skill,  we  should  point  to  the  days  of  David  and 
the  Maccabees.  Among  the  moral  virtues,  that  are  most  celebra- 
ted in  the  Hebrew  Scrij^turcs,  the  following  may  be  mentioned ; 
viz. 

(1.)  i->'py4 ,  Justice,  a  general  term  also  for  moral  integrity  and 
purity  of  life. 

(2.)  n":s ,  ii:i -X ,  truth,  fidelity,  and  sincerity. 

(3.)  "isn,  humanity,  benevolence,  or  the  love  of  our  neighbor. 

(4.)  c-":r ,  the  mild  or  merciful,  Vulg.  mitissimi,  New  Testa- 
ment nnati^;  are  likewise  spoken  of  with  the  most  decided  approba- 
tion. 

Many  other  moral  virtues  and  duties  are  commended  and  enforced 
in  the  Old  Testament ;  so  that  there  is  no  hesitancy  in  saying,  that 
the  Hebrews,  in  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  moral  conduct, 
far  exceeded  all  other  nations.  But  we  must  not  suppose,  that  the 
rectitude  of  the  conduct  of  the  Hebrews  corresponded  on  all  occasions 
to  their  knowledge,  or  that  they  all  of  them  fulfilled  those  duties,  the 
obligation  of  which  they  were  too  avcU  informed  not  to  admit.  On 
the  contrary,  very  many  disregarded  the  light,  which  God  had  given, 
and  neglected  to  fulfil  those  duties  which  they  felt  themselves  bound 
to  perform.  This  perversity  of  conduct  exhibited  itself  more  espe- 
cially in  the  later  periods  of  their  existence  as  a  nation  ;  when  many 
among  them  perverted  the  law  of  Moses  by  their  traditions  and  phi- 
losophical quibbles.  Holding  to  the  letter,  they  wandered  sufficiently 
far  from  its  spirit,  and  acquired  among  all  nations  a  very  disgraceful 
celebrity  for  their  falsehoods,  impostures,  and  perjuries.  Tacitus, 
Hist.  V.  5.  1  Thess.  2:  15.  Eph.  2: 14.  In  the  last  war  of  the  Jews, 
viz.  the  contest  with  the  Romans,  the  vices  in  their  character  to 
which  we  have  alluded,  prevailed  more,  and  were  checked  by  fewer 
restraints,  than  at  any  former  period.  Josejihus  himself,  notwith- 
standing his  origin  from  the  Jewish  people,  is  so  candid  as  to  confess 
the  existence  of  such  a  state  of  things,  as  we  have  now  stated.  Comp. 
Matt.  12:  43—45. 


§  174.  rnornicTY  and  refinement  of  manners.         187 


§  174.    Propriety  and  Refinement  of  Manners. 

It  cannot  be  denied,  that  there  prevailed  among  the  Hebrews 
no  little  propriety  and  refinement  of  manners ;  although  the  marks 
of  civility,  -which  they  exhibited  to  each  other  in  their  social  in- 
tercourse, are  by  no  means  the  same  in  all  respects  with  those, 
which  would  be  expected  in  such  intercourse  from  a  well  bred 
and  polite  inhabitant  of  modern  Europe.  The  prevailing  taste 
for  civility  and  for  refinement  of  manners  was  strengthened  by  con- 
siderations drawn  from  the  law  of  Moses,  Lev.  19:  32.  The  proofs, 
that  such  civility  and  such  refinement  of  manners  actually  existed 
and  prevailed,  are  so  numerous  in  the  Bible,  that  a  person  would  be 
disposed  to  complain,  that  they  were  too  numerous,  rather  than  that 
they  were  too  few. 

But  every  country  and  every  climate  has  something  peculiar  in  its 
manners  and  modes  of  intercourse,  as  well  as  in  other  things.  If  in 
any  country  the  common  expressions  of  civility,  and  the  usual  forms 
of  politeness  should  be  thoroughly  examined  and  duly  estimated, 
they  would  be  found  to  be  more  marked  and  extravagant,  than  was 
required  by  the  actual  state  of  the  feelings.  The  orientals,  especially, 
would  be  thought  by  an  inhabitant  of  Europe  to  be  excessive  in 
their  gestures  and  expressions  of  good-will,  when  in  truth  those 
gestures  and  expressions  mean  no  more  than  very  moderate  ones 
among  us.  For  instance,  prostration  upon  the  earth  scarcely  signi- 
fied more  among  them,  than  a  nod  of  the  head,  or  an  extension 
of  the  hand,  among  the  less  animated  and  more  moderate  inhabi- 
tants of  occidental  nations.  The  very  ancient  forms  of  civility  and 
politeness,  mentioned  in  Genesis  18:  1 — 30.  19:  1 — 3.  23:  7,  12.  41: 
43.  42:  G,  and  spoken  of  likewise  by  Herodotus  and  other  ancient 
historians,  have  been  perpetuated  to  a  great  degree  among  eastern 
nations  till  the  present  day. 

In  the  time  of  Christ,  the  ancient  mode  of  addressing  those  who 
were  Avorthy  of  being  honored,  viz.  by  saying  my  lord,  or  words  to 
that  effect,  was  in  a  measure  superseded ;  and  the  honorary  and 
more  extravagant  address  of  Rahbi,  i.  e.  the  great,  rn ,  ''2': ,  which 
originated  in  the  schools,  had  become  common  among  the  people 
also  the  title  of  y.ouziars,  or  most  excellent,  Luke  1:  3.  Acts  23:  26. 
24:  3.  2G:  20. 


188  §  175,    MODK    OF    SALUTATION. 


s  17.'^.  Clonic  OK  Salutation. 

The  cxinx'ssions  nsoil  ;it  salutation,  and  also  those,  which  were 
used  at  jiaitiiig,  implied  in  both  instances,  that  the  person  who  em- 
ployed them,  interceded  for  a  blessing  on  the  other.  Hence  the 
word  T|"2,  which  originally  means  to  We5S,  means  also  ^o  salute,  to 
welcome,  and  to  hid  adieu,  Gen.  47:  8 — 11.  2  Kings  4:  29.  10:  13. 
1  Chron.  18:  10. 

The  forms  of"  salutation  that  prevailed  among  the  ancient  Hebrews, 
were  as  follows : 

(1)  rrrr;  -"-.2 ,  n"'r:-5  ""rz ,  n^ir^  ""-"?  j  ^"  i^'ou  blessed  of  Jeho- 
vah. 

(2)  T^-b"  ri'n"]  r2~z,  tJie  blessing  of  Jehovah  be  iijjoii  thee. 

(3)  T^-iv  n^ir; ,  may  God  be  with  thee. 

(4)  "'3  rV;r,  T]""-r  C"Vr,  ma7/  jjeace  (i.  e.  every  blessing  and  pros- 
perity) be  yours.  This  was  the  most  common  salutation  ;  see  Ruth 
2:  4.'judg.  19:  20.  1  Sam.  25:  26.  2  Sam.  20:  9.  Ps.  129:  8. 

(0)  "^'-ix  n'Hj  Sir,  he  your  life  j^^'ospered.  This  was  the  com- 
mon salutation  among  the  Phenicians.  It  was  in  use  also  among 
the  Hebrews,  but  was  not  addressed  by  them  to  any  person  except 
their  kings. 

(6)  XuTqe,  answering  to  the  Latin  ave  or  salve;  in  Hebrew 
mn;  or  n^n,  Luke  1:  27,  28.  Matt.  2G:  49.  28:  9. 

The  gestures  and  inflections  of  the  body,  which  were  made  on 
an  occasion  of  salutation,  differed  at  different  times,  varying  Avith 
the  dignity  and  station  of  the  person  who  was  saluted  ;  as  is  the 
case  among  the  orientals  to  this  day.  In  pronouncing  the  forms  of 
salutation  just  given,  the  orientals  place  the  right  hand  upon  the 
left  breast,  and  Avith  much  gravity  incline  the  head.  If  two  Arab 
friends  of  equal  rank  in  life  meet  together,  they  mutually  extend  to 
each  other  the  right  hand,  and  having  clasped,  they  elevate  them, 
as  if  to  kiss  them.  Having  advanced  thus  far  in  the  ceremony, 
each  one  draws  back  his  hand,  and  kisses  it  instead  of  his  friend's, 
and  then  places  it  upon  his  forehead.  If  one  of  the  Arabs  bo 
more  exalted  in  point  of  rank  than  the  other,  he  is  at  liberty  to 
give  the  other  an  opportunity  of  kissing,  instead  of  his  own,  the  hand 
of  his  superior.  The  parties  then  continue  the  salutation  by  recip- 
rocally kissing  each    other's    beard,  having  first  placed   the    hand 


§  17.3.  modi:  of  salutation.  189 

unrk-r  it,  in  which  case  alone  it  is  lawl'iil  to  toiicli  the  beard,  2  Sam. 
20:  0.  It  is  sometimes  the  case,  that  persons,  instead  of  this  cere- 
mony, merely  place  their  cheeks  together.  It  is  the  common 
piactice  among  the  Persians  for  persons  in  saluting  to  kiss  each 
other's  lips;  if  one  of  the  individuals  be  a  person  of  high  rank, 
tlie  salutation  is  given  upon  the  cheeks  instead  of  the  lips,  2  Sam. 
20:  0.  Gen.  2'J:  11,  13.  33:  4.  39:  11.  48:  10—12.  Exod.  4:  27.  18: 
7.     The    Arabians    are    in    the    habit    of  inquiring    respecting  the 

health,  =-5'J,  rt^^j  of  a  person,  when  they  salute  him,  Gen.  29:  6. 
43:  27.  1  Sam.  IG:  4.  They  give  thanks  to  God,  that  they  once 
more  see  their  friend,  they  pray  to  the  Almighty  in  his  behalf, 
and  supplicate  for  him  every  sort  of  prosperity.  Tiiey  are  some- 
times so  animated  on  such  occjisions,  as  to  repeat  not  less  than  ten 
times  the  ceremony  of  grasping  hands  and  kissing,  and  the  interro- 
gations respecting  each  other's  health.  It  may,  therefore,  be  well 
concluded,  that  the  salutation  between  friends  was  an  occurrence, 
which  consumed  some  time,  and  for  this  reason  it  was  anciently 
inculcated  upon  messengers,  who  were  sent  upon  business  that 
required  despatch,  not  to  salute  any  one  by  the  way,  2  Kings  4:  29. 
Luke  10:  4. 

AVhen  we  consider  the  nature  of  the  oriental  salutations,  the 
ardor  of  gesticulation  on  such  an  occasion,  the  professions  of  friend- 
ship and  good  Avill,  which  were  then  made,  we  should  not  wonder 
that  the  evangelist  John  in  his  second  epistle,  eleventh  verse,  thought 
it  necessarv  to  forbid  a  Christian  to  salute  a  man  of  another  sect,  or 
to  welcome  him  to  his  house.  For  it  is  very  clear,  that  pursuing 
such  a  course  would  have  carried  an  erroneous  appearance,  and 
would  have  possessed  the  very  injurious  effect  of  confounding  distinc- 
tions, and  giving  encouragement  to  heresy. 

In  the  presence  of  the  great  and  tlie  noble,  the  orientals  incline 
themselves  almost  to  the  earth,  kiss  their  kness,  or  the  hem  of  their 
garment,  and  place  it  upon  their  forehead.  "When  in  the  pres- 
ence of  kings  and  princes  more  particularly,  they  go  so  far  as  to 
prostrate  themselves  at  full  length  upon  the  ground,  sometimes  with 
their  knees  bent,  they  touch  their  forehead  to  the  earth,  and  before 
resuming  an  erect  position  either  kiss  tlic  earth,  or,  if  they  prefer  it, 
the  feet  of  the  king  or  prince,  in  who^e  jiresence  they  are  permitted 
to  appear. 


190  §  17G.    ON    VISITING. 

This  is  tlie  state  of  things  among  the  orientals ;  and  one  proof 
among  otliers,  that  it  was  the  same  among  the  ancient  Hebrews,  is  to 
be  found,  in  some  instances  in  the  prevailing,  and  in  others  in  the 
original  signification  of  those  words,  which  are  used  to  express  the 
attitudes  and  the  acts  of  salutation.  The  words  to  which  we  refer, 
are  as  follows ; 

•np ,  to  incline  or  hend  doicn  the  head. 

r-3 ,  to  bend  down  the  body  very  loiv. 

Tj-^a ,  to  bend  the  knee,  also  to  salute  one. 

n:j-:s  t:iES  r-o,  nii-jx  ninri'rri,  ir^ix  Vs:,  to  bend  doion 
to  the  earth,  to  fall  prostrate  on  the  earth,  to  fall  with  the  face  to  the 
earth. 

The  word  ninn'i'n,  when  standing  by  itself,  does  not  mean 
prostration  upon  the  earth,  but  merely  an  inclination  of  the  body, 
as  is  evident  from  1  Kings  2:  19.  Prostration  is  expressed  in  Greek 
by  the  word  nQoay.vvtiv,  and  in  Latin  by  the  word  adorare.  The 
various  positions  of  body,  of  Avhich  we  have  spoken,  were  assumed 
in  the  word  of  God.  The  Greeks  and  Latins  maintained,  that 
there  should  be  a  prostration  of  the  body  in  the  Avorship  of  God 
only,  and  not  on  an  occasion  of  less  importance,  Acts  10:  25,  26. 
Rev.  19:  20.  22:  9.  The  Hebrew^  verb  IJS  is  used  only  in  re- 
ference to  the  adoration  of  idols,  and  not  of  the  supreme  God, 
Isa.  44:  15,  17,  19.  4G:  6.  The  corresponding  word  in  the  Ara- 
mean  and  Arabic  dialects  is  more  broad  in  its  signification,  Dan. 
2:  46.  3:  5. 

§  176.  On  Visiting. 

A  person,  who  went  on  a  visit,  found  himself  under  the  ne- 
cessity of  knocking  at  the  gate,  or  of  calling  with  a  loud  voice, 
till  the  master  of  the  house  came  out.  The  visitant  was  then,  if 
it  appeared  suitable  to  the  master  of  the  house,  conducted  in ;  but 
not  till  a  sign  had  first  been  made  to  the  females  of  the  fiuiiily,  to 
retire  to  their  appropriate  apartments,  2  Kings  5:  9 — 12.  Acts  10: 
17.  Those  who  intended  to  visit  persons  that  held  a  high  rank 
in  life,  were  in  the  habit  of  sending  previous  notice  of  their  con- 
templated visit,  but  they  did  not  fulfil  the  purpose,  they  had  thus 
announced,  without  bringing  with  them  such  presents,  as  were 
suitable.     The  practice  of  carrying  presents,  Avhen  a  person  visits 


§  177.  or  GUTS.  191 

those  who  are  high  .in  hfe,  is  still  continued  in  the  East.  The  guest 
.•:et  out  upon  his  visit  with  a  suitahle  pomp  and  retinue,  and  was  I'c- 
eeived  at  the  mansion,  to  which  he  was  going,  with  equal  indications 
of  magnificence,  his  head  was  anointed,  and  he  was  perfumed  with 
aromatic  suhstances.  Traces  of  these  ceremonies  occur  in  Gen.  27: 
•27.  Kxod.  30:  37,  38.  Prov.  27:  9.  Num.  IG:  G,  17,  18,  37,  38.  In 
the  East,  the  following  custom  has  hitherto  prevailed  and  does  at 
present.  If  it  appear  convenient  or  necessary  in  the  estimation 
of  his  host  for  the  visitant  to  retire,  in  order  to  relieve  himself  from 
the  disagreeable  necessity  of  saying  so  ia  express  terms,  he  gives  him 
a  polite  hint  in  respect  to  his  wishes  by  causing  him  to  be  regaled 
with  incense  or  burnt  perfume.  And  this  is  accordingly  the  conclud- 
ing ceremony  of  the  visit. 

§  177.  Of  Gifts. 

The  practice  of  making  presents,  t^n:^,  ^="^3,  *i33,  ti^ij,  Num. 
22:  7,  16,  37.  24:  11 — 13,  is  very  common  in  oriental  countries. 
The  custom  probably  had  its  origin  among  those  men,  who  first  sus- 
tained the  office  of  kings  or  rulers,  and  who  from  the  novelty  and 
perhaps  the  Aveakness  attached  to  their  situation,  chose,  rather  than 
to  make  the  hazardous  attempt  of  exacting  taxes,  to  content  them- 
selves with  receiving  those  presents,  which  might  be  freely  oflTered, 
iSam.  10:  27.  Hence  it  passed  into  a  custom,  that  whoever  ap- 
proached the  king,  should  come  with  a  gift.  This  was. the  practice 
and  the  expectation.  The  practice  of  presenting  gifts  was  subse- 
quently extended  to  other  great  men,  to  men  who  were  inferior  to 
the  king,  but  who  were  nevertheless,  men  of  influence  and  rank ;  it 
was  also  extended  to  those  who  were  equals,  when  they  were  visited, 
Prov.  18:  IG. 

Kln^s  tltemselves  were  in  the  habit  of  making  presents,  proba- 
bly in  reference  to  the  custom  in  question  and  the  feelings  connect- 
ed with  it,  to  those  individuals,  their  inferiors  in  point  of  rank, 
whom  they  wished  to  honor,  and  al.-o  to  those,  who,  like  them- 
selves, were  clothed  with  the  royal  authority.  These  presents,  viz. 
such  as  were  presented  by  the  king  as  a  token  of  the  royal  esteem 
and  honor,  are  almost  invariably  denominated  in  the  Hebrew 
■,n^  and  r::r.-2,  see  1  Kings  lo:  10.  2  Kings  IG:  8.  18:  14.  Isa.  30: 
2-^G.     The  more  ancient  prophets  did  not  deem   it  discreditable  lo 


192      §  178.  rnEs::NTS  axd  methods  of  nKiNcixr.  them. 

tlicm  to  ruccivc  prc'st'iits,  nor  uiiljccoiniiig  their  s:u'i-cd  calling,  ex- 
cept when,  as  was  sometimes  the  case,  they  refused  by  way  of  ex- 
pressing their  dissatisfaction  or  indignation,  2  Kings  o:  5.  8:  9.  In 
later  times  when  false  prophets,  in  order  to  oljtain  money,  prophesied 
witliout  truth  and  without  authority,  the  true  prophets,  lor  the  pur- 
pose of  keeping  the  line  of  distinction  as  marked  and  distinct  as 
possible,  rejected  everything  that  looked  like  pay,  Amos  7:  14.  Gifts 
of  the  kind  that  have  now  been  described,  are  not  to  be  confounded 
with  those  which  are  called  inb,  and  which  were  presented  to 
judges,  not  as  a  mark  of  esteem  and  honor,  but  for  pui-poses  of 
bribery  and  corruption.  The  former  was  considered  an  honor  to  the 
giver,  but  a  gift  of  the  latter  kind  has  been  justly  reprobated  in  every 
age,  Exod.  23:  8.  Deut.  10:  17.  10:  19.  27:  25.  Ps.  15:  5.  20:  10. 
Isa.  1:  23.  5:  23.  33:  15. 

§  178.  Kinds  of  Presents  and  Methods  of  15i;inging  them. 

The  giver  was  not  restricted  as  to  the  kind  of  present,  which 
he  should  make.  He  might  present  not  only  silver  and  gold,  but 
clothes  and  arms,  also  different  kinds  of  food,  in  a  word,  anything 
which  could  be  of  benefit  to  the  recipient.  Gen.  43:  11.  1  Sam.  9:  7. 
16:  20.  Job  42:  11.  It  was  the  custom  anciently,  as  it  is  at  the 
present  time  in  the  East,  for  an  individual  when  visiting  a  person 
of  high  rank,  to  make  some  presents  of  small  value  to  the  servants 
or  domestics  of  the  person  visited,  1  Sam.  25:  27.  It  was  the 
usual  practice  among  kings  and  princes  to  present  to  their  favorite 
officers  in  the  government,  to  ambassadors  from  foreign  courts, 
to  foreigners  of  distinction,  and  to  men  eminent  for  their  learning, 
garments  of  greater  or  less  value,  as  already  observed.  Gen.  45: 
22,  23.  Esth.  8:  15.  The  royal  wardrobe,  in  which  a  large  num- 
ber of  such  garments  was  kept,  is  denominated  in  Hebrew  nnnbia , 
2  Chron.  9:  24.  It  was  considered  an  honor  of  the  highest  kind, 
if  a  king  or  any  person  in  high  authority  thought  it  proper,  as  a 
manifestation  of  his  favor,  to  give  away  to  another  the  garment 
which  he  had  previously  worn  himself,  1  Sam.  18:  14.  In  tho 
East  at  the  present  day,  it  is  expected  that  every  one  who  has 
received  a  garment  from  the  king,  will  immediately  clothe  him- 
self in  it,  and  promptly  present  himself  and  render  his  homage  to 
the  giver ;  otherwise  he  runs  the  hazard  of  exciting  the  king's  dis- 


§  179.    I'lT.LIC    IIOXORS.  198 

pleasure,  comp.  3Iatt.  '2'2:  11,  12.  It  was  sometimes  the  case,  that 
the  king,  when  he  made  a  feast,  presented  vestments  to  all  the  guests 
who  were  invited,  with  which  they  clothed  themselves,  before  they 
sat  down  to  it,  2  Kings  10:  22.  Gen.  45:  22.  Eev.  3:  5.  Cyrop.  VIII. 
o.  1.  Ihad  XXIV.  22G,  227.  In  oriental  countries,  the  presents, 
which  are  made  to  kings  and  princes,  are  to  this  day  carried  on  beasts 
of  burden,  are  attended  with  a  body  of  men,  and  are  escorted  with 
much  pomp.  It  matters  not  how  light  or  how  small  the  present  may 
be,  it  is  heavy  enough  at  any  rate  to  be  carried  on  the  back  of  a  beast 
of  burden,  or  if  carried  by  a  man,  to  be  supported  by  both  of  his  hands, 
.Judjx.  3:  18.  2  Kings  8:  9. 


§  179.  Public  Honors. 

It  is  the  custom  in  Asia,  to  exhibit  the  most  distinguished  marks 
of  attention  and  honor  to  kings,  to  princes,  and  to  national  am- 
bassadors, whenever  on  any  public  occasions  they  enter  cities, 
or  return  from  a  distance  to  the  places  of  their  customary  resi- 
dence. On  such  occasions  there  is  a  great  concourse  of  people. 
Tlie  small  windows,  Avhich  look  towards  the  street  and  at  other 
times  are  shut  up,  are  then  thrown  open.  The  level  roofs  are 
crowded  and  alive  with  eager  spectators.  The  streets,  to  prevent 
the  rising  of  the  dust,  are  sprinkled  with  water.  They  are  also, 
with  the  exception  of  a  small  undecoi'ated  path  left  in  the  centre 
of  them  for  the  procession,  strewed  with  flowers  and  branches  of 
trees,  and  spread  with  richly  embroidered  carpets.  The  specta- 
tors clap  their  hands,  and  shouts  of  joy  re-echo  on  every  side.  On 
other  occasions,  when  the  people  are  permitted  to  behold  the 
king,  they  honor  and  salute  him  in  silence,  2  Sam.  IG:  IG.  1  Kings 
1:  40.  2  Kings  9:  13.  Isa.  62:  11.  Zech.  9:  9.  Matt.  21:  7,  8.  The 
musicians  walk  first  in  the  procession,  1  Kings  18:  4G.  1  Chron.  15: 
27 — 29.  The  persons  who  sustain  offices  in  the  government,  and 
are  attached  to  the  palace,  are  the  next  hi  the  procession.  Then 
follows  the  king.  All  of  them  are  carried  on  noble  coursers.  An- 
ciently kings,  on  such  occasions,  rode  in  chariots,  Gen.  41:  43. 
2  Sam.  15:  1.  1  Kings  1:  5. 

NoTi:.     Ceremonies  similar  to  those,  which  have  now  been  de- 
scribed, are  exhibited  in    Asia  on  two  other  public  occasions,  be- 
17 


194  §  180.    COXVEUSATIOX    AND    BATHING. 

side  the  one  in  question  ;  viz.  when  a  ^.tison  has  deserted  the 
Christian  and  embraced  the  IMohannnedan  faith,  and  when  a  class 
or  school  of  bojs  have  finished  the  study  of  the  Koran.  The  boys, 
who  have  thus  completed  the  perusal  of  the  writings  of  the  Eastern 
Prophet,  are  seated  upon  the  choicest  steeds.  Musicians  go  before 
them,  the  same  as  in  tlie  procession  of  kings ;  and,  surrounded  with 
an  escort  of  shouting  fellow-students,  they  are  conducted  through  the 
city.  Tlie  prevalence  of  these  customs  in  the  East  will  throw  some 
li<vht  upon  such  passages  as  the  following,  Gen.  41:  23.  Esth.  G:  7 — 9. 
1  Sam.  10:  5—10. 


§  180.  Conversation  and  bathing. 

Conversation,  in  which  the  ancient  orientals  indulged  like 
other  men,  in  order  to  beguile  the  time,  was  held  in  the  gate  of  the 
city.  Accordingly  there  was  an  open  space  near  the  gate  of  the 
city,  as  is  the  case  at  the  present  day  in  Mauritania,  which  was  fitted 
up  with  seats  for  the  accommodation  of  the  people,  Gen.  19:  1. 
Ps.  G9:  12.  Those,  who  were  at  leisure,  occupied  a  position  on  these 
seats,  and  either  amused  themselves  with  witnessing  those  who  came 
in  and  those  who  went  out,  and  with  any  trifling  occurrences,  that 
mi"-ht  offer  themselves  to  their  notice,  or  attended  to  the  judicial 
trials,  which  were  commonly  investigated  at  public  places  of  this  kind, 
viz.  at  the  gate  of  the  city,  Gen.  19:  1.  34:  20,  Ps.  26:  4,  5.  G9:  X2. 
127:5.  Ruth  4:  11.  Isa.  14:31. 

Intercourse  by  conversation,  though  not  very  frequent,  was  not 
so  rare  among  the  ancient  orientals,  as  among  their  descendants  of 
modern  Asia.  Nor  is  this  to  be  wondered  at,  since  the  fathers 
drank  wine,  while  the  descendants  are  obliged  to  abstain  from 
it;  and  we  are  well  assured,  that  the  effect  of  this  exhilarating 
beverage  was  to  communicate  no  little  vivacity  to  the  charac- 
ters of  the  ancient  Asiatics,  at  least  to  that  of  the  Hebrews,  see 
Isa.  30:  29.  Jer.  7:  34.  30:  19.  Amos  G:  4,  5.  The  ancient  Asiat- 
ics, among  whom  we  include  the  Hebrews,  were  delighted  with 
singing,  with  dancing,  and  with  instruments  of  music.  Promenad- 
ing, so  fashionable  and  so  agreeable  in  colder  latitudes,  was  wea- 
risome and  unpleasant  in  the  warm  climates  of  the  East,  and  this 
is  probably  one  reason,  why  the  inhabitants  of  those  climates  pre- 
ferred  holding   intercourse   with    one   another,   while    sitting   near 


§   180.    CONVKHS.VnON    AM)    r.ATIIING.  195 

the  gate  of  tlie  city,  or  beneath  the  shade  of  the  fig-tree  and  the  vine, 
1  Sam.  22:  G.  Micah  4:  4.  It  is  for  the  same  reason  also,  that  we 
so  frequently  hear  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  of  persons  sitting  down 
as  in  the  following  passage,  "  Blessed  is  the  man,  that  standeth  not  in 
the  way  of  sinners,  nor  sittcth  in  the  seat  of  the  scornful,  see  Ps.  1:  1. 
107:  32.  89:  7.  Ill:  1.  G4:  2.  50:  20.  20:  5. 

TiiK  BATH  was  always  very  agreeable  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
East,  Ruth  3:  3.  2  Sam.  11:  2.  2  Kings  5:  10.  And  it  is  not  at  all 
surprising,  that  it  should  have  been  so,  since  it  is  not  only  coohng  and 
refreshing,  but  is  absolutely  necessary  in  order  to  secure  a  decent 
de-^ree  of  cleanliness  in  a  climate,  where  there  is  so  much  exposure 
to  dust.  The  bath  is  frequently  visited  by  Eastern  ladies,  and  may 
be  reckoned  among  their  principal  recreations.  Those  Egyptians, 
^vho  lived  at  the  earliest  period  of  which  we  have  any  account,  were 
in  the  habit  of  bathing  in  the  waters  of  the  Nile,  Exod.  2:  5.  7: 
13 25.  Herodot.  II.  37.  It  was  one  of  the  civil  laws  of  the  He- 
brews, that  the  bath  should  be  used.  The  object  of  the  law  with- 
out doubt  was  to  secure  a  proper  degree  of  cleanliness  among  them, 
Lev.  14:  2.  15:  1—8.  17:  15,  10.  22:  0.  Num.  19:  6.  We  may, 
therefore,  consider  it  as  probable,  that  public  baths,  soon  after  the 
enactment  of  this  law,  were  erected  in  Palestine,  of  a  construction 
similar  to  that  of  those,  which  are  so  frequently  seen  at  the  present 
day  in  the  East. 

The  orientals,  when  engaged  in  conversation,  are  very  candid 
and  mild,  and  do  not  feel  themselves  at  liberty  directly  to  contra- 
dict the  person  with  whom  they  are  conversing,  although  they 
ma}-  at  the  same  time  be  conscious,  that  he  is  telling  them  false- 
hoods. The  ancient  Hebrews  in  particular  very  rarely  used  any 
terms  of  reproach  more  severe  than  those  of  ys^  adversary  or  o-ppo- 
ser,  n;5-i  raca,  conteinptihle,  and  sometimes  ^23  fool,  an  expres- 
sion, which  means  a  wicked  man  or  an  atheist,  Job  2:  10.  Ps.  14:  1. 
Isa.  32:  6.  Matt.  5:  22.  10:23.  Tanchuma  v.  2.  xviii.  4.  When 
anything  was  said,  which  was  not  acceptable,  the  dissatisfied  person 
replied  it  is  enough,  r;''!  n:^  S" ,  r/.arov  iari,  Deut.  3:  20.  Luke  22: 
38. 

The  formula  of  assent  or  alhrmation  was  as  follows ;  ov  una^i, 
P,'*2i  "S ,  thou  hast  said,  or  thou  hast  rigidly  said.  We  are  inform- 
ed by  the  traveller  Aryda,  that  this  is  the  prevailing  mode  of  a 
person's  expressing  his  assent  or  affirmation  to  this  day,  in  the  vi- 


190  §    1<S1.    TKKATMKNT    OT    TIIK    .TliWS    TO    STIIANGF.KS. 

ciiiilv  of  3I(Miiit  Lcb:ii'.uii,  especially  \vlH'rL'  lie  does  not  Avish  to  as- 
sort anvtl'.iiig  in  express  terms.  This  explains  the  answer  ot"  the 
Saviour  to  the  high  priest  Caiaphas  in  Matt.  26:  G4,  ■when  he  was 
asked,  wlicilier  he  was  the  Christ  the  Son  of  God,  and  replied  ov 
iiTTfU',  th.ou  /last  said. 

To  spit  in  company  in  a  room,  wliieh  was  covered  with  a  carpet, 
was  a;i  indication  of  jzreat  rusticity  of  manners;  but  in  case  there 
was  no  carpet,  it  was  not  accounted  a  fault  in  a  person,  |)rovi(led  he 
spit  in  the  comer  of  the  room.  The  expressions,  therefore,  in  Deu- 
teronomy, 25:  7 — 9,  viz.  "I'SSS  i^i^"^';  and  she  shall  spit  in  his  face, 
are  to  be  understood  literally,  the  more  so  on  this  account,  because 
in  other  places,  where  spitting,  buffeting,  etc.  are  mentioned,  they 
occur  under  circumstances,  where  there  existed  a  great  excitement 
of  feeling,  and  because  there  are  not  wanting  instances,  of  even 
greater  rudeness  and  violence,  than  that  of  spitting  in  one's  face, 
Matt.  26:  67.  Mark  14:  65.  comp.  1  Kings  22:  24.  Isa.  57:  4.  Ezek. 
2:  6.  25:  6.  2  Sam.  16:  6,  7.  The  orientals,  as  is  very  well  known, 
are  fond  of  taking  a  nap  at  noon,  to  which  they  are  strongly  invited 
by  the  oppressive  heat  of  their  climate,  2  Sam.  4:  5.  11:  2.  Matt.  13: 
25.  The  phrase,  to  cover  one's  feet,  is  used  in  certain  instances  to 
express  the  custom  of  retiring  to  rest  or  sleeping  at  this  time,  Judg. 
3:  24.  1  Sam.  24:  4. 

§  181.  Tkeatment  of  the  Jews  to  Strangers. 

Moses  inculcated  and  enforced,  by  numerous  and  by  powerful 
considerations,  as  well  as  by  various  examples  of  benevolent  hospi- 
tality, mentioned  in  the  book  of  Genesis,  the  exhibition  of  kindness 
and  humanity  to  strangers.  There  were  two  classes  of  persons,  who 
in  reference  to  this  subject,  were  denominated  strangers,  Ci"!? .  One 
class  were  those,  who,  whether  Hebrews  or  foreigners,  were  desti- 
tute of  a  home,  in  Hebrew  C^r'rT .  The  others  were  persons,  who, 
though  not  natives,  had  a  home  in  Palestine ;  the  latter  were  r:""'.r. 
strangers  or  foreigners  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word.  Both  of  these 
classes,  according  to  the  civil  code  of  INIoses  were  to  be  treated  with 
kindness,  and  were  to  enjoy  the  same  rights  with  other  citizens,  Lev. 
19:  33,  34.  24:  16,  22.  Num.  9:  14.  15:  14.  Dent.  10:  18.  23:  8.  24: 
17.  27:  19. 

In  the  earlier  periods  of  the   Hebrew  state,  persons  who  were 


§182.  THE  roou  and  hkooaks.  197 

natives  of  another  country,  but  who  had  come,  either  from  choice 
or  necessity,  to  take  up  their  residence  among  the  Hebrews,  ap- 
pear to  have  been  placed  in  fjivorable  circumstances.  At  a  later 
period,  viz.  in  the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon,  they  were  com- 
pelled to  labor  on  the  religious  edifices  which  were  erected  by 
those  princes ;  as  we  may  learn  from  such  passages  as  these : 
'•  And  Solomon  numbered  all  the  stramjcrs  that  were  in  the  land  of  Is- 
rael, after  the  numbering  icherewith  David  his  father  had  numbered 
them  ;  and  they  ivere  found  an  hundred  and  ffty  thousand  and  three 
thousand  and  six  hundred ;  and  he  set  threescore  and  ten  thousand,  of 
them  to  be  hearers  of  burdens"  etc. ;  see  1  Chron.  22:  2.  2  Chron. 
2:  1,  IG,  17.  The  exaction  of  such  laborious  services  from  foreign- 
ers, was  probably  limited  to  those  who  had  been  taken  prisoners 
in  war ;  and  who,  according  to  the  rights  of  war  as  they  were 
understood  at  that  period,  could  be  justly  employed  in  any  offi- 
ces, however  low  and  however  laborious,  which  the  conqueror 
thought  proper  to  impose.  In  the  time  of  Christ,  the  degenerate 
Jews  did  not  find  it  convenient  to  render  to  the  strangers  from 
a  foreign  country  those  deeds  of  kindness  and  humanity,  which 
were  not  only  their  due,  but  which  were  demanded  in  their  be- 
half by  the  law  of  Moses.  They  were  in  the  habit  of  under- 
standing by  the  word  T^ ,  neighbor,  their  friends  merely,  and  accord- 
ingly restricted  the  exercise  of  their  benevolence  by  the  same  nar- 
row limits  that  bounded,  in  this  case,  their  interpretation ;  contrary 
as  both  were  to  the  spirit  of  those  passages,  which  have  been  adduced 
above,  Lev.  19:  18. 


§  182.  The  Poou  akd  Beggars. 

Moses,  as  may  be  learned  by  consulting  the  references  in  the 
preceding  section,  made  abundant  provision  for  the  poor,  but  it 
does  not  appear  that  he  says  anything  in  respect  to  beggars.  TV"e 
find  the  first  express  mention  of  mendicants  in  the  Psalms ;  sec 
Ps.  109:  10.  In  the  parts  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  which  were 
written  subsequently,  the  mention  of  them  is  quite  frequent.  In 
the  time  of  Christ,  mendicants  were  found  sitting  in  the  streets,  at 
the  doors  of  the  rich,  at  the  gates  of  the  temple,  and  likewise, 
as  we  have  reason  to  believe,  at  the  entrance  of  the  synagogues, 
Mark  10:  4G.  Luke  IG:  20.  Acts  3:  2.  Sometimes  food  and  sorac- 
17* 


198  §  183.    I.EVITICAL    DKFII.KMICXTS. 

times  money  was  preseiiteil  to  them,  ^latl.  2C:  9.  Luke  IG:  SI.  "We 
liave  no  reiison  to  supjiose,  that  tlicre  existed  in  the  time  of  Christ 
that  elass  of  persons  called  vajrard  hcgrjars,  who  present  their  siij)- 
pliealions  for  alms  fi-om  door  to  door,  and  ■who  arc  found  at  the 
present  day  in  the  East,  although  less  frequently  than  in  the  countries 
of  Europe.  That  the  custom  of  seeking  alms  by  sounding  a  trumpet 
or  liorn,  which  prevails  among  a  class  of  Mohammedan  monastics, 
called  Kalkndeu  or  Kari:ndal,  prevailed  also  in  the  time  of  Christ, 
may  be  inferred  from  Matt.  G:  2,  where  the  verb  ou),m^()3  possesses 
the  shade  of  signification,  that  would  be  attached  to  a  corresponding 
word  in  the  Iliphil  form  of  the  Hebrew,  and  is  to  be  rendered  transi- 
tively, as  is  the  case  with  many  other  verbs  in  the  New  Testament, 
1  Cor.  1:  20.  3:  G.  15:  1,  etc.  There  is  one  thing  characteristic  of 
those  orientals,  who  are  reduced  to  the  disagreeable  necessity  of  fol- 
lowing the  vocation  of  mendicants,  which  is  worthy  of  being  men- 
tioned ;  they  do  not  appeal  to  the  i^ity  or  to  the  alms-giving  spirit, 
but  to  the  justice  of  their  benefactors.  Job  22:  7.  31:  16.  Pi-ov. 
3:  27,  28.  21:  21.  Ps.  24:  5.  Eccles.  4:  1,  14:  13,  14.  Matt.  G:  1. 
Koran  17:  28.  30:  37.  70:  24.  Buxtorf.  Lexic.  Chald.  Talmud. 
Kabb.  p.  1821. 

§  183.  Levitical  Defilements. 

The  defdements,  which  kept  a  person  back  not  only  from  sacred 
scenes  and  duties,  but  from  all  intercourse  with  other  persons, 
were  recognized  and  had  an  existence,  among  the  Hebrews, 
before  as  well  as  after  the  time  of  Moses.  They  had  an  exist- 
ence, in  truth,  at  that  very  early  period,  not  only  among  the 
Hebrews,  but  also  among  many  other  nations.  If  a  man  were  de- 
filed or  rendered  unclean  by  disease,  it  so  happened,  because  the 
disease  was  considered  contagious.  If  he  were  defiled  from  any 
other  cause,  that  cause,  whatever  it  might  be,  was  something, 
which  was  associated  with  ideas  of  impurity,  with  dislike,  or  ab- 
horrence in  the  minds  of  the  people.  Moses  defined  more  accu- 
ratel^',  than  had  previously  been  done,  those  things  to  which  it 
was  the  custom  to  attach  the  opprobrium  of  communicating  un- 
cleanness;  and  in  order  to  increase  and  perpetuate  the  separa- 
tion which  existed  between  the  Plebrews  and  the  Gentile  nations, 
and,  to  render  the   former   less   liable  to  seduction  to  idolatry,  he 


§  183.  i.KviTiCAL  i>i:filemf.nt.s.  199 

appointed  and  regulated  the  ceremonies,  b}'  which  unclean  persons 
mi<Tht  be  purified  and  restored  Ijack  again  to  the  privileges  of  tlie 
tabernacle  and  to  the  intercourse  of  friends.  If  a  person,  who  was 
defded  or  unclean,  touched  another,  he  rendered  the  other  person  as 
unclean  as  himself,  and  both  were  excluded  from  the  tabernacle  and 
temple,  Lev.  13:  3. 

Those  persons,  who  according  to  the  Levitical  law,  were  unclean, 
were, 

I.  Persons  who  were  afllicted  with  the  leprosy.  Tliey  were  not 
permitted  to  dwell  within  the  limits  of  eitlier  cities  or  villages.  They 
were  clad  in  a  rent  and  miserable  garment,  and  were  compelled  to 
cry  out  to  every  one,  whom  they  met,  ^'■Unclean,  unclean T  Lev.  13: 
45.  Num.  o:  2  et  seq. 

IL  The  GoxouRiiKA  or  seed  flux  whether  bexigxa  or  vinuLKX- 
TA,  was  a  source  of  uncleanness  to  any  person,  who  was  the  subject 
of  it.  Lev.  lo:  3. 

III.  "NVlioever  had  an  EMISSIO  SEMIXIS,  even  in  legitimate  inter- 
course, was  to  be  unclean  till  the  evening,  Lev.  15:  IG — 22. 

IV.  Women  after  the  birth  of  a  son  were  unclean  for  seven,  and 
after  the  birth  of  a  daughter,  for  fourteen  days.  And  in  case  the  in- 
fant was  a  manchild,  they  were  debarred  during  the  thirty-three  fol- 
lowing days  from  the  tabernacle  and  temple,  and  from  the  saci'ifices ; 
in  case  the  child  was  a  female,  they  were  thus  debarred  during  the 
sixty  following  days.  Lev.  12:  1 — 6.  15:  16 — 28. 

y.  "Women,  during  the  period  of  the  menses,  and  when  laboring 
under  the  disease  denominated  an  issue  of  hlood  were  unclean,  Lev. 
15:  19—21.  Matt.  9:  20. 

VI.  He,  who  had  touched  the  corpse  of  a  man,  or  the  carcass  of 
an  animal,  a  sepulchre,  or  the  bones  of  a  dead  person ;  likewise  he, 
who  had  been  in  the  tent,  or  in  the  room,  or  house  of  the  dying  or 
the  dead,  were  both  of  them  unclean  for  seven  days.  Priests  were 
rendered  unclean  by  merely  wearing  the  badges  of  mourning;  and 
for  that  reason  they  never  assumed  them,  except  in  case  of  the  death 
of  parents,  children,  brothers,  or  unmarried  sisters  residing  in  their 
father's  house.  For  the  same  reason,  viz.  the  circumstance  of  their 
communicating  uncleanness,  the  habiliments  of  mourning  were  alto- 
gether interdicted  to  the  high  priest,  Lev.  5:  2.  11:  8 — 11,  24 — 31. 
21:  1—5,  10,  11.  Num.  19:  11—15. 


200 

CHAPTER  XII. 

OF    DISEASES. 

§  184.  Of  Diskases  genkrally. 

Ix  the  primitive  ages  of  the  world,  diseases,  in  consequence  of 
the  great  simplicity  in  the  mode  of  living,  were  but  few  in  number. 
At  a  subsequent  period  the  number  was  increased,  by  the  accession 
of  diseases,  that  had  been  previously  unknown.  P^pidemics  al.-o,  dis- 
eases somewhat  peculiar  in  tlieir  character  and  still  more  fearful  in 
their  consequences,  soon  made  their  appearance,  some  infesting  one 
period  of  life,  and  some  another,  some  limiting  their  ravages  to  one 
country,  and  some  to  another.  The  propriety  of  this  statement 
in  regard  to  the  original  extent  and  subsequent  increase  of 
diseases  in  general,  and  to  epidemics,  will  recommend  itself  to  every 
mind,  that  makes  even  but  small  pretensions  to  attainments  in  know- 
ledge. 

PKOSrER  Alpinus,  in  his  Book  de  Medicina  Aegyptiaca,  Lib.  I. 
c.  13.  p.  13,  mentions  the  diseases  which  are  prevalent  in  Egypt, 
and  in  other  countries  in  the  same  climate.  They  are  oi)ht]ialmies, 
leprosies,  inflammations  of  the  brain,  pains  in  the  joints,  the  hernia, 
the  stone  in  the  reins  and  bladder,  the  phthisic,  hectic,  pestilential, 
and  tertian  fevers,  weakness  of  the  stomach,  obstructions  in  the  liver, 
and  the  spleen.  Of  these  diseases,  ophthalmies,  pestilential  fevers, 
and  inflammations  of  the  brain  are  epidemics  ;  the  others  are  of  dif- 
ferent character. 

Every  region,  and  every  age  of  the  world,  has  been  in  the  habit 
of  attributing  certain  diseases  to  certain  causes,  and  of  assigning 
names  to  those  diseases,  derived  from  the  supposed  origin  or  cause, 
Avhether  it  were  a  real  or  only  an  imaginary  one.  The  names 
thus  given  have  been  in  many  instances  retained  both  by  the  vul- 
gar and  by  men  of  medical  science,  after  different  causes  had  been 
developed  and  assigned  to  the  diseases  in  question.  In  respect  to 
this  subject,  we  know,  that  there  are  certain  words  of  very  an- 
cient standing,  which  are  used  to  express  diseases  of  some  kind  or 


§   18.1.    TIIK    PISKASK    OF    TIIK    rillLISTIXIS^.  '  201 

Other;  it  will,  then'forc,  be  a  prominent  inquiiy  ^ith  us  to  loarn 
what  the  clij:eases  are,  that  were  designed  to  be  expressed  by  those 
words.  And  in  order  to  clear  the  way  for  this  inquiry,  the  re- 
mark may  be  made  here,  the  truth  of  which  every  one  will  be 
willing  to  confess,  that  the  ancients  were  accustomed  to  attribute 
the  origin  of  diseases,  particularly  of  those  whose  natural  cause 
they  did  not  understand,  to  the  immediate  interference  of  the  Deity. 
Hence  they  were  denominated  by  the  ancient  Greeks  fucariyeg 
or  the  scourges  of  God,  a  word  which  is  employed  in  the  New 
Testament  by  the  physician  Luke  himself,  ch.  7:  21  ;  and  also 
in  Miuk  o:  29,  3-i. 


§  ISo.     DiSKASE  OF  THK  PniLIsTIKF.S,  JIEXTIOXED  IX  1   SaM.  V.  VI. 

The  disease  of  the  Philistines,  which  is  mentioned  in  1  Sam. 
5:  G,  12.  6:  18,  is  denominated  in  the  Hebrew  a-^bsr.  This  word 
occurs  likewise  in  Deut.  28:  27  ;  and  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that  it 
is  everywhere  explained  in  the  Keri  or  marginal  readings,  by 
the  Aramean  word  n-^nh'J ;  an  expression,  which  in  the  Syriac  dia- 
lect,  where  it  occurs  under  the  forms  ]f— «*^  and  jja**.^  ,  means 
the  fundament,  and  likewise  the  effort  which  is  made  in  an  evacua- 
tion of  the  system.  The  authors,  therefore,  of  the  reading  in 
the  Keri  appear  to  have  assented  to  the  opinion  of  Josephus,  ex- 
pressed in  Antiq.  VI.  1.  1  ;   and  to  have  understood  by  this  word 

the  dysentery.  The  corresponding  Arabic  words,  J.ix.  xJLi-t, 
mean  a  swelling  on  the  anterior  part  of  the  verexda  in  females, 
answering  somewhat  in  its  nature  to  the  hernia  in  men ;  a  disease, 
consequently,  very  different  from  the  hemorrhoids,  which  some 
persons  understand  to  be  meant  by  the  word  "z^'zv .  Among  other 
objections,  it  may  also  be  observed  that  the  mice,  -which  are  men- 
tioned not  only  in  the  Hebrew  text,  (1  Sam.  6:  5,  12.  16:  18)  but 
also  in  the  Alexandrine  and  Vulgate  versions,  (1  Sam.  5:  6.  G:  5, 
11,18)  are  an  objection  to  understanding  the  hemorrhoids  by  the 
word  under  consideration ;  since,  if  that  were  in  fact  the  disease, 
we  see  no  reason  why  7mce  should  have  been  presented  as  an  offer- 
ing to  avert  the  anger  of  the  God  of  Israel. 

Lichter.stein,  a  writer  in  Eichhoni's  Bibliothek,  Band  VI. 
p.  407 — 4GG,  has  given  a  solution,  which  is  free  from  the  difliculties 


202  §  187.  FALSI-:  concki'tiox. 

that  atteiKk'd  uU  preceding  ones.  Tlic  word  ::-''~Zzv,  which  is 
rendered  mice,  he  supposes  to  mean  vknomous  soli'UGAs,  which 
belong  to  the  spider  chiss,  and  yet  are  so  large,  and  so  similar  in 
their  form  to  mice,  as  to  admit  of  their  being  denominated  by  the 
same  word.  These  venomous  animals  destroy  and  live  upon 
scorpions.  They  also  bite  men,  whenever  they  can  have  an 
opportunity,  particularly  in  the  fundament  and  the  verenda.  Their 
bite  causes  swellings,  fatal  in  their  consequences,  which  are  called 
in  Hebrew  ophalim,  n-^rsr ;  see  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  Lib.  XXIX.  4, 
The  probable  supposition  then  is,  that  solpugas  were  at  this 
time  multii)lied  among  the  Philistines  by  the  special  providence 
of  God,  and  that,  being  very  venomous,  they  were  the  means  of 
destroying  many  individuals. 

§  18G.  The  Disease  of  King  Jeiioraji. 

King  Jehoran),  who  was  clothed  with  the  double  infamy  of 
being  at  once  an  idolater  and  the  murderer  of  his  brethren,  was 
diseased  internally  for  two  years,  as  had  been  predicted  by  the 
prophet  Elijah  ;  and  his  bowels  are  said  to  luive  fallen  out  by  reason 
of  his  sickness,  2  Chron.  21:  12 — 15,  IS,  19.  This  disease,  beyond 
all  doubt,  was  the  dysentery ;  and  though  its  continuance  so  long  a 
time  was  very  uncommon,  it  is  by  no  means  a  thing  unheard  of. 
The  intestines,  in  time,  become  ulcerated  by  the  operation  of  this 
disease.  Xot  only  blood  is  discharged  from  them,  but  a  sort  of 
mucous  excrement  likewise  is  thrown  off,  and  sometimes  small 
pieces  of  the  flesh  itself;  so  that  apparently  the  intestines  are 
emitted  or  fall  out,  which  is  sufficient  to  account  for  the  expressions 
that  are  used  in  the  statement  of  king  Jehoram's  disease  ;  IMead, 
Medic.  Sacr.  c.  IV. 

§  187.  False  Conception  {Evnrfvuajwoi^) . 

False  conception  or  pregnancy  (in  Greek  £vnrn<nat(x>Gig,  in 
Latin  mola  ventosa)  does  not  appear  to  have  been  so  unfrequent 
among  the  Hebrew  women  as  among  those  of  Europe.  If  it 
had  been  so,  it  probably  would  not  have  made  its  appearance  on 
the  pages  of  Hebrew  writers  in  the  shape  of  a  figure  of  speech. 
The  fact   to   which   I   allude   is   this.     The   Hebrews  were  accus- 


§  188.    COU.NTRIKS    -WHERE    THE    LErUOSY    I'lil.VAILS.  203 

toined  to  expect  after  calamities  a  state  of  things  quite  the  reverse, 
viz.  a  season  of  prosperity  and  joy.  They  accordingly,  compared 
a  season  of  misfortune  and  calamity  to  the  pains  of  a  woman  in 
travail,  but  the  better  destiny,  which  followed,  they  comjiared  to 
the  joy,  which  commonly  succeeds  childbirth,  Isa.  13:  8.  2G:  17. 
2  Kings  19:  3.  Jer.  4:  31.  13:  21.  22:  23.  30:  G.  Mic.  4:  9,  10.  John 
16:  21,  22.  But  they  carry  the  comparison  still  further.  Those 
days  of  adversity,  which  were  succeeded  by  adversity  still,  those 
scenes  of  sorrow,  which  were  followed  only  by  additional  sorrow, 
were  likened  to  women,  who  labored  under  that  disease  of  the 
system,  which  caused  them  to  exhibit  the  appearance  and  endure 
the  pains  of  a  state  of  pregnancy,  when  that  ajjparent  state  of  preg- 
nancy resulted  either  in  nothing,  or  in  the  parturition  of  a  monster, 
Isa.  2G:  18.  Ps.  7:  14. 

§  188.  CouxTPaEs  where  the  Leprosy  prevails. 

The  Leprosy  prevails  in  Egypt,  in  the  southern  part  of  Up- 
per Asia,  and  in  fact  may  be  considei-ed  a  disease  endemic  in  warm 
climates  generally.  Accordingly,  it  is  not  at  all  surprising,  if  many 
of  the  Hebrews,  when  they  left  Egypt,  were  infected  with  it ;  but  the 
assertion  of  Manetho,  that  they  were  all  thus  infected,  and  were  in  con- 
sequence of  the  infection  driven  out  by  force,  in  which  he  is  precii)i- 
tately  and  carelessly  followed  by  Strabo,  by  Tacitus,  by  Justin  Tro- 
gu?,  and  by  others  more  recent,  is  a  mere  dream,  without  any  ade- 
quate foundation.  The  disease,  it  is  true,  Avas  a  very  severe  and  a 
very  repulsive  one,  and  was  regarded  by  the  ancients,  as  a  marked 
exhibition  of  the  justice  and  the  wrath  of  God.  It  was  denominated 
by  the  Hebrews  the  sirol-e  or  wound,  i'Jin ,  TV'yz  v;: ,  i.  e.  by  supply- 
ing the  ellipsis,  the  stroke  or  \cound  of  the  Lord,  Num.  12:  1 — 10.  2 
Kings  5:  1  et  seq.  15:  5.  2  Chron.  2(j:  IG  et  seq.  Ilerodot.  I.  138. 
But  certaiidy  the  kings  of  Egypt,  who,  according  to  the  unanimous 
testimony  of  the  ancients,  could  correctly  estimate  the  value  of  a  nu- 
merous population,  acted  a  strange  and  unaccountable  part,  if  it  be  a 
fact,  that  on  account  of  a  disease,  which  might  be  called  one  of  the  at- 
tributes of  the  country  and  climate,  they  expelled  from  the  very  heart 
of  the  nation  more  than  two  millions  of  people. 


204  §  180.  iMKXiUKss  or  i.r.iuo^v. 


§  180.    lilCGINNINGS    AND    PnOGRESS    OF    LkPUOSY. 

The  leprosy  exhibits  itself  on  the  exterior  siirfaee  of  the 
skin,  but  it  infects,  ;it  the  same  time,  tlie  marrow  and  the  hones ; 
so  ninch  so  that  the  lurthest  joints  in  the  system  <:ra(lually  lose 
their  powers,  and  the  members  i'all  together  in  such  a  manner,  as 
to  give  the  body  a  mutilated  and  dreadful  appearance.  P'rom 
these  circumstances,  there  can  be  no  doubt,  that  the  disease  ori- 
ginates, and  spreads  its  ravages  internally,  before  it  makes  its  ap- 
pearance on  the  external  parts  of  the  body.  Indeed  we  have  rea- 
son to  believe,  that  it  is  concealed  in  the  internal  parts  of- the 
system  a  number  of  years,  for  instance,  in  infants  commonly  till 
they  arrive  at  the  age  of  puberty,  and  in  adults,  as  many  as  three 
or  four  years,  till  at  last  it  gives  the  fearful  indications  on  the 
skin  of  having  already  gained  a  deep-rooted  and'  permanent  exist- 
ence. 

Its  progress  subsequently  to  its  appearance  on  the  external  sur- 
face of  the  body  is  far  from  being  rapid ;  in  a  number  of  years  it  ar- 
rives at  its  middle,  and  in  a  number  afler  to  its  final  state.  A  person 
Avho  is  leprous  from  his  nativity  may  live  fifty  years ;  one,  who  in 
after  life  is  infected  with  it,  may  live  twenty  years,  but  they  will  be 
such  years  of  dreadful  misery,  as  rarely  fall  to  the  lot  of  man  in  any 
other  situation. 

The  appearance  of  the  disease  externally,  is  not  always  the 
same.  The  spot  is  commonly  small,  resembling  in  its  appearance 
the  small  red  spot  that  would  be  the  consequence  of  a  puncture 
from  a  needle,  or  the  pustules  of  a  ringworm.  The  spots  for  the 
most  part  make  their  appearance  very  suddenly,  esj)ecially  if  the 
infected  person,  at  the  period  when  the  disease  shows  itself  ex- 
ternally, happens  to  be  iu  great  fear,  or  to  be  intoxicated  with 
anger,  Xum.  12:  10.  2  Chron.  2G:  10.  They  commonly  exhibit 
themselves  in  the  first  instance,  on  the  flice,  about  the  nose  and 
eyes ;  they  gradually  increase  in  size  for  a  number  of  years,  till 
they  become,  as  respects  the  extent  of  surface  which  they  em- 
brace on  the  skin,  as  large  as  a  pea  or  bean.  They  are  then  called 
rsi .  The  white  spot  or  pustule,  rrns ,  morphea  alba,  and  also 
the  dark  spot,  rnCD,  JiOiiriiEA  kigua,  are  indications  of  the  exist- 
ence of  the  real  leprosy,  Lev.  13:  2,  30.  14:  5G.     From  these  it  is 


§  180.  rnocnKss  ok  lkpk<')SV.  20.j 

ncces.-arv  to  tlistingiiisli  the  spot,  wliicli,  whatever  resembhince  there 
may  be  in  form,  is  ?o  different  in  its  effects  called  Bohah  prb ,  and 
also  the  harmless  sort  of  scab,  which  occurs  under  the  word,  nn^r-; , 
Lev.  13:  G— 8.  "iO. 

Moses,  in  the  thirteenth  chapter  of  Leviticus,  lays  down  very  ex- 
plicit rules  for  the  purpose  of  distinguishing  between  those  spots, 
which  are  proofs  -of  the  actual  existence  of  the  leprosy,  and  those 
spots,  which  are  harmless  and  result  from  some  other  cause.  Tlicse 
sjjots  which  are  the  genuine  effects  and  marks  of  the  leprosy,  grad- 
ually dilate  tliemselves,  till  at  length  they  cover  the  whole  body. 
Jsot  only  the  skin  is  subject  to  a  total  destruction,  but  the  whole  body 
is  affected  in  every  part.  The  pain  it  is  true,  is  not  very  great,  but 
there  is  a  great  debility  of  the  system,  and  great  uneasiness  and  grief, 
so  much  so,  as  almost  to  drive  the  victim  of  the  disease  to  self-de- 
struction, Job  7:  15. 

There  are  four  kinds  of  the  real  leprosy.  The  first  kind  is  of  so 
virulent  and  powerful  a  nature,  that  it  separates  the  joints  and  limbs, 
and  mutilates  the  body  in  the  most  awful  manner.  The  second  is  the 
white  leprosy,  rr"U.  The  third  is  the  black  leprosy  or  Psora, 
a-ns,  i-nrS  n-r^rx  rrrs  r-'-VS  »";;^»  s^??-'  ^^^^-  28=  27,  35.  Lev.  21: 
20—22.  Tlie  fourth  description  of  leprosy  is  the  alopecia,  or  red 
leprosy. 

The  person,  who  is  infected  with  the  leprosy,  however  long  the 
disease  may  be  in  passing  through  its  several  stages,  is  at  last 
taken  away  suddenly  and  for  the  most  part  unexpectedly.  But  the 
evils,  which  fliU  upon  the  living  leper,  are  not  terminated  by  the 
event  of  his  death.  The  disease  is  to  a  certain  extent  hereditary, 
and  is  transmitted  down  to  the  third  and  fourth  generation;  to 
this  fact  there  seems  to  be  an  allusion  in  Exod.  20:  4 — 6.  3:  7. 
Deut.  5:  9.  24:  8,  9.  If  any  one  should  undertake  to  say,  that  in 
the  fourth  generation  it  is  not  the  real  leprosy,  still  it  will  not  be 
denied,  there  is  something,  which  bears  no  little  resemblance  to 
it,  in  the  shape  of  defective  teeth,  of  fetid  breath,  and  a  diseased 
hue.  Leprous  persons,  notwithstanding  the  deformities  and  mu- 
tilation of  their  bodies,  give  no  special  evidence  of  a  liberation 
from  the  strength  of  the  sensual  passions,  and  cannot  be  influ- 
enced to  abstain  from  the  procreation  of  children,  when  at  the  same 
time  they  clearly  foresee  the  misery  of  which  their  offspring  will 
be  the  inheritors.      The    disease    of   leprosy  is    communicated   not 

18 


206  §  189.    NJTE    I.    I.KPUOSY    CALLED    LOIIAK. 

onlv  bv  transmission  from  the  parents  to  the  children,  and  not  only 
by  sexual  cohabitation,  but  also  by  much  intercourse  with  the  leprous 
person  in  any  way  whatever.  Whence  jNIoses  acted  the  part  of  a 
wise  legislator  in  making  those  laws,  which  have  come  down  to  us, 
concerning  the  inspection  and  separation  of  leprous  persons.  The 
object  of  these  laws  will  appear  peculiarly  worthy,  when  it  is  consid- 
ered, that  they  were  designed  not  wantonly  to  fix  the  charge  of  being 
a  leper  upon  an  innocent  person,  and  thus  to  impose  upon  him  those 
restraints  and  inconveniences,  which  the  truth  of  such  a  charge 
naturally  implies  ;  but  to  ascertain  in  the  foirest  and  most  satisfactory 
manner,  and  to  separate  those,  and  those  only,  who  were  truly  and 
really  leprous.  As  this  was  the  prominent  object  of  his  laws,  that 
have  come  down  to  us  on  this  subject,  viz.  to  secure  a  fair  and  impar- 
tial decision  on  a  question  of  this  kind,  he  has  not  mentioned  those 
signs  of  leprosy,  which  admitted  of  no  doubt,  but  those  only,  which 
might  be  the  subject  of  contention ;  and  left  it  to  the  priests,  who 
also  fulfilled  the  office  of  physicians,  to  distinguish  between  the 
really  leprous,  and  those  who  had  only  the  appearance  of  being 
such.  In  the  opinion  of  Hensler,  expressed  in  his  GescMclde  der 
abendlandischen  Aussatzes,  p.  273,  Moses,  in  the  laws  to  which  Ave 
have  alluded,  discovers  a  great  knowledge  of  the  disease.  Every 
species  of  leprosy  is  not  equally  malignant ;  the  most  virulent  species 
defies  the  skill  and  power  of  physicians.  That  which  is  less  so,  if 
taken  at  its  commencement,  can  be  healed.  But  in  the  latter  case 
also,  if  the  disease  has  been  of  long  continuance,  there  is  no 
remedy. 

Note  I.  .  On  Bohak  as  DISTI^•CT  fbom  infectious  Leprosy. 

[We  find  mention,  in  the  rules  laid  down  by  Moses  for  the  pur- 
pose of  ascertaining  the  true  tokens  of  leprosy,  of  a  cutaneous  dis- 
order, which  is  denominated  by  him  bohak  pna,  and  of  which 
there  is  a  slight  mention  in  the  above  section.  It  was  thought  by 
the  translator,  that  it  might  be  interesting  to  the  reader  to  have 
some  further  account  of  this  disorder,  and  he  has  accordingly  in- 
troduced here  the  answer  of  Kiebuhr,  found  at  page  135  of  his 
Description  of  Arabia,  to  the  inquiry  of  Michaelis  on  this  subject. 
The  words  of  Moses,  which  may  be  found  in  Leviticus  13:  38,  39, 
are  as  follows :  "  If  a  man  or  u-oman  have  tvliite  spots  on  the  skin, 
and  the  j^riest  see  that  the  color  of  these  spots  is  faint  and  pale  :  it  is 


§  189.    NOTE    II.     OX    THE    LKrUOSY    OF    GUADALOUPE.        207 

in  this  case,  the  Bohak,  that  has  broken  out  on  the  sh'n,  ami  they  are 
clean."  A  person,  accordingly,  who  was  attacked  with  tliis  dis- 
ease, tlie  Bohak,  was  not  deckred  unclean,  and  the  reason  of  it 
was,  that  it  is  not  only  harmless  in  itself,  but  is  free  from  that  in- 
fectious and  hereditary  character,  which  belongs  to  the  true  lep- 
rosy. 

Says  !Mr.  Niebuhr:  "The  Bohak  is  neither  infectious  nor  dan- 
gerous. A  Idack  boy  of  Mocha,  who  was  attacked  with  this  sort  of 
leprosy,  had  white  spots  here  and  there  on  his  body.  It  was  said 
that  the  use  of  sulphur  had  been  for  some  time  of  service  to  this  boy, 
but  had  not  altogether  removed  the  disease."  He  then  adds  the  fol- 
loAving  from  the  papers  of  a  Dr.  Foster.  "May  loth,  17G3,  I  my- 
self saw  a  case  of  the  Bohak  in  a  Jew  at  Mocha.  The  spots  in  this 
disease  are  of  unequal  size.  They  have  no  shining  appearance,  nor 
are  they  perceptibly  elevated  above  the  skin  ;  and  they  do  r.ot  change 
the  color  of  the  hair.  Their  color  is  an  obscure  ichite  or  somewhat 
reddish.  The  rest  of  the  skin  of  this  patient  was  blacker  than  that 
of  the  people  of  the  country  in  general,  but  the  spots  were  not  so 
white  as  the  skin  of  an  European  when  not  sunburnt.  The  spots,  in 
this  species  of  leprosy,  do  not  appear  on  the  hands,  nor  about  the  na- 
vel, but  on  the  neck  and  face ;  not  however  on  that  part  of  the  head, 
where  the  hair  grows  very  thick.  They  gradually  spread,  and  con- 
tinue sometimes  only  about  two  months ;  but  in  some  cases,  indeed 
as  long  as  two  years,  and  then  disappear,  by  degrees,  of  themselves. 
This  disorder  is  neither  infectious  nor  hereditary,  nor  does  it  occa- 
sion any  inconvenience."  ''That  all  this,"  remarks  3Iichaelis, 
"should  still  be  found  exactly  to  hold  at  the  distance  of  three 
thousand  five  hundred  years  from  the  time  of  Moses, 'ought  cex*- 
tainly  to  gain  some  credit  to  his  laws  even  with  those,  who  will  not 
allow  them  to  be  of  divine  authority,"  see  Commentaries  on  the  Laws 
of  Moses,  Smith's  Translation,  Vol.  III.  p.  283.  art.  210.] 


Note  II.    Ox  the  LEruosY  of  Gladalolte. 

[Michaelis,  in  discussing  the  subject  of  leprosies,  expresses  h!- 
gratitude  to  God,  that  the  Lepra  Arabuin,  as  it  is  termed  by  I  in- 
learned,  is  known  to  the  physicians  of  Germany,  only  from  books, 
and  by  name.     But  this  ilisease,  although  it  is  very  unfrcqucnt  in 


208         §   18'.'.    NOTK    II.     ON    TilK    M'.l'KDSY    (IF    C  ("A  I  )A  LOll'K. 

Europe,  iiulecd  almost  extinct,  nnule  its  :iii]i(:uaiK'c  al;oiit  the 
year  1730  on  the  Western  Continent,  antl  siircad  it.s  ravajres 
among  tlic  sugar  islands'  of  tlie  "West  Indies,  particularly  Guada- 
loupe.  The  inhabitants  of  this  island,  alarmed  and  terrified  at  the 
introduction  of  so  pernicious  a  disorder  among  them,  petitioned  the 
Court  of  France  to  send  to  the  island  persons  qualified  to  institute 
an  inspection  of  those  who  labored  under  suspicions  of  being  in- 
fected, in  order  that  those  who  were  in  fact  lepers  might  be  I'emoved 
into  lazarettoes. 

M.  Pcyssonel,  who  was  sent  to  Guadaloupe  on  this  business, 
writes  as  follows  on  the  third  of  February,  1757.  "It  is  now 
about  twenty-five  or  thirty  years,  since  a  singular  disease  appear- 
ed on  many  of  the  inhabitants  of  this  island.  Its  commencement 
is  imperceptible.  There  appear  only  some  few  white  spots  on 
the  skin,  which,  in  the  Avhites,  are  of  a  blackish  red  color,  and 
in  the  blacks  of  a  copper  red.  At  first,  they  are  attended  nei- 
ther with  pain  nor  any  sort  of  inconvenience  ;  but  no  means  wh:(t- 
ever  will  remove  them.  The  disease  imperceptibly  increases, 
and  continues  for  many  years  to  manifest  itself  more  and  more. 
The  spots  become  larger,  and  spread  over  the  skin  of  the  whole 
body  indiscriminately;  sometimes  a  little  elevated,  though  flat. 
When  the  disease  advances,  the  upper  part  of  the  nose  swells,  the 
nostrils  become  enlarged,  and  the  nose  itself  soft.  Tumors  ap- 
pear on  the  jaws ;  the  eye-brows  swell ;  the  ears  become  thick  ; 
the  points  of  the  fingers,  as  also  the  feet  and  toes  swell ;  the  nails 
become  scaly ;  the  joints  of  the  hands  and  feet  separate,  and  drop 
off.  On  the  palms  of  the  hands,  and  on  the  soles  of  the  feet,  appear 
deep  dry  ulcers,  which  increase  rapidly,  and  then  disappear  again. 
In  short,  in  the  last  stage  of  the  disease,  the  patient  becomes  a 
hideous  spectacle,  and  falls  in  pieces.  These  symptoms  supervene 
by  very  slow  and  successive  steps,  requiring  often  many  years  be- 
fore they  all  occur.  The  patient  suffers  no  ^•iolent  pain,  but  feels 
a  sort  of  mmibncss  in  his  hands  and  feet.  During  the  whole  pe- 
riod of  the  disorder,  those  afllicted  with  it,  experience  no  obstruc- 
tions in  what  is  called  the  Katuralia.  They  cat  and  drink  as 
usual ;  and  even  when  their  lingers  and  toes  mortify,  the  loss  of 
the  mortified  part  is  the  only  consequence  that  ensues ;  fur  the 
wound  heals  of  itself  without  any  medical  treatment  or  applica- 
tion.    Whc)!.  however,  the   unfortunate   wretches  come   to  the   last 


§  190.    ON    THE    l-i:STILENCE.  209 

period  of  the  disease,  they  are  hideously  disfigured,  and  objects  of  the 
greatest  compassion." 

"  It  has  been  remarked,  that  this  horrible  disorder  has,  be- 
sides, some  very  lamentable  properties ;  as,  in  the  first  place,  that 
it  is  hereditary;  and  hence  some  families  are  more  affected  with 
it  than  others :  secondly,  that  it  is  infectious,  being  propagated  by 
coition,  and  even  by  long  continued  intercourse :  and  thirdly,  that  it 
is  incurable,  or  at  least  no  means  of  cure  have  hitherto  been  dis- 
covered. Mercurial  medicines,  and  diaphoretics,  and  all  the  usual 
prescriptions  and  plans  of  regimen  for  venereal  complaints,  have 
been  tried,  from  an  idea  that  the  infection  might  be  venereal ;  but 
in  vain :  for  instead  of  relieving,  they  only  hastened  the  destruction 
of  the  patients.  The  medicines  serviceable  in  the  lues  venerea  had 
no  other  effect  than  to  bring  the  disease  to  its  acme ;  inducing  all  its 
most  formidable  symptoms,  and  making  those  thus  treated  die  some 
years  sooner,  than  other  victims  to  it."] 

§  190.  Ox  THE  Pestilence,  -li'i . 

The  pestilence,  in  its  effects,  is  equally  terrible  with  the  lep- 
rosy, and  is  much  more  rapid  in  its  progress  ;  for  it  terminates  the 
existence  of  those,  who  are  infected  with  it  almost  immediately, 
and  at  the  furthest,  within  three  or  four  days.  The  Gentiles 
were  in  the  habit  of  referring  back  the  pestilence  to  the  agency  and 
interference  of  that  being,  whatever  it  might  be,  whether  idol  or 
spirit,  whom  they  regarded  as  the  divinity.  The  Hebrews  also 
everywhere  attribute  it  to  the  agency  either  of  God  himself, 
or  of  that  legate  or  angel,  whom  they  denominate  Ty^l  •  We 
are  not,  however,  to  suppose,  that  the  Hebrews,  in  using  these 
expressions,  mean  to  attribute  the  pestilence  to  the  immediate 
agency  of  God;  nor  would  they  permit  us  to  understand  by  the 
messenger,  who,  they  assure  us,  is  the  agent  in  business  of 
so  disastrous  a  nature,  the  true  and  appropriate  angel  or  legate 
of  Jehovah.  It  is  true,  they  tell  us,  that  God  sends  forth  the  pes- 
tilence, and  that  the  angel  goes  with  it  and  smites  the  people  with 
its  power,  but  let  it  not  be  forgotten,  that  every  angel  is  the  crea- 
ture of  God,  and  that,  in  a  certain  sense,  God  is  the  author  of 
all  things,  and  all  events,  whether  prosperous  or  afilictive,  wheth- 
er good  or  bad.     "When  they  make  God  the  author  of  the  pestilence, 

18* 


210  §  190.     ox    THK    ri:STILENXE. 

it  is  clear,  tbey  do  not  mean  tp  say,  he  is  the  immediate  cause 
in  so  fearful  a  calamity,  from  the  fact,  that,  in  other  phices,  they 
represent  God  as  the  author  of  moral  evil,  where  they  certainly 
do  not  mean  to  say,  he  is  the  immediate  author  of  such  evil.  In  a 
somewhat  recent  period  of  their  history,  it  cannot  be  denied,  that 
instead  of  making  God  the  author  of  evil,  they  attribute  it  to  a 
malignant  spirit  of  high  origin,  viz.  Satan ;  but  still  they  were  aware 
of  the  origin  of  this  being,  that  he  was  the  creature  of  God  and 
acted  beneath  his  superintendence.  The  ditiiculty  then  in  regard  to 
their  representations  arises  from  this  source.  God,  in  a  certain 
sense,  is  the  author  of  all  things.  This  is  true.  But  the  ancient 
Hebrews  do  not  appear  to  have  distinguished  with  sufficient  accu- 
racy that  liberty  or  permission,  which  is  given  us  in  the  course  of 
divine  providence,  to  do  or  not  to  do,  to  do  good  or  evil,  from  the 
direct  and  immediate  agency  of  God  himself,  Deut.  4:  19.  Josh.  11: 
20.  2  Sam.  IG:  10.  24:  1.  comp.  1  Chron.  21:  1.  2  Kings  17:  14. 
Ps.  78:  49 — 51.  In  consequence  of  this  disposition  to  identify  the 
agency  of  God  with  the  actions  of  his  creatures,  and  to  conibund 
the  original  with  second  and  subsidiary  causes,  we  fnid,  by  con- 
sulting the  Scriptures,  that  they  sometimes  represent  men,  and  some- 
times animals  or  inanimate  existences,  as  C^xb^ ,  the  messengers  or 
the  angels  of  God;  and  this  is  not  only  in  poetry,  but  likewise  in 
prose,  Ps.  34:  7.  104:  4.  Heb.  2:  2.  Acts  7:  53.  12:  23.  Gal.  3:  19. 
comp.  Josephus,  Antiq.  XV.  5.  3. 

This  mode  of  speech  was  so  common,  that  the  Sadducees 
of  a  more  recent  age,  who,  although  they  received  the  Scrip- 
tures with  veneration,  denied  the  existence  of  any  spirits,  inter- 
preted all  the  passages,  (where  mention  is  made  of  angels,)  of 
other  existences,  which  were  employed  by  God  as  instruments, 
and,  as  they  supposed,  were,  from  that  circumstance  vierelg,  de- 
nominated the  messengers,  or  angels  of  God.  Tiie  Samaritans 
likewise,  as  has  been  shown  by  Reland  (de  Samaritanis,  7 — 9)  gave 
the  same  perverted  interpretation  to  the  word,  which  is  rendered 
angel.  This  mode  of  speaking  found  its  way  also  among  the 
Syrians,  who  were  in  the  habit  of  calling  diseases  angels,  i.  e.  mes- 
sengers that  were  sent  to  inflict  punishment  upon  men  ;  and  were 
accustomed  to  denominate  a  sick  man,  one  tempted,  (.^t^H-iT,  or  tried 
of  God  or  of  his  angel,  Assemani  Bibl.  Orient.  T.  I.  p.  215.  comp. 
2  Cor.  12:  7.     It  is  in  this  way  that   the  rKSTiLENCE,  (the  second- 


§  190.    ON    TlIK    I'KSTIl.KNCK.  211 

arv  cause  of  it    being   overlookeil.)    i>   attributed  directly   to    God, 

Exoil.  11:  4 7.  12:  23,  20.  coiiii).  Ps.  78:  49,  50  ;  also  to  an  angel, 

2  Sam.  24:  15,  16,  who  is  represented  as  slaying  men  with  a  sword, 
and,  in  1  Chron.  21:  IG,  is  described  with  the  additional  circum- 
stance of  being  elevated  between  lieavcn  and  earth.  But  that  God, 
or  the  angel  in  these  instances,  is  merely  the  pestilence  itself,  the 
original  cause  being  put  for  the  effect,  and  being  identified  with  it, 
in  a  way,  which  is  not  common  among  us,  seems  to  be  sufficiently 
clear  from  2  Sam.  24:  12,  15,  where  a  pestilence  with  its  ordinary 
and  natural  attributes  is  the  prominent  subject  of  discourse.  This 
view  of  the  subject  gives  a  reason,  why  the  Septuagint  renders  the 
word  •:'n  or  pestilence,  in  Ps.  91:  6,  by  8ain6viov  ^ifG)jii^(>ir6i; 
i.  e.  the  demon  of  noon-daij  ;  and  why  Jonathan  renders  the  same 
word  in  the  Chaldee  Targum,  Habak.  3:  5,  by  the  Chaldee  word 
T,sb*2 ,  angel  or  messenger. 

We  lay  it  down  then,  as  a  general  principle,  that  wherever 
we  are  told,  an  angel  scatters  abroad  a  pestilence,  the  pestilence 
merely  is  meant  by  such  expressions.  Apply  it  for  instance  to  the 
destruction  of  Sennacherib's  army,  2  Kings  19:  35.  comp.  2  Kings 
18:  23.  19:  6 — 8.  In  this  destniction,  an  hundred  and  eighty-five 
thousand  men  perished.  We  are  told  it  was  done  by  an  angel, 
but  we  know,  this  was  a  common  mode  of  speech ;  and  that  all 
natural  events  and  effects  were  frequently  described  as  the  mes- 
sengers or  angels  of  God.  If  we  seek  then  for  a  natural  cause,  for 
so  wide  a  destruction,  we  fix  immediately  upon  the  pestilence, 
which  is  most  violent  in  its  first  attack,  and  might  well  have  de- 
sti-oyed  the  hundred  and  eighty-five  thousand  Assyrians,  if  the 
spoils  of  Egypt,  infected  with  its  contagious -properties,  had  been 
scattered  through  the  camp.  The  idea,  that  Sennacherib's  army 
perished  by  means  of  the  pestilence,  communicated  in  the  way 
al)Ove  alluded  to,  or  some  other,  agrees  better  than  any  other  hy- 
pothesis, with  the  fact,  that  the  survivors  in  that  army  were  not 
aware  till  the  return  of  the  morning  light,  of  the  immense  number, 
that  had  died. 

If  any  one  wishes  fo  be  informed  further  concerning  tlie  nature 
of  the  pestilence,  and  the  symptoms  exhibited  by  an  infected  per- 
son, let  him  consult  the  original  German  edition  of  this  Work, 
T.  II.  P.  I.  §  223.  p.  389—397.  It  will  merely  be  remarked  here, 
in   reierence   to  those   topics,   that   no   one   ever  recovered    from 


212         §  101.  Tin:  diskasf,  ok  saul  and  nkbl'Chadnkzzar. 

the  jjcstileiioc,  iiiilcss  the  boil  of  tlic  pestilence  came  out  upon 
him.  And  even  then,  he  could  not  always  be  cured,  2  Kings 
20:  7.    Isa.  38:  21. 

[NoTK.  Some  liberty  has  been  taken  with  the  Latin  of  the^ 
above  section,  owing  to  its  great  conciseness  and  consequent  obscu- 
rity. Having,  however,  examined  the  German  edition,  the  transla- 
tor has  given  what  he  supposes  to  be  the  meaning  of  Dr.  Jahn. 
On  the  sentiments  conveyed  in  this  section,  this  remark  may  be 
proposed  for  the  consideration  of  the  reader.  If  we  admit,  that  the 
Hebrews  sometimes  spoke  of  winds,  fires,  and  diseases,  as  messen- 
gers, ministers,  or  angels,  as  for  instance  some  critics  have  main- 
tained in  Ps.  104:  4  compared  with  Ps.  148:  8,  it  is  still  a  question, 
on  which  many  persons  will  feel  themselves  at  liberty  to  dissent 
from  our  author,  Whether  he  ought  not  to  have  limited  his  view 
of  the  usus  LOQUENDi  Under  consideration  to  the  poetical  parts  of 
the  Scriptures  ? 

Nothing  is  more  obvious  than  that  poetry  has  its  appropriate 
HEKMEXEUTiCA,  and  what  would  be  a  very  reasonable  and  correct 
interpretation  of  certain  expressions  in  poetical  description,  does  not 
necessarily  hold  good  in  prose.  Accordingly,  a  serious  objection 
might  be  made  to  receiving  the  accounts,  given  in  2  Sam.  24: 16.  and 
2  Kings  19:  35.  which  are  unadorned  historical  statements,  in  any 
other  tlian  their  most  plain  and  obvious  meaning.] 

§  191.  The  Disease  of  Saul  and  Nebuchadnezzak. 

The  position,  which  we  have  endeavored  to  defend  in  the  pre- 
ceding section,  that  diseases  and  events  of  rare  occurrence,  and,  we 
may  add  here,  events  likewise  of  daily  occurrence,  were  attributed 
by  the  ancient  Hebrews  to  God,  or  to  some  angel,  as  his  messenger, 
throws  light  upon  many  passages  of  Scripture. 

A  person,  who  understands  the  extent  and  the  proper  bearing 
of  that  principle,  will  readily  see,  that  the  spirit  of  God,  nVtr;  nn, 
which  departed  from  Saul,  was  no  other,  than  an  upright  and  a 
generous  tendency  of  mind ;  and  that  the  evil  spirit  from  the  Lord, 
which  beset  and  filled  him  with  terror,  riih-;  nx^  nsn  nn  1  Sam. 
16:  14,  15.  18:  10.  19:  9,  was  a  sort  of  madness,  which  had  the  ef- 
fect of  deceiving  him  into  the  idea,  that  he  was  a  prophet ;  for  it 


§  191.    THE    DISEASE    OF    SAUL    AND    NEBUCHADNEZZAH.       213 

seems,  that  he  prophesied,  X2:r»^,  and,  in  all  probability,  pre- 
dicted the  loss  of  his  own  kingdom.  The  Targum  of  Jonathan, 
accordingly  renders  the  woz'd  xr:-".  lie  was  mad  or  insane.  Tins 
EVIL  SPiuiT,  in  a  word,  was  not  more  a  sjjirit  or  messenger  from 
God,  than  the  evil  spirit  wliich,  in  Judges  9:  23,  is  said  to  have 
been  sent  by  him  among  the  Shcchemites ;  and  which,  certainly,  as 
was  evident  even  to  the  ancient  interpreters,  and  has  been  since 
to  every  body  else,  was  nothing  more  than  the  spirit  of  strife  and 
dissension.  In  the  same  way,  the  spirit  of  fornication,  n'-i 
CJ":  in  Ilosea  4:  12,  is  merely  lust;  compare  1  Sam.  11:  C.  IG: 
14  Judg.  3:  10.  G:  34.  11:  29.  14:  6.  Ps.  51:  11.  Ezck.  11:  19. 
18:  31.  This  representation  more  than  any  other  is  suitable  to 
the  fact,  that  Saul  was  benefited  by  music ;  for  the  charms  of  music. 
however  gre^t  its  efficacy  in  any  other  case,  would  have  been  very 
incompetent  to  the  task  of  subduing  the  untractable  spirit  of  a  real 
demon. 

This  mode  of  speaking  did  not  originate,  as  some  have  sup- 
posed, in  the  time  of  the  captivity,  from  the  doctrine  held  by  the 
Mehestani,  although  it  undoubtedly  at  that  time  became  more 
common,  and  was  used  with  greater  latitude,  than  at  any  previous 
period.  For,  agreeably  to  this  mode  of  speech  and  to  the  belief 
on  which  it  is  founded,  viz.  the  subordinate  agency  of  angels,  we 
find  mention  made  in  D-aniel  4:  10,  14,  20,  [consult  Michaelis's 
edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,]  of  C"}":-;  or  star-watchers.  The  de- 
signs or  the  decrees  of  these  "  holy  watchers,"  as  they  are  termed, 
which  are  made  known  to  Nebuchadnezzar  in  his  vision,  and  are 
stated  in  the  verses  above  mentioned,  are  referred  by  Daniel,  in  the 
twenty-eighth  verse  of  the  same  chaj)ter,  to  the  immediate  agency 
of  God  himself;  a  circumstance  which  is  altogether  conformable  to 
what  has  been  already  stated,  in  this  and  the  preceding  section,  on 
this  subject. 

Tlie  disease  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  mentioned  in  this  chapter,  was 
that  of  insanity  or  madness.  His  mind  was  in  such  a  state,  his  rea- 
soning powers  were  so  perverted  and  deranged,  that  it  a{)peared  to 
him  as  if  he  heard  a  voice  from  heaven,  declaring  his  expulsion  from 
the  kingdom ;  and  he  imagined,  that  he  was  really  transformed  into  a 
beast.  Accordingly  he  acknowledges,  in  the  fourth  chapter,  verses 
31,  33,  that  he  had  again  received  the  use  of  his  reason ;  which  is  an 
evidence  that  he  understood  the  disease  from  which  he  recovered,  to 
have  been  imanity. 


211  §  192.   RESPECTING   DEMONIACS. 


§  192.  Respecting  Demoniacs. 

Tlie  inquiiy  respecting  the  Demoniacs,  who  are  so  often 
introduced  in  the  New  Testament,  and  likewise  in  the  writings 
ot"  profane  authors  of  antiquity,  is  a  very  intricate  and  a  very 
difficult  one.  There  are  some  persons,  who  contend  that  tlie 
demoniacs  were  all  of  them  either  madmen,  epileptics,  or  per- 
sons subject  to  melancholy;  and  they  make  their  appeal  in  be- 
half of  their  opinions  to  physicians.  They,  accordingly,  in  their 
interpretation  of  those  expressions  which  are  employed  in  refer- 
ence to  demoniacs,  go  on  the  principle,  that  the  sacred  writers 
meant  by  them  the  same  and  nothing  more,  than  would  be  naturally 
meant,  in  case  the  possessed  persons  were  merely  the  subjects  of 
those  diseases. 

Other  persons,  both  theologians  and  physicians,  have  strong 
objections  to  this  view  of  the  subject.  In  their  estimation,  the 
expressions  in  the  New  Testament  clearly  imply,  that  the  demo- 
niacs were  possessed  by  an  evil  spirit;  and  this  state  of  things, 
they  suppose,  was  permitted  in  the  providence  of  God,  in  order 
to  "-ive  to  the  Saviour  an  opportunity  to  exhibit  his  miraculous 
powers. 

We  have  no  disposition  at  present  to  exhibit  ourselves,  as  partizans 
in  this  controversy,  and  shall  only  endeavor  to  give  an  impartial 
statement  of  the  arguments  on  both  sides,  so  as  to  leave  the  reader  in 
a  condition  to  form  his  own  opinion. 

§  193.  Demoniacs  were  possessed  with  a  Devil. 

It  will  be  our  object,  in  the  first  place,  to  state  the  arguments  in 
favor  of  the  opinion,  that  the  Demoniacs  were  really  possessed  with  a 
devil.     They  are  as  follows : 

I.  They  expressed  themselves  in  a  way,  which  is  not  done 
by  epileptic,  melancholy,  or  insane  persons,  as  in  Matthew  8:  28. 
Luke  8:  27.  Mark  5:  7.  They  possessed  the  supernatural  power 
of  sundering  all  sorts  of  cords  and  chains.  They  requested  of 
Jesus  not  to  torment  them.  They  answered  with  propriety  ques- 
tions which  were  proposed  to  them.  Demons  departed  from  them 
and  entered   into   swine.     Certainly  it   cannot  be  said  in  reference 


§  103.    DK.MONIACS    rOSSKSSr.D    WITH    A    DKVIL.  215 

to  this  particular,  that  madness  or  melancholy,  the  mere  phrenzy  or 
wandeiings  of  the  brain  went  out  of  tlie  possessed  persons  into  the 
herd.  The  supposition,  which  some  make,  that  the  swine  were 
driven  into  the  sea  by  the  demoniacs,  is  destitute  of  all  probability. 
Tliey  would  have  stood  a  much  better  chance  of  being  driven  in 
many  more  directions  than  one,  by  persons  of  such  an  undisciplined 
and  Irrational  character;  especially,  as  they  were  two  thousand  in 
number. 

II.  No  symptoms  of  disease  are  mentioned  in  the  case  of  the  dumb 
demoniac,  introduced  in  Matt.  9:  32  and  Luke  11:  14,  nor  in  that  of 
the  dumb  and  blind  demoniac,  spoken  of  in  Matt.  12:  22.  The  pos- 
sessed persons,  therefore,  in  both  of  these  instances  were  in  a  sound 
state  of  body  and  health,  with  this  exception  merely,  that  the  devil, 
(for  this  certainly  could  not  have  been  done  by  epilepsy,  melancholy, 
or  madness)  obstructed  their  organs  of  speech  and  vision. 

III.  It  is  admitted,  that  the  circumstances  attending  the  case  of 
the  lunatic,  in  Matthew  17:  lo,  are  such  as  would  be  expected  in  the 
case  of  a  person  afflicted  with  the  epilepsy  ;  but  then  it  should  be  par- 
ticularly noticed,  that  the  effects  in  this  instance,  as  well  as  in  others, 
are  attributed  to  the  agency  of  the  devil. 

IV.  AVe  are  informed,  that  the  damsel  of  Philippi,  Acts  IG:  16, 
practised  divination,  which  evidently  could  not  have  been  done  by  a 
mad  or  deranged  person.  TVe  must  conclude,  therefore,  that  she  was 
under  the  influence  of  an  evil  spirit. 

V.  The  demoniacs  themselves  say,  that  they  are  possessed  with 
a  devil.  The  Jews  of  the  JN'ew  Testament,  who  happened  to  be 
concerned  on  account  of  their  relationship  to  the  person,  or  in  any 
other  way,  in  a  case  of  demoniacal  possession,  assert  the  same 
thing.  The  apostles  likewise  and  evangelists  allege,  that  persons 
possessed  with  demons,  were  brought  to  Jesus,  and  that  the  de- 
mons departed  at  his  command.  Matt.  4:  24.  7:  22.  9:  33.  12:  28. 
Mark  1:32,39.  9:  25.  Luke  4:  41.  8:  2,  30,  38.  9:  49.  11:  14. 
Jesus  himself  asserts,  that  he  casts  out  devils,  Luke  11:  19.  Matt.  12: 
27,  28. 

VI.  The  sacred  writers  make  an  express  distinction  between  de- 
moniacs and  the  sick ;  and  likewise  between  the  exorcism  of  demons, 
and  the  healing  of  the  sick,  Mark  1:  32.  Luke  6:  17,  18.  7:  21.  8:  2. 
13:  32.  Demoniacs,  therefore,  were  not  persons  afflicted  with  dis- 
eases, in  the  way  that  has  been  supposed. 


210  §  193.    DF.MONIACS    POSSESSED    AVITn    A    DEVIL. 

VII.  Dciiioniacs  knew,  wliat  inailmciu  insane  persons,  epileptics, 
and  melanclioly  men  could  not  of  tlieniselves  know,  viz.  that  Jesus 
■WAS  THE  Sox  OF  God,  the  ]\Iessiait,  the  Son  or  David,  etc 
Mark  1:  24.  5:  7.  Matt.  8:  29.  Luke  4:  34. 

YIII.  Jesus  speaks  lo  the  demons  and  asks  them  their  name : 
and  we  find,  that  they  answer  liim.  lie  also  threatens  them,  com- 
mands them  to  be  silent,  to  depart,  and  not  to  return,  IMark  1:  25.  5: 
8.  9:  25.  Matt.  8:  29—31.  Luke  4:  35.  8:  30—32. 

IX.  When  the  seventy  disciples  returned  from  their  labors, 
one  prominent  cause  of  their  joy  Avas,  that  the  devils,  when  the 
name  of  Christ  was  pronounced,  obeyed  them.  Jesus  answered 
them,  as  follows,  in  Luke  10:  18;  "I  beheld  Satan,  as  Ur/htning 
fall  from  heaven.  Behold,  I  give  %mto  you  jwicer  to  tread  on  ser- 
pents and  scorpions,  and  over  all  the  power  of  the  enemy,  and  noth- 
ing shall  by  any  means  hurt  you  ;  notivithstanding,  in  this  rejoice  not, 
that  the  spirits  are  subject  unto  you,  but  rather  rejoice,  because  your 
names  are  written  in  heaven." 

X.  "When  the  Saviour  was  accused  by  the  Pharisees  of  casting 
out  devils  by  the  aid  of  Beelzebub,  he  replied,  that  the  kingdom,  the 
city,  or  the  family,  in  which  were  dissensions  and  discords,  would  of 
itself  perish ;  and  that  consequently,  if  there  were  such  discords  in 
the  kingdom  of  Satan,  as  to  induce  one  devil  to  exert  his  power  in 
the  expulsion  of  another,  it  could  not  long  exist.  To  these  things, 
he  immediately  adds  :  '■'■  If  Iby  Beelzebub  cast  out  devils,  by  whom  do 
your  sons  cast  them  oid  ?  Therefore,  they  shall  be  your  judges.  But 
if  least  out  devils  by  the  spirit  of  God,  (by  divine  poiver  or  a  miracle,) 
then  the  kingdom  of  God  is  come  unto  you.  Or  else  how  can  one 
enter  into  a  strong  man's  house,  and  spoil  his  goods,  except  he  first  bind 
the  strong  man  ?  and  then  he  will  spoil  his  house,"  Matt.  12:  25,  28. 
Mark  3:  23—25.  Luke  11:  17—19. 

XL  Jesus  makes  the  following  remarks  in  respect  to  the  demons 
or  evil  spirits  in  Matt.  12:  43,  and  in  Luke  11:  24.  "TTAen  the  un- 
clean spirit  is  gone  out  of  a  man,  he  ivalketh  through  dry  places,  seeh- 
i?ig  rest  but  finding  none.  He  saith,  I  trill  returrt  to  my  house,  whence 
I  came  out.  Arid  xvhen  he  cometh,  he  findeth  it  swept  and  garnished  ; 
then  goeth  he  and  taheth  seven  other  spirits  more  wicked  than  himself; 
and  (hey  enter  in  and  dicell  there,  and  the  last  state  of  that  man  is  worse 
than  the  first."  It  is  very  clear,  that  a  person  would  not  naturally 
understand  expressions  of  this  kind  in  respect  to  a  disease. 


§  194.    THE    OPrOSITE    AUGUMENT.  217 

XII.  The  woman  in  Luke  13:  11,  who  was  bowed  down  with  the 
spirit  of  infirmity,  is  said  by  the  Saviour  in  the  sixteenth  verse,  to 
have  been  bound  by  Satan.  Tlie  Apostle  Peter,  in  like  manner,  as- 
serts in  Acts  10:  38,  that  all,  Avho  had  been  oppressed  with  the  devil, 
■/.uTaSvruiyTtvofinov^'  vno  rov  diu^oXov,  were  healed  by  Jesus  of  Na- 
zareth, the  anointed  of  God. 

XIII.  The  wonderful  miracles  of  Jesus  will  appear  of  but  com- 
paratively little  importance  and  little  worth,  if  it  should  be  admit- 
ted, that  he  did  not  actually  cast  out  devils,  but  merely  healed 
diseases.  The  Church  Fathers,  accordingly,  embraced,  without  any 
dissenting  voice,  the  opinion,  that  the  persons,  of  whom  we  have 
been  speaking,  were  really  possessed  with  demons,  and  the  Church 
itself,  in  accordance  with  this  opinion,  instituted  an  order  of  persons, 
called  exorcists. 


§  19-1.  General  view  of  the  opposite  Akglmient. 

Those  who  maintain,  that  demoniacs  were  epileptic,  melan- 
choly, insane,  or  mad  persons,  commence  their  arguments,  with 
referring  back  to  a  very  early  period.  They  endeavor  to  prove 
by  induction  from  various  instances,  which  they  conceive  to  be  to 
the  point,  and  by  a  multitude  of  quotations  from  Greek,  Roman  and 
Jewish  writers,  that  the  demons,  to  whom  diseases  are  attributed  as 
the  agents,  are  not  the  o  dta^oXog  of  the  New  Testament,  (the  evil 
spirit  in  an  emphatic  and  peculiar  sense ;)  but  that  they  are  the 
spirits  of  dead  men,  who  had  died  by  a  violent  death,  particularly 
of  such,  as  were  known  to  have  sustained  bad  characters  while 
living.  Demoniacs,  therefore,  according  to  the  hypothesis  of  these 
persons,  were  men,  who  were  afflicted  with  some  disease  mental 
or  bodily,  but  who  were  generally  supposed  by  the  people  to  be 
possessed  and  agitated  by  these  spirits,  the  same  as  if  they  had 
been  haunted  by  furies ;  compare  the  large  German  edition  of  this 
Work,  P.  I.  Vol.  II.  §227—229.  p.  411—454.  They  take  the 
ground,  therefore,  that  Jesus,  the  apostles,  and  the  writers  of  the 
New  Testament,  if  they  wished  to  be  understood  by  those,  for 
whom  their  writings  were  intended,  were  under  the  necessity  of 
attaching  the  same  meaning  to  the  word  demons,  which  was  attached 
to  it  by  their  contemporaries. 

19 


218  §  195.    SYMPTOMS    IN    DEMONIACS. 

Having  taken  this  position,  they  endeavor  to  confirm  their  senti- 
ments by  saying  further, 

I.  That  tlie  symptoms,  exhibited  by  demoniacs,  as  stated  in  the 
New  Testament,  arc  the  same  with  those,  wliicli  are  exhil)ited  by 
men  in  epilepsy,  hypochondria,  insanity  and  madness. 

II.  Tliat  the  sacred  writings  give  intimations  in  various  j)laces, 
that  they  use  the  words  demon  and  demoiis  solely  because  they  were 
in  common  circulation  at  that  period;  and  are,  accordingly,  to  be 
considered,  as  merely  accommodating  themselves  to  the  language  in 
common  use,  and  not  as  professedly  teaching  or  denying  the  agency 
attributed  to  evil  spirits. 

III.  That  the  real  operation  of  departed  spirits  upon  living  men,  is 
inconsistent  with  the  doctrine  of  Christ  and  his  apostles  ;  and  of  course 
they  could  not  mean,  by  the  phrases  and  passages  in  question,  such 
operations. 

These  three  points,  they  endeavor  to  illustrate  and  confirm  by  va- 
rious arguments,  of  which  we  shall  proceed  to  give  an  enumeration. 

§  195.  Symptoms  in  demoniacs  the  same  with  those  in 
Diseased  Persons. 

The  opposers  of  the  doctrine  of  the  real  agency  of  evil  spirits  in  the 
case  of  demoniacs  proceed  to  state,  in  the  first  place,  that,  in  the  time  of 
Christ,  demoniacs  in  other  countries  were  frequently  restored  by  a  re- 
sort to  medical  prescriptions.  It  is  not  at  all  rational  to  suppose,  that 
demoniacs  thus  restored  were  actually  possessed  with  the  spirits  of  the 
dead,  in  as  much  as  such  spirits  could  not  have  been  expelled  by 
mere  medical  art.  They  were,  therefore,  merely  diseased  or  sick 
persons  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  Avords.  The  symptoms  in  these 
men  Avere  the  same  with  those  of  the  persons  mentioned  in  the  New 
Testament,  viz.  the  ordinary  symptoms  of  epilepsy,  insanity,  and  hy- 
pochondria. The  demoniacs,  consequently,  of  the  New  Testament, 
as  we  have  the  utmost  ground  for  inferring,  Avere  no  other  than  sick 
men,  since  the  symptoms  they  actually  exhibited  are  such,  as  they 
Avould  have  exhibited,  in  case  they  had  been  afflicted  Avith  the  dis- 
eases, above  mentioned,  and  nothing  more.  And  these  diseases,  let 
it  be  remembered,  are  attributed  to  spirits  or  demons  so  called,  merely 
on  account  of  the  prevailing  opinions  and  belief  of  the  people. 


§  195.    SYMPTOMS    IX    DKMONIACS.  219 


Explanations. 

I.  The  two  Gadarcnes,  Matt.  8:  28  et  seq.  of  wliom  only  the  more 
conspicuous  and  celebrated  one,  (viz.  the  one,  who  after  his  recovory 
prayed  Christ,  "  that  he  might  be  with  him,"  i.  e.  might  be  his  follow- 
er or  disciple,)  is  mentioned  in  Mark  5:  2,  and  Luke  8:  27,  were 
deranged  persons  or  madmen,  -who  were  impressed  with  the  idea, 
that  there  were  within  them  innumerable  spirits  of  dead  men. 
They  accordingly  dwelt  amid  the  sepulchres  of  the  buried,  went 
naked,  were  ungovernable,  cried  aloud,  beat  themselves,  and  attacked 
those  who  passed  by.  Such  things  are  characteristic  of  madmen. 
The  great  power  which  one  of  them  possessed,  and  which  enabled 
him  to  burst  asunder  bonds  and  chains,  is  not  unfrequently  witnessed, 
in  persons  who  have  lost  their  reason.  Both  Mark  (chap.  5:  15,) 
and  Luke  (chap.  8:  35,)  mention  that  the  Gadarcnes  found  this  de- 
moniac after  he  had  been  restored  by  Jesus,  oaqoovoivza,  i.  e.  in  Ins 
right  mind  ;  which  is  a  clear  intimation,  that  he  was  previously  desti- 
tute of  reason. 

It  is  true,  these  men  address  Jesus  as  the  Son  of  God,  i.  e.  the 
Messiah,  and  ask  him  not  to  torment  them ;  but  this  circumstance  can 
be  accounted  for  on  the  supposition,  that  they  had  heard,  as  they  un- 
doubtedly had,  in  those  lucid  intervals,  which  are  granted  to  many 
insane  persons,  that  Jesus,  whose  fame,  (Matt.  4:  24,)  had  already 
extended  as  far  as  Syria,  was  regarded  as  the  Messiah. 

They  evidently  betray  their  insanity  by  saying,  they  were  devils 
iciihoiit  number,  and  by  beseeching  Jesus  not  to  drive  them  into 
the  sea,  but  to  permit  them  to  enter  into  the  swine,  which  were 
feeding  near.  Certainly  none  but  the  professed  advocates  of  real 
demoniacal  possession  would  suppose,  that  an  actual  demon  or 
devil  would  select  such  an  habitation,  as  that.  It  is  admitted,  tliat 
Jesus,  (^lark  5:  8,)  commands  the  unclean  spirit  to  depart.  But 
does  this  prove  anything  ?  The  spirit  w  as  called  unclean,  because 
it  was  supposed  to  be  the  spirit  of  one  dead,  and  was  unclean  of 
course.  It  was  commanded  to  depart,  merely  that  the  attention  of 
the  people  present  might  be  excited,  and  that  they  might  have 
ample  opportunity  to  notice  the  miracle,  wrought  in  favor  of  the 
unfortunate  maniac.  It  was  not  the  demons,  but,  as  in  Acts  19: 
16,  the  madmen    themselves,  who   impetuously  attacked   the    herd 


220  §  195.    SYMPT05IS    IN    DEMONIACS. 

of  swino,  and  drove  tln'in  down  the  steep  into  lake  Gennesareth. 
Mark  and  Luke,  in  confonnity  witli  the  common  mode  of  speech, 
represent  tlie  demons,  as  gt)ing  from  madmen,  and  entering  into 
the  swine ;  for  it  -was  the  custom  to  attribute  to  the  agency  of  the 
supposed  demons,  whatever  was  done  by  the  demoniacs  themselves ; 
comp.  jMatthew  9:  32.  Luke  11:  14.  13:  11,  see  also  the  large  Ger- 
man edition  of  this  work,  P.  L  Vol.  IL  §  231.  p.  464.  That  the 
swine,  being  a  fearful  animal,  and  running  -with  great  speed,  as  they 
naturally  would  before  [)ursuers  of  such  a  peculiar  character,  should 
have  plunged  in  considerable  numbers  into  the  lake  and  perished,  is 
by  no  means  strange  or  incredible.  We  say  in  considerable  num- 
bers, because  the  expressions  which  are  used,  leave  us  at  liberty  to 
suppose,  that  some  of  the  herd  escaped.  The  meaning  is  that  the 
expressions  are  not  to  be  too  literally  interpreted,  {cid  vivum  resecan- 
dum.)  Nor  is  it,  moreover,  anything  very  extraordinary,  that  these 
men  paid  a  sort  of  homage  and  reverence  to  the  Redeemer,  of  whose 
miracles  and  greatness  they  had  heard ;  since  there  are  not  wanting 
instances  of  madmen,  who  both  fear  and  exhibit  a  degree  of  respect 
to  certain  persons. 

IL  Tlie  dumb  man,  mentioned  in  Matt.  9:  32  and  in  Luke  11:  14, 
and  the  man,  who  was  both  dumb  and  blind  in  Matt.  12:  22,  were 
likewise  insane,  or  at  least  melancholy  persons.  It  is  projier  to  re- 
mark here,  in  explanation  of  our  thus  coupling  together  these  two 
classes  of  mental  diseases,  that  insanity,  and  melancholy  or  hypochon- 
dria, as  the  experience  of  physicians  sufficiently  proves,  are  nearly 
allied  to  and  often  accompany  each  other.  That  the  first  mentioned 
of  these  persons  was  afflicted  Avith  one  of  these  maladies,  which  in 
that  age  were  attributed  to  the  agency  of  demons,  appears  from  the 
fact,  that  Luke,  (chap.  11:  14,)  calls  the  devil  a  dumb  one,  while  the 
parallel  passage  in  Matt.  9:  32,  represents  the  man  himself  as 
dumb. 

III.  The  youth,  who  in  Matt.  17:  15  is  called  a  lunatic 
from  his  childhood,  and  who  in  Luke  9:  38 — 40  was  seized  and 
torn,  while  uttering  cries  of  woe,  by  an  evil  spirit  of  such  perse- 
vering cruelty,  as  to  be  unwilling  to  suspend  the  exercise  of  his 
vengeance  even  after  the  victim  had  already  severely  and  cruelly 
suffered,  and  who,  furthermore,  is  said  in  Mark  6:  17  to  have 
had  an  unclean  spirit,  to  have  fallen  with  great  outcries,  sometimes 
upon    tlie   earth,  sometimes  into  water,  and  sometimes  into  fire,  to 


§  195.    SYMPTOMS    IN    PKMOXIACS.  221 

have  foamed  at  the  mouth  and  to  have  gnashed  his  teeth,  was  evi- 
dently an  epileptic  person.  It  will  give  us  some  idea  of  the  preva- 
lent notions  anciently  in  respect  to  the  epilepsy,  wlien  it  is  remark- 
ed, that  Hippocrates  wrote  a  book,  the  object  of  which  was  to  show, 
that  epilepsy  was  not  a  sacked  maLxIDV,  i.  e.  a  malady  sent  from 
some  superior  power  or  Divinity.  The  epithet,  nevertheless,  which 
he  is  in  the  habit  of  applying  to  this  disease  in  this  book,  is  that  of 

SACRED. 

IV.  The  maid  of  Philippi,  who  in  Acts  16:  16,  is  said  to  have 
possessed  the  spirit  of  Python,  i.  e.  the  spirit  of  Apollo,  nvtvfia 
nv&aro^;,  was  insane.  The  ground  of  the  assertion,  that  was 
made  in  respect  to  her,  was  the  fact,  that  she  cherished,  as  would 
not  be  unnatural  in  the  case  of  insanity,  a  firm  persuasion,  that 
she  was  possessed  with  some  spirit  from  the  dead,  that  was  com- 
missioned by  Apollo.  As  the  gift  of  prophecy  among  the  heathen, 
(if  we  may  credit  the  assertion  of  Cicero  in  his  Treatise  on  Divi- 
nation, Ernesti's  edit.  I.  5.  p.  661.)  was  always  attributed  to  the 
agency  of  Apollo ;  insane  persons,  who  professed  to  prophesy  under 
his  auspices,  were  in  a  situation  to  make  much  money;  which 
was  the  case  in  the  present  instance.  It  is  not  by  any  means  to  be 
supposed,  that  the  predictions  of  the  damsel  or  any  other  predic- 
tions of  a  like  character,  were  true  prophesies,  for  such  were  beyond 
the  power  of  Apollo,  who  was  regarded  as  "■nothing'"  in  estima- 
tion of  Paul,  to  utter  or  to  communicate.  Many  other  demoni- 
acs, who  are  mentioned,  but  the  symptoms  or  rather  operations  of 
whose  disease  are  not  particularly  given,  are  to  be  reckoned  among 
those  who  were  insane;  for  example,  Mary  Magdalene,  from 
whom,  (Luke  8:  2,)  Jesus  cast  out  seven  devils,  i.  e.  restored  her 
from  a  madness  of  so  violent  a  nature,  that  it  was  supposed  to  be 
caused  by  the  united  agency  of  this  large  number  of  the  spirits  of 
the  dead.  If  the  Saviour  commanded  the  demoniacs  not  to  make 
him  known,  the  reason  was,  that  their  declaration  of  the  subject 
would  do  more  hurt  than  good,  Mark  1:  24.  Luke  4:  34.  Matt.  8: 
29.  Mark  5:  7. 

V.  Whether  the  expulsion  of  actual  demons  from  a  person, 
or  the  healing  of  epileptics,  madmen,  and  hypochondriacs  be  the 
greater  and  most  striking  miracle,  in  the  present  argument,  it  is 
of  but  little  consequence  to  decide.  To  those,  however,  who  de- 
ny in  this  case  the  actual  agency  of  demons,  the  healing  of  these 

19* 


222         §  106.  opixiox  OF  cnuisT,  the  atostlks,  etc. 

raiiladies  appears  a  more  impressive  exhibition  of  miraculous 
power  than  the  ejection  of  demons,  wliich  was  likewise  done,  as 
the  advocates  of  the  oouosite  opinion  will  themselves  admit,  by 
exorcists. 


§  19G.  The  Apostles,  Evangelists,  and  Christ  kegakded 
Demoniacs  as  diseased  Persons. 

The  apostles  and  evangelists,  it  is  contended,  whether  they  are 
introduced  as  speaking,  or  whether  they  appear  as  the  authors  of  a 
narration,  employ  those  expressions,  which  in  their  time  were  in 
common  use.  Hence,  as  was  very  natural,  they  make  use  of  such 
phraseology  as  the  following :  "  Demoniacs  came  to  Jesus,"  "  Demo- 
niacs icere  brought  to  Jesus,"  "  T/iey  were  possessed  tvith  demons," 
"  T/ie  demons  were  cast  out,"  "  They  departed  from  or  entered  into 
a  person,"  etc.  If  it  be  inquired  what  they  really  understood  by  such 
expressions,  the  answer  is  this. 

Similar  expressions  were  used  in  respect  to  madness  or  insanity 
in  that  age,  even  in  cases  where  there  could  be  no  doubt  in  re- 
spect to  the  natural  cause  of  it,  i.  e.  a  man  might  lose  his  reason  in 
some  way  or  by  some  accident,  which  was  perfectly  well  understood, 
and  still,  as  much  as  in  any  other  case,  the  loss  of  his  reason  was 
attributed  to  the  agency  of  a  demon.  That  was  the  common  mode 
of  speaking.  Furthermore,  demons  were  spoken  of  in  reference  to 
diseases,  in  the  same  way  that  Bacchus  among  the  Greeks  was  used 
tropically  for  wine,  and  Ceres  for  corn.  It  cannot  be  inferred, 
therefore,  that  Jesus,  the  apostles,  and  evangelists  supposed,  that 
those  persons,  who  were  represented  as  possessed,  were  in  reality 
possessed  with  demons  or  the  spirits  of  the  dead.  It  cannot  be  in- 
ferred, %ve  contend,  the  more  especially,  because  they  often  give  inti- 
mations of  a  contrary  opinion,  as  will  appear  from  the  following 
statements. 

Argument  I.  The  evangelists  often  introduce  demoniacs  among 
sick  men,  as  a  separate  class  of  sick,  Matt.  4:  23,  24.  10:  8.  Mark 
1:  32.  Luke  4:  40,  41.  5:  15.  8:  2.  9:  1.  13:  32 ;  and,  what  is  wor- 
thy of  notice,  all  classes  of  sick  persons,  many  of  whom  are  never 
described  by  the  evjmgelists  as  being  subject  to  demoniacal  posses- 
sions, are  represented  in  Acts  10:  38,  without  any  exception,  as  be- 
ing oppressed  with    the   devil,  xazadvvaarsvofievoi  vno  rov  8ta^o- 


§   19G.    OPINION    OF    CIiniST,    THE    ArOSTLKS,    ETC.  223 

Xov.  From  this  it  clearly  appears,  that,  in  tlie  view  of  the  sacred 
writers,  to  be  a  sick  person,  and  to  be  a  demoniac  or  vexed  with  the 
devil,  (i.  e.  with  the  subordinate  agents  of  the  devil,  the  spirits  of 
the  wicked  dead,)  were  only  different  expressions  for  the  same 
thing.  The  evangelists,  it  should  be  remarked  in  addition,  in 
some  instances  comprehend  demoniacs  under  the  head  of  sick 
and  diseased  persons,  when,  without  expressly  mentioning  them, 
they  describe  in  general  terms  those  to  whom  the  Saviour  gave 
assistance.  That  is  to  say ;  when  enumerating  those,  who  had 
experienced  the  healing  power  of  the  Saviour,  they  did  not  deem  it 
necessary  particularly  to  mention  demoniacs  in  distinction  fi-om 
the  rest,  because  they  did  not  conceive,  there  was  anything  suf- 
ficiently peculiar  in  their  cases  to  render  it  necessary  always  to 
make  this  distinction,  since  they  might  conveniently  and  justly  be 
considered  as  comprehended  (even  when  not  expressly  mentioned) 
in  a  general  catalogue  of  those  maladies,  which  men  were  sub- 
ject to,  and  which  the  Saviour  had  heaJed,  Luke  7:  21,  22.  Matthew 
11:  5.  On  the  contrary,  the  Evangelists  certainly  would  not  have 
omitted  the  mention  of  them  in  such  an  enumeration,  which  was 
designed  as  a  statement  of  what  the  Saviour  had  done  in  relieving 
the  bodily  woes  of  men,  if  they  had  supposed  the  demoniacs  to 
be  sound  and  in  good  health,  with  the  exception  that  they  were 
possessed  with  a  devil ;  because  in  this  case,  their  situation  and 
recovery  would  have  been  so  peculiar,  as  to  have  demanded  a 
distinct  specification.  The  sacred  historians  frequently  say,  that 
the  demoniacs  were  made  whole,  or  restored,  which  is  an  intima- 
tion at  least,  that  they  were  previously  diseased,  Matthew  8:  IG.  12: 
22.  Luke  7:  21.  8:  2.  9:  42.  Luke  especially,  (chap.  11:  14,)  when 
speaking  of  a  dumb  spirit,  and  when  describing  the  spirit  of  infirmity, 
(chap.  13:  11.)  could  not,  certainly,  mean  to  be  understood  as  speak- 
ing of  a  real  spirit,  but  merely  of  a  disease,  or  of  some  defect  in  the 
bodily  organs.  If  moreover  Luke,  who  was  a  physician,  uses  such 
expressions  as  these,  viz.  to  heal,  to  be  healed  from  spirits,  to  heal 
those  oppressed  with  a  devil ;  if  he  uses  such  expressions  in  reference 
to  demoniacal  possessions,  it  is  clear  we  are  to  understand  possessions 
in  his  language  to  mean  the  same  with  diseases,  and  nothing  more ; 
consult  Luke  7:  21.  8:  2,  and  Acts  10:  38. 

Xot  only    the    evangelists    themselves,    but  the   Jews    also,    who 
are    introduced  as  speaking  in   the  gospels,   use  the  words  duifimv 


224         §  lOG.  oriMON  of  ciiuist,  tiik  atostlks,  ktc. 

and  daiiiofiov  tropically,  (the  same  as  proianc  writers,)  when  they 
speak  of  insanity,  hypochondria,  and  natural  madness,  Matt.  11:  18. 
Luke  7:  03.  John  7:  I'J,  20.  10:  20.  Furthermore,  in  Mark  3:  21, 
22,  jiicrr//  fte  ts  beside  himself,  is  interchanged  with  I)i:t)Xt[iov).  P/m 
he  hath  a  devil.  It  can  bo  sliown  also,  that  the  word  demon  is  inter- 
changed in  the  same  way  with  the  words  which  signify  disease  or 
sichiess,  as  if  they  were  altogether  s}nonymous  ;  coinp.  3Iark  7:  29, 
and  Malt.  15:  22 — 28;  compare  also  Mark  9:  17,  with  Luke  9:  39; 
also  Matt.  17:  15,  and  Luke  13:  10—12. 

Argument  IL  John,  it  is  true,  introduces  the  Jctvs  as  speaking 
in  the  customary  way  in  respect  to  demoniacs  and  demons,  (chap.  7: 
9 — 20.  10:  20,)  but  let  it  be  carefully  marked,  that  he  himself  is 
altogether  silent  on  the  subject  of  demoniacal  possessions,  notwith- 
standing that  he  frequently  speaks  of  the  sick,  who  were  healed 
by  the  Saviour,  4:  4G.  5:  3.  G:  2.  Paul  also,  in  enumerating  the 
vai-ious  kinds  of  miraculous  gifts,  (1  Cor.  12:  9,)  says  nothing  in 
respect  to  the  exorcism  of  demons ;  a  power  which  it  appears  be 
possessed  himself,  and  which  the  Saviour  had  promised,  Mark  IG: 
17.  Matt.  10:  8.  Luke  10:  17.  These  two  apostles  therefore,  con- 
sidered demoniacs  as  no  other  than  persons  afllicted  with  disease; 
and  it  was  very  natural  indeed  that  it  should  be  so,  when  it  is 
remembered  that  in  Asia  Minor,  where  John  composed  his  gospel, 
and  Paul  wrote  his  first  epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  medical  scie?ice 
was  in  a  very  flourishing  condition,  and  it  was  very  generally  known 
that  the  diseases,  attributed  to  demons,  were  merely  natural  diseases ; 
comp.  the  large  German  edit,  of  this  Work,  P.  I.  Vol.  II.  232.  p. 
477—480. 

If,  therefore,  it  be  objected  against  us,  that  the  demoniacs  in  the 
New  Testament  acknowledge  themselves  to  be  possessed  with  demons, 
we  reply,  that  nothing  else  was  to  be  expected  from  madmen.  If  it 
be  further  objected,  that  the  Jews  of  the  New  Testament  are  in  the 
habit  of  speaking  of  such  possessions,  it  must  be  admitted  by  our 
opponents,  either  that  this  was  the  usus  loquendi  in  respect  to  dis- 
eases, the  common  language  to  describe  the  causes  and  effects  of  cer- 
tain bodily  maladies,  without  any  particular  belief  that  those  maladies 
originated  from  the  agency  of  spirits,  or  that  the  Jews  actually 
believed  in  real  possessions. 

If,  moreover,  we  are  told,  that  both  the  apostles  themselves 
and   the  evangelists  inform  us,   that   demoniacs    came  to  Jesus,  or 


§  IDG.     OPINION    OF    CHRIST,    THE    APOSTLES,    ETC.  225 

were  brought  and  were  healed ;  that  Jesus  also  says,  tliat  he  casts 
out  devils;  the  answer  is,  the  ground  of  these  expressions  was  the 
common  mode  of  speaking,  prevailing  at  that  period ;  and  Jesus, 
the  apostles,  and  evangelists  made  use  of  such  expressions,  when 
they  spoke  of  hypochondria,  insanity,  epilepsy,  and  madness,  in 
order  to  be  understood  by  their  hearers  and  readers.  Nearly  in 
the  same  way  physicians  of  the  present  time  denominate  a  cer- 
tain class  of  sick  persons  lunatics,  i.  e.  persons  under  the  influence 
of  the  moon,  and  tell  us  of  St.  Anthony's  fire,  and  the  night  mare, 
although  the  true  causes  of  these  diseases  are  well  known.  Some- 
thing in  the  same  way  also,  it  is  customary  everywhere  to  speak  of 
the  sun's  setting  and  rising,  and  to  designate  certain  of  the  heavenly 
bodies  as  planets  ov  wandering  siM'S,  although  it  is  not  philosophically 
true,  either  that  the  sun  sets  or  rises,  or  that  the  planets  describe  that 
wandering,  irregular  path  in  the  heavens,  which  they  appear  to,  to  an 
uninstructed  eye. 

If,  finally,  it  be  said,  that  the  diseases  of  demoniacs  are  some- 
times distinguished  from  those  of  other  persons,  the  reason  of  it 
is,  that  these  diseases,  viz.  melancholy,  insanity,  epilepsy,  and  mad- 
ness, are  in  some  respects  peculiar,  and  are  healed  with  difficulty ; 
and  hence  the  curing  of  them  by  a  single  word  of  the  Saviour  was 
a  matter  of  the  greater  moment. 

Argument  III.  It  is  admitted,  that  Jesus  apparently  speaks  to 
the  demons,  threatens  them,  commands  them  to  be  silent,  orders 
them  to  depart  and  not  to  return,  Mark  1:  24.  5:  8.  9:  25.  Matt.  8: 
32.  Luke  4:  35.  8:  30 — 32.  But  it  may  be  remarked  in  explana- 
tion of  this,  that  he  has  reference  partly  to  the  persons  themselves, 
whom  he  commands  to  be  silent  and  whom  he  threatens,  and  partly 
to  the  disease,  which  he  orders  to  depart  and  not  to  return. 
Paul,  in  the  same  manner,  (Acts  16:  16,)  addresses  the  spirit  of 
Apollo,  and  commands  him  in  the  name  of  Jesus  to  depart  from 
the  soothsaying  damsel ;  and  yet,  as  we  may  learn  from  1  Cor.  8:  4, 
he  had  not  the  least  faith  in  Apollo,  nor  in  any  other  god  besides 
Jehovah.  Nor  are  we  at  liberty  to  suppose,  that  Luke,  the  histori- 
an of  the  Acts,  who  subjoins  to  the  account,  of  which  we  have  now 
spoken,  that  the  spirit  left  her,  believed  at  all,  that  the  spirit  of 
Apollo  was  really  present.  The  reason,  why  Paul  and  the  Saviour 
made  use  of  such  expressions  on  such  an  occasion,  was,  that  they 
might  excite  the  attention  of  the  bystanders,  and  give  them  to  un- 


22G  §  19G.  oriNioK  of  ciiiust,  tiik  atostlks,  ktc. 

derstand,  that  the  disease  had  tenuiiiatcJ  :it  tlieir  command.  It 
was  for  a  reason  of  the  same  nature,  viz.  to  make  an  impression 
on  the  minds  of  tliose  present,  that  the  Saviour,  wlien  the  tempest 
was  overruled  and  laid  by  his  miraculous  interference,  commanded 
in  an  audible  ma7iner  the  winds  and  the  seas  to  be  at  rest.  Let  those, 
who  inquire,  how  Jesus  could  call  the  demon  by  name,  if  he  did  not 
believe  one  to  be  present,  read  the  Greek  text  of  IMark  5:  9,  and 
of  Luke  8:  30,  and  they  will  see,  that  it  is  not  the  demon,  which  is 
addressed  by  name,  but  the  demoniac  himself,  {i7zi,n(,na  uvruv,  i.  e. 
uvO^QcoTzor,  not  avto,  i.  e.  Ttvevfia.) 

Jesus,  in  Luke  10:  17,  does  not  assert  the  operations  of  demons 
in  men,  for  he  couples  Satan  with  serpents  and  scorpions,  which 
places  us  under  the  necessity  of  interpreting  all  of  these  words 
tropically,  and  of  undei'standing  by  them  cunning  and  powerful 
adversaries  who  opposed  the  progress  of  the  gospel,  but  with  all 
their  power  were  unable  to  interrupt  its  advancement.  The  expres- 
sions, which  he  employs,  are  as  follows.  "  I  see,"  Hebrew,  "'r"'^"^ , 
"  Satan,"  i.  e.  all  the  adversaries  of  the  Gospel,  who  are  afterwards 
called  serpents,  scorpions,  and  the  enemy's  liost,  "fall  like  light- 
ning from  heaven,"  i.  e.  from  the  political  heaven,  from  power 
and  authority.  Consult  Isa.  14:  12,  13.  Matt.  xxiv.  Luke  10:  15. 
Rev.  12:  7 — 9.  See  also  Cicero,  where  he  says  to  Mark  Antony, 
you  have  hurled  your  colleagues  doivn  from  heaven.  (The  ad- 
versaries of  the  Gospel  also  occur  in  Luke  22:  31,  under  the  name 
of  Satan.)  "Behold,"  he  proceeds,  "I  give  unto  you  power  to 
tread  on  serpents  and  scorpions,  and  over  all  the  power  of  the  ene- 
my," i.  e.  of  overcoming  and  subduing  by  your  miraculous  gifts  all 
adversaries,  "  and  nothing  shall  by  any  means  hurt  you,"  i.  e.  oppress 
and  overcome  you,  (comp.  d8ty.t]6i2  with  the  Hebrew  pr^- .)  "  Not- 
withstanding, in  this  rejoice  not,  that  the  spirits  are  sulject  unto 
you,  but  rather  rejoice,  because  your  names  are  written  in  iieaven," 
i.  e.  rejoice  rather  in  the  favor  of  God,  than  in  the  power  of  casting 
out  devils,  or  of  healing  the  most  difReult  diseases. 

Jesus,  in  Matt.  12:  24—30.  Mark  3:  22—30.  Luke  11:  IG— 24, 
employs  against  the  Pharisees  the  augumi:xtu.m  ad  iio.mixem, 
which  has  no  bearing  in  this  ease  any  further  than  the  refutation 
of  the  adversary  is  concerned.  The  ground  of  his  employing  this 
species  of  argument  in  the  present  instance  was  tliis.  TIk-  Phar- 
isees,   if  we  may    believe   Josephus,  taught    that    the    demons,  by 


§  lOG.  oriMOx  OF  ciiniST,  the  Arosxr.F.s,  etc.         227 

which  men  were  possessed,  were  the  spirits  of  bad  men,  who  were 
dead,  and  were  commissioned  on  their  present  business  of  torment- 
in^  tlie  children  of  men  by  Beelzebub.  Jesus  therefore  replied, 
provided  this  were  the  true  state  of  tlie  case,  that  Beelzebub, 
bv  lendin"  his  assistance  in  casting  out  his  own  devils,  was  over- 
turning his  own  kingdom.  He  then  adds,  that  this  powerful  spirit, 
for  such  the  Pharisees  supposed  him  to  be,  could  not  be  compelled 
to  perform  such  an  unwelcome  task,  unless  a  stronger  one,  than 
Beelzebub  himself,  should  first  come,  should  bind  him,  and  take  away 
his  arms. 

The  parable  in  INIatt.  12:  43—4'),  and  Luke  11:  24—28,  is  to  be 
interpreted  with  a  reference  to  the  explanation,  at  the  end,  viz. 
"so  sliall  it  be  unth  t/n's  iricled  generation."  The  demons  in 
these  passages  are  the  vices  of  the  Jews,  Avhich  had  been  in  some 
little  degree  corrected  by  the  preaching  of  John  the  Baptist  and 
the  Saviour,  but  which  soon  after  developed  themselves  with  great- 
er virulence,  and  to  a  greater  extent  than  ever,  as  Josephus  testi- 
fies was  the  case  in  the  time  of  the  War  with  the  Romans ;  comp. 
the  large  German  pdition  if  ^is  work,  P.  I.  Vol.  II.  §  232.  p.  490, 
491. 

Finally,  Jesus  liberates  the  woman,  described  in  Luke  13:  12, 
as  bowed  down  with  infirmity,  without  making  any  mention  of  a 
demon  ;  if,  therefore,  a  little  after,  he  asserts  that  she  was  a  daughter 
of  Abraham,  bound  by  Satan  for  eighteen  years,  the  expressions  are 
to  be  considered  as  figurative,  being  an  allusion  to  the  loosing  of  oxen, 
which  it  was  lawful  to  do  on  the  sabbath  in  order  to  lead  them  to 
drink,  and  having  reference  at  the  same  time  to  an  opinion  among 
the  Jews,  that  all  diseases  had  their  ultimate  oi'igin,  (not  indeed  from 
demons,)  but  from  the  devil,  that  overruling  spirit  of  wickedness,  who 
tempted  Eve,  and  to  whom  allusions  are  made  in  Acts  10:  38,  and  in 
2  Cor.  12:  7. 

AuGUMEXT  IV.  That  the  church  Fathers  unanimously  agreed 
in  the  opinion,  that  individuals,  in  the  time  of  Christ,  were  really 
and  truly  possessed  with  demons,  those,  who  maintain  that  De- 
moniacs were  diseased  persons,  plainly  and  expressly  deny. 
They  produce  testimonies  to  the  contrary.  They  assert,  more- 
over, that,  in  point  of  policy,  the  church  fathers  would  not  have 
thought  it  advisable,  to  have  made  such  assertions,  as  are  repre- 
sented, since  they  were   contending  incessantly  with  philosophers, 


22S  ?  lOT.  OPINION  OF  ciinisT,  Tiir  apostlks,  etc. 

who  believed  in,  and  ^;t^'lln()^^sly  contended  for  tlie  agency  of  de- 
mons. They  say  further,  that  nothing  is  gained  or  lost,  even  if  the 
fathers  were  unanimous  in  one  opinion,  since,  this  is  not  a  question 
of  faitli  or  doctrine,  in  which  alone  the  united  sentiment  of  the  Fathers 
can  be  considered,  as  possessing  a  binding  authority.  They  deny 
also,  tliat  it  can  be  concluded  from  the  fact,  that  a  class  or  order  of 
persons  called  exorcists,  existed  in  the  primitive  ages  of  the  church, 
tliat  the  cburcli  itself  believed  in  the  real  agency  of  demons  ;  since 
the  popular  superstitions  on  the  su])ject  might  have  been,  as  no  doubt 
thev  were  the  ground  of  such  an  institution,  see  Veronius  In  Eegul. 
Fid.  §  4.  no.  4. 


§  197.   Real  Possessions  inconsistent   with   the   Doctrine 
OF  Jesus  and  the  Apostles. 

Those,  who  oppose  the  doctrine  of  reed  possessions,  state  that 
Jesus,  the  Apostles,  and  Evangelists,  are  not  to  be  understood  lite- 
rally, Avhen  they  speak  of  the  agency  of  demons,  because  such  a  sup- 
position would  make  them  act  contrary  to  the  doctrine,  wliich  they 
themselves  taught. 

They,  accordingly,  in  support  of  the  point,  that  the  doctrine  of  the 
apostles  and  Jesus  are  contrary  to  that  of  real  demoniacal  possessions, 
advance  the  following  considerations. 

Argument  I.  Jesus  and  the  apostles  teach  us,  that  all  things, 
even  the  most  minute,  are  under  the  direction  of  God.  They  could 
not,  therefore,  for  a  moment  ^suppose,  that  so  great  miseries  were 
inflicted  by  demons,  (whether  they  were  the  spirits  of  dead  men,  or 
other  evil  spirits,)  or  that  God  would  be  accessory  to  such  evils,  by 
permitting  them  to  exist  in  such  a  way.  They  would  not  countenance 
such  an  opinion  the  more  especially,  because  it  had  its  origin  among 
nations,  which  were  given  to  idoleitry.  It  was  the  common  belief 
among  such  nations,  that  the  celestial  divinities  governed  the  world 
by  proxy,  entrusting  it  to  inferior  deities,  and  to  the  spirits  of  the 
dead. 

Argument  II.  Jesus  and  the  apostles  teach  us,  that  the  spirits 
of  the  dead  immediately  enter  upon  that  state  or  destiny,  which 
from  their  previous  character  they  deserve  ;  both  the  good  and 
the  bad  going  to  a  retribution,  from  which  they  can  never  return, 
Luke  16:  22  et  seq.    23:  43.    2  Cor.  5:  1.    Phihp.  1:  21.    3:  12. 


§  197.    OPINION    OF    CHRIST,    THE    ATOSTLKS,    ETC.  229 

Hc'b.  12:  23.  Some  of  the  wicked  spirits,  as  we  learn  from*2  Peter 
2:  4,  and  from  Jude  vei-se  6,  are  reserved  in  custody  till  the  day 
of  judgment ;  a  statement  which  cannot  be  reconciled  with  tlie  sup- 
position, that  they  are  straying  about  the  earth,  and  tormenting  its 
intiabitants. 

Argumkxt  III.  Let  it  be  admitted  that  Jesus  does  not,  in  direct 
terms,  contradict  the  prevailing  notions,  and  does  not  expressly 
and  explicitly  say,  that  the  demoniacs  were  not  afflicted  by  the 
agency  of  demons,  but  merely  by  natural  diseases,  (which  was 
the  opinion  maintained  by  the  Sadducees,)  still  it  must  be  con- 
fessed that,  on  the  other  hand,  he  no  where  expressly  denies  that 
the  effects  produced  upon  individuals,  who  were  represented  as  pos- 
sessed with  demons,  resulted  from  such  diseases  merely.  The  fact 
is  as  is  contended,  the  Saviour  neither  took  one  part  nor  the  other, 
neitner  denied  nor  asserted  the  reality  of  demoniacal  possessions. 
Indeed  it  was  not  necessarily  nor  actually  his  province.  A  question 
of  that  kind,  one  which  involved  the  state  of  the  body  or  the  mind, 
belonged  rather  to  professed  physicians.  The  apostles  pursue  the 
same  course  in  respect  to  this  subject  that  the  Saviour  does,  with  the 
exception  of  John  and  Paul,  wlio,  having  resided  much  in  Asia 
Minor,  do  not,  as  has  been  already  observed,  make  use  of  the 
customary  and  prevalent  phrases  in  regard  (o  demoniacs.  It  is 
stated,  furtiier,  in  defence  of  the  conduct  of  the  Saviour  and  his 
apostles,  that  there  was  no  need  o^  their  refuting  the  vulgar  opinion 
in  respect  to  demoniacs,  as  it  was  evidently  inconsistent  with  their 
doctrine  concerning  the  state  of  the  dead,  and  was  attacked  by 
the  physicians  of  that  age  with  great  success.  Besides,  an  at- 
tempt at  such  a  refutation,  in  an  age  when  the  opinion  to  be 
attacked  was  yet  so  prevalent,  and  in  a  country  where  it  was  so 
fondly  cherished,  would  have  involved  the  disciples  and  the  Saviour 
in  prolix  disputations,  and  would  have  withdrawn  their  attention  too 
much  from  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel. 

I  have  thus  given  the  statements,  illustrations,  and  arguments 
on  both  sides  of  this  question,  and  will  leave  each  one  to  form  his 
own  opinion. 

[Note.  —  To  give  an  opinion  on  a  question,  where  so  many 
plausible  considerations  have  been  brought  forward  on  both  sides, 
would  be  of  no  avail,  without  various  arguments  to  support  it. 
And   to   do   this,   after   the   statements   which    have   been    already 

20 


230      §  198.  THE  ANGEL  THAT  TROUBLED  THE  nATII. 

niatk',  could  lianlly  be  expected  here ;  especially  as  it  seems  to  be 
generally  ailmittod  by  both  parties,  that  the  adoption  of  either 
sentiment  does  not  necessarily  imply  a  doubt  of  the  divine  au- 
thority of  the  Saviour,  or  of  the  integrity  of  the  historians  of  the 
New  Testament. — Our  author  has  merely  undertaken  to  give  a 
concise  account  of  the  views  of  the  conflicting  writers  on  this  inquiry  ; 
and  it  is  only  in  pursuance  of  this  design  that  we  here  mention,  for 
the  student's  perusal,  the  Lectures  of  the  late  President  Appleton. 
In  this  work,  which  is  generally  accessible  to  the  students  of  lliis 
country,  but  probably  never  came  to  the  notice  of  Dr.  Jahn,  not 
onlv  the  common  arguments  in  favor  of  real  possession  are  forcibly 
presented,  but  a  number  of  specious  objections  to  that  view  of  the 
subject  are  met  and  controverted  in  a  manner  worthy  of  the  in- 
quirer's candid  consideration.] 

§  198.  The  Pool  near  the  Sheep-Market  at  Jerusalem. 
The  pool,  h)  rij  noo^atr/.i],  or  the  receptacle  of  water,  called 
Bethesda,  John  5:  2,  was  a  hath. 

I.  The  first  argument  in  favor  of  this  position  is  to  be  found 
in  the  fact,  that  the  Eabbins  and  the  Chaldaic  paraphrast  on  Ec- 
clesiastes  make  the  words  n'iSL:2'''nQ  and  5<^::3'Tia,  (the  Greek 
nno^uzr/.ij,)  mean  baths;  and  make  the  word  n::^2'iQ,  mean  the 
servant  attending  on  a  lath.  The  name'  Bethesda,  in  Hebrew  r-'S 
K-non ,  means,  the  house  or  place  of  favor  or  kindness,  and  agrees 
very  well  with  a  bath,  which  was  both  salutary  and  pleasant. 

II.  Another  proof,  that  the  pool  in  question  was  a  hath,  is  the 
fact,  tliat  the  blind,  maimed,  and  withered,  were  gathered  around  it ; 
and  that  there  were  likewise  five  porticos,  erected  without  doubt 
for  the  reception  of  those  who  were  sick  and  infirm.  That  this 
was  the  object  of  the  porticos  is  the  opinion,  expressed  both  in  the 
Pcshito  and  by  Suidas. 

The  Angel  that  troubled  the  Bath. 

It  is  related,  (John  5:  2—4,  6,  7,)  in  respect  to  this  bath,  that 
an  angel  of  the  Lord  descended  at  certain  times  and  troubled  the 
water,  and  that  the  person  who  descended  first,  after  this  opera- 
tion upon  the  water,  was  healed  of  whatever  infirmity  he  might,  labor 
under. 

This  account  of  the  descent  of  an  angel,  and  of  the  consequent 


§  198.  TUK  AXGKL  THAT  TROUBLED  THE  BATH.      23] 

restoration  of  the  first  one,  wlio  entered  tlie  water  after  liis  de- 
scent, is  omitted  in  certain  Greek  and  Latin  manuscripts,  and 
likewise  in  tlie  Armenian  version.  It  is  j)ointcd  out  to  the  par- 
ticuhir  notice  of  tlie  reader  in  some  Greek  manuscripts,  sometimes 
by  an  obelus  or  dagger  [f],  and  sometimes  by  an  asterisk.  Tlie 
genuineness  of  the  wliole  passage,  therefore,  is  justly  liable  to  sus- 
picion. 

On  the  supposition,  that  the  whole  narration  is  a  genuine  oni', 
the  bath  in  question  miglit  have  been  an  animal  bath,  which  has  a 
beneficial  influence  in  certain  diseases,  and  which,  in  the  present 
case,  was  furnished  with  blood  Irom  the  temple,  by  means  of  a 
subterranean  passage.  Accordingly,  when  the  blood  flowed  into 
it,  the  water  might  be  said  with  no  impropriety  to  be  dlslurherj, 
especially  on  festival  days,  when  it  received  a  greater  quantity  than 
usual. 

Or  it  might  have  been,  (and  most  probaby  was,)  a  mineral  bath, 
which  derived  its  salutary  powei-s  from  the  mineral  particles,  that 
were  intermixed  with  the  mud  at  the  bottom.  Accordingly,  when 
the  water  was  more  than  usually  disturbed  or  put  in  motion  by  some 
external  cause,  for  instance,  by  showers  or  by  subterranean  heat,  it 
is  natural  to  suppose,  that  it  was  the  more  strongly  impregnated 
with  minerals,  and  of  course  more  than  usually  efficacious.  The 
sick  and  infirm,  therefore,  wished  to  enter  it  at  this  period,  before 
the  mineral  particles  had  subsided,  and  the  water  had  returned  to 
its  ordinary  state.  Eusebius  in  his  Onomasticon  under  the  word 
§i^u\>d  confirms  the  last  hypothesis,  for  he  states,  that  in  his  time 
there  were,  at  that  place,  viz.  Bethesda,  two  contiguous  receptacles 
of  water,  which  were  dry  except  when  rains  fell.  They  were  then 
slightly  tinged  with  a  red  color,  a  proof,  that  the  bottom  -was  impreg- 
nated with  mineral  particles.  Consult  RicJderi  Dissertatio  Medic, 
theol.  de  balnea  animali,  p.  107.  Goetting.  1775,  and  Mead,  Medic, 
sacr.  6.  8. 

The  descent  of  the  angel,  and  the  healing  of  the  first  one,  who  en- 
tered into  the  water,  are  statements  founded  in  the  prevalent  popular 
opinions.  The  reason,  why  the  historian  did  not  make  a  statement 
of  his  own  on  the  subject,  but  chose  rather,  in  the  fourth  and  sixth 
verses,  to  give  the  popular  belief,  was,  that  the  reader  might  under- 
stand the  reply  of  the  sick  man,  in  the  seventh  verse. 


232  §  199.    ox    PATtALVTICS. 


§  199.    Ov    rAKAT.YTICS. 

The  palsy  of  the  New  Testament  is  a  disease  that  is  of  very  wide 
import.  IManv  infirmities,  as  Richter  has  demonstrated,  in  the  sev- 
enty-third and  the  following  pages  of  the  Treatise  referred  to  in  the 
preceding  section,  Avere  comprehended  undt-r  the  word  wliich  is  ren- 
dered pahy  in  the  New  Testament. 

I.  The  APOi'LKXY,  a  paralytic  shock  which  aOected  the  whole 
body. 

II.  TiiH  IIEMIPLKGY,  which  affects  and  paralyzes  only  one  side 
of  the  body. 

lU.  The  parai'LEGY,  which  paralyzes  all  the  parts  of  the  S}stem 
below  the  neck. 

IV.  The  catalepsy.  It  is  caused  by  a  contraction  of  the  mus- 
cles in  the  whole  or  part  of  the  body,  (e.  g.  in  the  hands,)  and  is  very 
dangerous.  The  effects  upon  the  parts  seized  are  very  violent  and 
deadly.  For  instance,  Avhen  a  person  is  struck  with  it,  if  his  hand 
happens  to  be  extended,  he  is  unable  to  draw  it  back.  If  the  hand 
is  not  extended,  when  he  is  struck  with  the  disease,  he  is  unable  to 
extend  it.  It  appears  diminished  in  size,  and  dried  up.  Hence  the 
Hebrews  were  in  the  habit  of  calling  it  a. withered  hatid,  1  Kings  13: 
4—6.  Zech.  11:  17.  Matt.  12:  10—13.  John  5:  3. 

V.  The  cramp.  This,  in  oriental  countries,  is  a  fearfid  malady, 
and  by  no  means  unfrequent.  It  originates  from  the  chills  of  the 
night.  The  limbs,  when  seized  with  it,  remain  immovable,  some- 
times turned  in,  and  sometimes  out,  in  the  same  position,  as  when 
they  were  first  seized.  The  person  afilicted  resembles  a  man,  under- 
going the  torture,  ^aauvi'Coiaio),  and  experiences  nearly  the  same 
exquisite  sufferings.  Death  follows  this  disease  in  a  few  days.  Matt. 
8:  9,  10.  comp.  Luke  7:  2.  1  Mac.  9:  55—58. 

Note. — The  disease,  denominated  in  Matt.  9:  20.  Mark  5:  25, 
and  Luke  8:  43,  ait  issue  of  hlood,  is  too  well  known  to  require  any 
particular  explanation.  It  may  be  well,  however,  to  make  this  sin- 
gle observation,  that  physicians  themselves  acknowledge,  that  it  is  a 
disorder  which  is  dilRcult  to  be  cured,  Mark  5:  26. 


§  202.  DiSEASi:  OF  iiiCKOi)  A<.;i;ii-i- 


§  200.  Tiiic  Dt;ATii  of  Judas  Iscariut. 

Judas  Iscariot,  i.  e.  .Judas,  the  man  of  Kariot/i,  rr—-  -J-s , 
(Josh.  15:  25.  Jer.  48:  41.  Amos  2:  2,)  we  are  informed  in  Matt.  27: 
5,  ((iTijiUTO,)  hiiny  himself.  We  are  further  informed  in  Acts  1:  18, 
(7TQ>iV>jg  vivotaiOi'  ihi/jjos  ^t'aog,  y.ai  f'Sf/yi^//  nuvza  zu  Gnlay/va 
avTov,  that  he  fell  headlong,  hurst  asunder  in  the  midst,  and  all  his 
bowels  gushed  out.  These  two  statements,  which  exhibit  the  appear- 
ance of  being  not  aUogcther  liarmonious,  have  occasioned  various 
opinions  among  the  learned. 

The  most  easy  and  natural  reconciliation  of  them  is  this.  Peter, 
in  his  discourse,  (Acts  1:  18,)  did  not  deem  it  necessary  to  give  a 
full  narration,  in  every  respect,  of  an  event,  Avhich  was  perfectly  well 
known.  He,  therefore,  merely  mentions  the  circumstance,  which 
probably  originated  from  the  rope's  breaking,  or  being  cut  off  with 
which  he  was  suspended,  at  the  time  tliat  he  was  taken  down  for 
interment,  of  his  fall  and  breaking  asunder  in  the  midst.  This  very 
simple  supposition,  which  gives  a  solution  of  the  whole  difficulty, 
appears  to  me  preferable  to  any  farfetched  hypothesis. 

§  201.  Blindness  of  the  soucerer  Bar  Jesus. 

Bah  Jesus,  the  sorcerer,  othei-wise  called  Elymas,  ivV^?  a  wise 
or  learned  man,  was  struck  blind  by  Paul,  Acts  13:  6 — 12.  The 
blindness  in  this  instance  is  properly  denominated  in  Greek  ayXvi', 
and  was  rather  an  obscuration,  than  a  total  extinction  of  the  sight. 
It  was  occasioned  by  a  thin  coat  or  tunicle  of  hard  substance,  which 
spread  itself  over  a  portion  of  the  eye,  and  interrupted  the  power  of 
vision.  Hence  the  disease  is  likewise  called  cy.ozog,  or  darkness. 
It  was  easily  cured,  and  sometimes  even  healed  of  itself,  without 
resort  to  any  medical  prescription.  Hence  Paul  adds,  "  not  seeing 
the  sun  for  a  season." 

§  202.  Disease  of  Herod  Agrippa. 

Josephus,  (Antifi.  XIX.  8.  2,)  and  Luke,  (Acts  12:  23,)  attribute 
the  disease,  with    whitli   Herod  died,  to  the  immediate    agency  of 
God ;    because   he    so   readily   received    the  idolatrous  acclamationa 
20* 


234  §  203.    ox    DEATH. 

of  the  people,  who  hailed  and  honored  him,  as  a  Divinity.  Jose- 
phus  says,  the  disease  was  in  the  intestines.  But  he  perverts  his 
statement  by  the  intermixture  of  certain  superstitious  and  incredible 
notions. 

Luke,  who  was  a  physician,  says  more  definitely  and  accurately, 
that  Herod  was  consumed  witli  worms,  which  in  eastern  countries 
frequently  prey  upon  the  intestines.  Josephus  observes,  tlwt  he  died 
on  the  fifth  day  after  the  attack. 


CHAPTER  Xin. 

CONCERNING    DEATH,    BURIALS,    AND 
MOURNING. 

§  203.  On  Death. 

The  Hebrews  regarded  life  as  a  journey,  as  a  pilgrunage  on 
the  face  of  the  earth.  The  traveller,  as  they  supposed,  when  be 
arrived  at  the  end  of  this  journey,  which  happened  when  he  died, 
was  received  into  the  company  of  his  ancestors,  who  had  gone  l)efore 
him.  Gen.  25:  8.  35:  29.  37:  35.  Ps.  39:  12 ;  comp.  Hebrews  11:  13, 
15.  Eccles.  12:  7.  Reception  into  the  presence  of  God  at  death  is 
asserted  in  only  two  passages  of  the  Old  Testament,  viz.  Haggai  2: 
23,  and  Eccles.  12:  7. 

Opinions  of  this  kind,  (viz.  that  life  is  a  journey,  that  death  is 
the  end  of  that  journey,  and  that,  when  one  dies,  he  mingles  with 
the  hosts  who  have  gone  before,)  are  the  origin  and  ground  of  such 
phrases  as  the  following :  to  be  gathered  to  one's  people,  l^sr  "?><  ~5:5<n , 
Num.  20:  24,  2G.  Deut.  32:  50.  Gen.  25:  8,  9.  35:  29.  49:  29.  Jer. 
8:  2.  25:  33,  and  to  go  to  one's  fathers,  rrirx,  ^X  Ni2,  Gen.  15:  15. 
37:  35.  This  visiting  of  the  fathers  has  reference  to  the  immortal 
part,  and  is  clearly  distinguished,  in  many  of  the  passages  above 
quoted,  from  tlie  mere  burial  of  the  body.     See  Gen.  37:  35. 

A  person,  when  dying,  was  said  to  go,  to  depart,  or  to  he  dismis- 


§  203.    ON    DEATH.  235 

sed,  TTOiievt'a&ai,  §u8i^i-ti;  arroh't'oOat,  -^n,  r\t',  Tob.  3:  6,  13. 
John  7^33.  8:  21.  16:  IG,  17.  2  Cor.  5:  G— 9.  Philip.  1:  13.  2  Tim. 
4:  G.  Luke  2:  29.  22:  22.  comp.  the  Scptuagint  in  Gen.  15:  2,  15, 
anil  2siim.  20:  2G.  In  those  parts  of  tlie  Bible,  which  were  writ- 
ten at  a  comparatively  recent  period,  there  occur  such  expressions, 
as  the  following ;  to  sleep  among  one's  fathers,  I'^ri^x  =r  3:-i ,  2 
Sam.  7:  12.  1  Kings  11:  21 ;  and  in  all  parts  of  the  Bible,  such  as  the 
following,  to  give  up  the  ghost,  and  no  longer  to  be  or  exist,  in  Hebrew 
5,,j^  ,.,°s^^  Gen.  42:  13.  Num.  20:  3,  29.  Gen.  31:  15.  Ps.  37:  10, 
36.  39:  13.  103:  16.     Mark  15:  37. 

Some  suppose,  that  the  expressions  and  descriptions,  which  occur 
in  Gen.  5:  24.  Ecclus.  44:  16.  Wisd.  4:  10.  Heb.  11:  5,  and  2  Kings 
2:  12,  are  of  a  poetical  character,  which  convey,  when  truly  interpre- 
ted, no  other  idea,  than  that  of  natural  death. 

Sometimes  the  Hebrews  regarded  death  as  a  friendly  messen- 
ger, but  they  were  more  frequently  inclined  to  dread  him,  as  a  for- 
midable enemy.  Impressed  with  a  sense  of  the  terrors,  which 
were  the  consequence  of  his  visitations,  their  huaginations  imparted 
to  him  a  poetical  existence  in  the  character  of  a  hunter,  armed 
him  with  a  dart  ot  javelin,  yJvzQov,  with  a  net  "iisr-a  and  with  a 
snare,  Qina,  bix":5  "^ban,  T^'^o  ''ban,  m-a  '^t'prz.  Thus  equipped,  this 
fearful  invader  commenced  his  artifices  against  the  children  of  men, 
and  when  he  had  taken  them  captive,  slew  them,  2  Sam.  26:  6.  Ps. 
18:  5,  6.  116:  3.  1  Cor.  15:  55,  56. 

The  wild  fancy  of  some  of  the  Poets  went  still  further,  and 
represented  Death,  n-i^  as  the  king  of  the  Lower  World,  and  fit- 
ted up  for  him  a  subterranean  palace,  denominated  Sheol  and 
Hades,  b-;x'j  "Aidr^g,  in  which  he  exercised  sovereignty  over  all 
men,  (including  kings  and  warriors,)  who  had  departed  from  this 
upper  state  of  existence.  This  place  occurs  also  under  the  phrases, 
r:."2  ^-rr ,  and  «/  nvha  xov  ndov,  the  gates  of  Death  or  Hades,  Job 
38:'l7.  Ps.  9:  13.  49:  15.  107:  18.  Isa.  38:  10,  18.  Matthew  16:  18. 
Such  are  the  attributes  of  this  place,  its  situation,  its  ruler,  and  its 
subjects,  that  it  might  very  justly  be  denominated  Death's  royal 
palace,  comp.  2  Sam.  15:  2. 

^Mention  is  made  of  the  rivers  of  Hades,  in  Ps.  18:  4,  5. 
The  more   recent   Hebrews,  adhering  too   strictly   to  the    letter 
of  their   Scriptures,  exercised  their  ingenuity,  and  put  in  requisi- 
tion their  faith,  to  furnish  the  monarch  Death  with  a  subordinate 


23G  §  •JC)4.     .UKATMKNT    OF    THK    CORPSK,    KMI5ALMIXG. 

ajrt'iU  or  angel,  r.>ri  "xr*:,  viz.  the  prince  of  bad  spirits,  o  /ha- 
^olo:;,  otlierwisc  called  Sammatl,  and  also  Ashmodai,  and  known 
in  the  New  Testament  by  the  phrases,  o  unycov  tov  y.oofwv,  Sn 
C^i'm.o  TO  y.nuTO','  tov  Ouvutov  e'/ur,  o  minu^cov,  the  prince  of 
litis  u-urld,  u-Jio  hath  the  poiver  of  death,  the  tempter.  The  He- 
brews, accordinirly,  in  enumerating  the  attributes'  and  oiriees  of  the 
prime  minister  of  the  terrific  king  of  Hades,  represent  him  as  in 
the  habit  of  making  his  appearance  in  the  presence  of  God,  and 
demanding  at  the  hand  of  the  Divinity  the  extinction,  in  any  given 
instance,  of  human  life,  (see  Jude,  chap,  l.)  Having  obtained  per- 
mission to  that  effect,  he  does  not  fail  of  making  a  prom})t  exhibi- 
tion of  himself  to  the  sick  ;  he  then  gives  them  drops  of  poison, 
which  they  drink  and  die.  Comp.  John  14:  30.  Heb.  2:  14.  Hence 
originate  the  phrases,  "  to  taste  of  death,"  and  "  to  di'ink  the  cup  of 
death,"  which  are  found  also  among  the  Syrians,  Arabians,  and 
Persians,  jNIatt.  IG:  28.  Mark  9:  1.  Luke  9:  27.  John  8:  52.  Heb. 
2:9. 

[Note.  For  some  "well  written  and  learned  remarks  on  the  mean- 
ing, which  was  attached  by  the  ancient  Hebrews  to  the  term  Sheol, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  Dr.  Campbell's  Preliminary  Dissertations 
to  the  Gospels,  Diss.  VI.  Pt.  2. 

The  subject  of  the  Devil  and  of  wicked  angels  in  general  is  exam- 
ined in  the  Biblical  Theology  of  Storr  and  Flatt,  recently  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Professor  S.  S.  Schmucker.  The  real  exist- 
ence of  evil  spirits,  and  the  relation  in  which  they  stand  to  the 
human  family,  is  concisely  but  satisfactorily  illustrated  in  that  valua- 
ble work.] 

§  204.  Treatment  of  the  Corpse.     Embalming. 

The  friends  or  sons  of  the  deceased  closed  his  eyes.  Gen.  46:  4. 
The  corpse  "isa ,  rrs: ,  ni"2^;.\ ,  us? ,  n-c ,  was  washed  with  water, 
and  except  when  buried  immediately,  was  laid  out  in  an  upper  room 
or  chamber  n^bv  vrrtQWor,  2  Kings  4:  21.  Acts  9:  37. 

The  treatment  of  the  lifeless  body  has  not  always  been  the  same 
in  every  age,  but  has  varied  both  in  different  ages,  and  in  different 
countries. 

The  Ecjyptians  embalmed  :;3n,  the  body.  They  had  three 
methods  of  performing   this  operation,  and,  in  determining  which 


§  204.    TREATMKNT    OV   TIIK    COUrSE,   EMHALMING, 


23; 


of  these  methods  should  be  followed  in  any  given  case,  the  prominent 
inquiry  was  in  respect  to  the  rank  and  wealth  of  the  deceased  person. 
The  fii-st  method  was  adopted  in  the  embalming  of  Jacob  and  Joseph  ; 
it  was  very  costly,  and  required,  in  defrayment  of  the  expense,  more 
than  two  thousand  florins,  Gen.  50:  2,  26. 

Herodotus  (II.  86 — 88.)  states,  that  the  priest  (one,  who  at  the 
same  time  had  some  knowledge  of  the  medical  art,)  designated  to 
the  operator  a  place  below  the  ribs,  on  the  left  side  of  the  de- 
ceased person,  for  the  incision.  The  operator,  he  observes,  had  no 
sooner  made  the  incision,  than  he  fled  with  the  greatest  precipitation, 
for  he  was  immediately  attacked  with  stones  by  the  bystanders,  as 
one  who  had  violated  the  dead.  The  rest  of  the  priests  (who,  like 
the  one  that  had  designated  the  place  for  the  incision,  were  in  some 
degree  acquainted  with  medicine,  extracted  the  intestines,  washed 
the  body  externally  with  water,  and  internally  with  the  wine  of  the 
palm  tree,  and  then  anointed  it  with  a  composition  of  myrrh, 
cassia,  salt  of  nitre,  etc.  The  brain  was  taken  out  by  a  crooked 
piece  of  iron  through  the  nose,  and  the  cranium  was  filled  with 
aromatic  substances. 

The  Avhole  body  was  then  wrapped  round  with  linen,  while 
each  member  of  the  body  was  at  the  same  time  bound  separately, 
with  pieces  of  the  same  materials.  The  process  of  embalming  occu- 
pied thirty  or  forty  days.  Gen.  50:  2,  26.  The  two  other  modes  of 
embalming,  which  occupied  but  a  short  time,  it  is  not  especially 
necessaiy  that  we  should  undertake,  at  the  present  time,  to  de- 
scribe. 

After  the  body  was  embalmed,  it  was  placed  in  a  box  of  sycamore 
wood,  which  was  fashioned  externally  so  as  to  resemble  the  human 
form,  and  was  in  this  way  preserved  in  the  house,  sometimes  for  ages, 
leaning  against  the  wall,  Exod.  13:  19,  comp.  Gen.  50:  24,  25.  Josh. 
24:  32  ;  see  also  the  large  German  edition  of  this  "Work,  P.  I.  Vol.  II. 
tab.  X.  no.  1.  This  is  the  account  of  embalming,  as  far  as  the  Egyp- 
tians, and  those  who  were  immediately  connected  with  them,  are  con- 
cerned. 

In  respect  to  this  practice  or  art,  as  it  existed  among  the  He- 
brews, we  have  authority  for  saying  as  far  as  this,  that  it  was 
their  custom,  in  the  more  recent  periods  of  their  history,  to  wrap 
the  body  around  with  many  folds  of  linen,  and  to  place  the  head  in 
a  napkin,  John  11:  44.      (The  general   term  that    is    used  in  the 


238  §  205.    OF    FUNERALS. 

New  Testament  to  int'liule  the  whole  of  llie  grave-clothes,  is 
nOihiu.)  It  ^vas  their  custom  likewise  to  expend  upon  the  dead 
aromatic  substances,  especially  myrrh  and  aloes,  which  were  brought 
from  Arabia.  This  ceremony  is  expressed  by  the  Greek  verb 
iVTuqtd'Qav,  and  was  performed  by  the  neighbors  and  relations. 
Matt.  2G:  G— 14.  27:  59.  John  19:  39,  40.  20:  7.  11:  44.  Mark  14: 
8.  Acts  9:  37.  There  is  reason  to  believe,  that  the  more  ancient 
Hebrews,  although  it  cannot  be  proved  by  direct  and  decisive  tes- 
timony, pursued  the  same  course  in  regard  to  the  dead,  with  their 
descendants. 


§  205.  Of  Funerals. 

The  ceremonies  at  the  burial  of  the  dead  were  different  in  different 
countries  ;  but  in  every  country  it  was  considered  a  most  ignominious 
procedure,  to  deprive  the  corpse  of  interment,  and  to  leave  it  exposed 
to  the  depredations  of  wild  beasts  and  birds. 

Heroes,  accordingly,  (such  was  the  disgrace  attached  to  non- 
interment,)  Avere  in  the  habit  of  threatening,  as  a  mark  of  their 
indignation  and  contempt,  this  dishonor  to  their  adversaries  in  battle. 
The  prophets,  in  like  manner,  when  putting  in  requisition  the  powers 
of  their  imagination  in  order  to  give  an  impressive  picture  of  any 
fearful  and  approaching  devastations  by  war,  represent  such  a  state 
of  things  as  a  feast,  which  God  would  make  from  human  corpses,  for 
the  birds  of  heaven  and  for  the  beasts  of  the  forest,  1  Sam.  17:  44 — 
46.  31:  8—13.  2  Sam.  4:  12.  21:  9,  10.  1  Kings  14:  11—14.  Jer.  7: 
33.  8:  2.  IG:  4.  34:  20.  Ezek.  29:  5.  32:  4.  39:  17—20.  Ps.  63:  10. 
79:  2,  3.  Isa.  14:  19.  The  patriarchs  buried  their  dead  in  a  few 
days  after  death.  Gen.  23:  2—4.  25:  9.  35:  29.  Their  posterity  in 
Egypt  seem  to  have  deferred  burial.  It  is  probable  that  Moses,  in 
reference  to  this  practice,  extended  the  uncleanness  contracted  by 
means  of  a  corpse  to  seven  days,  in  order  to  make  the  people  hasten 
the  ceremony  of  interment. 

In  a  subsequent  age,  the  Jews  imitated  the  example  of  the  Per- 
sians, and  buried  the  body  very  soon  after  death.  Acts  5:  6,  10. 
The  interment  of  Tabitha,  (Acts  9:  37,)  was  delayed  on  account 
of  sending  for  Peter.  The  children,  friends,  relations,  or  servants 
of  the  deceased  took  the  charge  of  his  burial,  Gen.  23:  19.    25:  9. 


§  20G.    SITUATION    OF    SEPULCHRES.  239 

35:  29.  48:  7.  Num.  20:  28.  1  Kings  13:  30.  2  Kings  23:  30.  Mark 
6:  29.  Matt.  27:  59,  60. 

A  Lk)X  or  coflin  for  the  dead,  'p""X,  was  not  used,  except  in 
Bat)ylon  and  Egypt.  The  corpse  was  wrapped  m  folds  of  linen, 
and  placed  upon  a  bier,  in  the  Hebrew  SS'rr  and  n::"2,  Deut.  3: 
11  ;  and  was  then  carried  by  four  or  six  persons  to  the  tomb. 
The  bearers  appear  to  have  travelled  very  rapidly  in  the  time  of 
Christ,  ;\s  they  do  at  the  present  day  among  the  modern  Jews,  Luke 
7.  14. 

The  mourners,  who  followed  the  bier,  poured  forth  the  an- 
guish of  their  hearts  in  lamentable  wails ;  and  what  rendered  the 
ceremony  still  more  affecting,  there  were  eulogists  and  musicians 
in  attendance,  who  deepened  the  sympathetic  feelings  of  the  oc- 
casion, by  a  rehearsal  of  the  virtues  of  the  departed,  and  by  the 
accompaniment  of  melancholy  sounds.  Gen.  50:  7 — 11.  2  Sam.  3: 
31,  32.  Amos  5:  IG.  Matt.  9:  23.  11:  17.  Men,  who  were  distin- 
guished for  their  rank,  and  who  at  the  same  time  exhibited  a 
claim  to  the  love  and  to  the, favor  of  the  people,  for  their  virtues. 
and  their  good  deeds,  were  honored  Avith  an  attendance  of  vast 
multitudes,  to  witness  the  solemnities  of  their  interment,  Gen.  50: 
7_14,  1  Sam.  25:  1.  2  Chron.  32:  33.  1  Kings  14:  13.  To  burj', 
and  to  pay  due  honors  to  the  remains  of  the  dead,  was  consider- 
ed, in  the  later  periods  of  the  Jewish  state,  not  only  an  act  due  to 
decency  and  the  common  feelings  of  humanity,  but  a  religious  duty, 
Tob.  1:  12—19.  2:  4—8.  4:  17,  18.  12:  12,  13.  Eccles.  7:  31.  Acts 
8:2. 


§  200.  Situation  of  Sepulchres. 

Sepidchres,  otherwise  called  the  everlasting  houses,  were 
commonly  situated  beyond  the  limits  of  cities  and  villages,  Isa.  14: 
'8.  Ecoie.^^.  12:  5.  Luke  7:  12.  Matt.  8:  28.  The  Mosaic  law  re- 
specting defilement  by  means  of  dead  bodies,  seemed  to  render  it 
neccssarj-,  that  they  should  not  be  located  within  them.  And  still 
it  was  as  much  the  custom  among  other  nations,  as  among  the 
Hebrews,  (and  indeed  continues  to  be  the  practice  to  the  present 
day  in  the  East,)  to  bury  out  of  the  city ;  except  in  the  case  of  kings 
and  very  distinguished  men,  whose  ashes  are  commonly  permitted 


240  §  "207.  SKruLCUKKS. 

(0  rqjose  whliin  it,  comp.  1  Sam.  28:3.  2  Kings  21: 18.  2  Cliron.  IG: 
14.  24:  IG. 

The  scpulolires  of  the  Hebrew  kings  were  upon  mount  Zion,  2 
Chron.  21:  20.  24:  25.  28:  27.  2  Kings  14:  20. 

With  the  exception  to  be  made  in  respect  to  the  situation  of  the 
tombs  of  their  kings,  the  Hebrews  generally  exhibited  a  preference 
for  burying  their  dead  in  gardens,  and  beneath  shady  trees,  Gen.  23: 
17.  35:  S.  1  Sam.  31:  13.  2  Kings  21:  18,  2G.  23:  IG.  John  19:  41. 
But  as  sucli  situations,  viz.  gi-oves  and  gardens,  belonged  of  course 
to  individuals,  the  inference  is,  (what  indeed  we  learn  from  other 
sources,)  that  sepulchres  were  the  property  of  a  single  person,  or 
of  a  number  of  families  united  together.  Gen.  23:  4 — 20.  50:  13. 
Judg.  \(j:  31.  2  Sam.  2:  32.  There  wei'e  some  burial  places,  how- 
ever, whicli  were  either  common,  2  Kings  23:  G.  Jer.  2G:  23,  or  al- 
lotted to  a  certain  class  of  people.  Matt.  27:  7. 

To  be  buried  in  the  sepulchre  of  one's  fathers,  Avas  a  distinguished 
honor ;  to  be  excluded  from  it,  was  as  signal  a  disgrace.  In  con- 
sequence of  this  feeling,  the  bodies  of  enemies,  who  had  fallen  in 
war,  were  delivered  up  to  their  friends  to  be  buried,  though  in  some 
instances  when  petitioned  for,  they  were  denied,  Gen.  49:  29.  50:  13, 
25.  Judg.  1G:31.  2  Sam.  19:  37,  38.  2  Kings  9:28.  Jer.  26:23. 
This  honor  was  denied  to  those,  who  died  while  infected  with  the 
leprosy,  2  Chron.  2G:  23.  Those  kings  also,  who  had  incurred  the 
hatred  of  the  people,  were  not  permitted  to  be  buried  in  the  royal 
tombs,  2  Chron.  21:  20.  24:  25.  28:  27.  Hence  Ave  are  commonly 
informed  in  respect  to  kings  of  an  opposite  character,  that  they  were 
buried  with  funeral  honors,  in  the  tombs  of  their  ancestors,  1  Kings 
11:  43.  14:  31.  15:  8,  etc.  To  be  buried  like  an  ass,  i.  e.  without 
motirning,  and  lamentation,  was  considered  a  very  great  disgrace, 
Jer.  22:  IG— 19.  35:  30. 

§  207.  Sepulchres. 

The  sepulchres  or  burying  places  of  the  common  class  of  peo- 
ple were,  without  doubt,  mere  excavations  in  the  earth,  such  as 
are  commonly  made  at  the  present  day  in  the  East.  Persons,  who 
sustained  a  higher  rank,  were  more  rich,  or  more  powerful,  c^wn- 
ed  subterranean  recesses,  crypts,  or  caverns,  which  are  sometimes 
denominated  fr^^"^ .  sometimes  nnrr,  i^"''"::,  "lis,  sometimes  "12;?, 


§  207.    NOTK    I.    0-\    THE    SErCLCIinES    OF    THE    KINGS 


Z"Z'p  (the  usual  name  for  places  of  interment,)  and  in  tbo  New 
Testament,  tdqo^'  and  fir/jfuior,  Gen.  23:  G,  Matt.  23:  27.  29:  27. 
52:  53.  (Tiie  word  ?"K'r,  al?o,  in  Psalm  141:  7,  means  a  burying 
place.)  These  largo  subterranean  places  of  interment  were,  in  some 
instances,  the  work  of  nature,  in  some,  were  merely  artificial  excava- 
tions of  the  earth,  and  in  others,  n-ere  cut  out  from  rocks.  Gen.  23:  2 
et  seq.  Josh.  10:  27.  Isa.  22:  16.  2  Kings  13:  21.  John  11:  38.  19: 
41.  ]Matt.  27:  52,  60.  Numerous  sepulchres  of  this  kind  still  remain 
in  Syria,  in  Palestine,  and  in  Egypt.  The  most  beautiful,  called  the 
royal  sepulchres,  are  situated  in  the  north  part  of  Jerusalem,  and 
were  probably  the  work  of  cither  Helen,  queen  of  Assyria,  or  of  the 
Herods ;  Josephus,  Jewish  Wa--,  V.  4.  2.  p.  843. 

The  entrance  into  these  sepulchres  was  by  a  descent  over  a  num- 
ber of  step?.  Many  of  them  consisted  of  two,  three,  and  even  seven 
apartments.  There  were  niches  in  the  walls,  where  the  dead  bodies 
were  deposited.  The  interior  chambers  of  sepulchres,  those  the  far- 
thest removed  from  the  first  entrance,  were  deeper  than  the  others, 
and  were  approached  by  a  flight  of  descending  steps,  2  Chron.  32: 
33.  Ps.  88:  6.  Isa.  14:  15. 

The  entrance  was  closed,  either  by  stone  doors,  or  by  a  flat  stone 
placed  against  the  mouth  of  it,  Ps.  5:  9.  John  11:  38.  20:  5,  11.  Matt. 
28:  2.  Mark  16:  3,  4. 

The  doors  of  sepulchres,  indeed  the  whole  external  surface, 
unless  they  were  so  conspicuous  without  it,  as  to  be  readily  dis- 
covered and  known,  were  painted  white  on  the  last  month  of  every 
year,  i.  e.  the  month  of  Adar.  The  object  of  this  practice  Ava5, 
by  a  timely  warning,  to  prevent  those,  who  came  to  the  feast  of 
the  Passover,  from  approaching  them,  and  thus  becoming  contami- 
nated. Matt.  23:  27.  Luke  11:  44.  In  Egypt  there  are  still  found 
the  remains  of  very  splendid  sepulchres,  which,  when  we  consider 
their  antiquity,  their  costliness,  and  the  consequent  notice,  which  they 
attracted,  account  for  the  expressions  in  Job  3:  14,  and  17:  1. 

Note  I.   Mauxdrell  ox  the  Sepulchres  of  the  Kings. 

["The  next  place  we  came  to  was  those   famous   grots   called 

the  sqnilchres  of  the  kings ;    but  for  what  reason  they  go  by  that 

name  is  hard  to  resolve :    for  it  is  certain  none  of  the  kings  either 

of  Israel  or  Judah   were  buried  here,  the  holy  Scriptures  assign- 

21 


212     §  207.  NOTE  I.  ox  THE  si:ruLcnnr.s  of  the  kings. 

iiig  otliiT  ])laccs  fur  their  sepulchres ;  unless  it  may  he  thought,  per- 
haps that  ITezekiah  was  here  interred,  and  that  tliese  were  the  sepul- 
chres of  the  sons  of  David,  mentioned  2  Cliron.  32:  33.  "Whoever 
was  buried  here,  tliis  is  certain,  that  the  place  itself  discovers  so 
great  an  expense  both  of  labor  and  treasure,  that  we  may  well  sup- 
pose it  to  have  been  the  work  of  kings.  You  approach  to  it  at  the 
east  side,  through  an  entrance  cut  out  of  the  natural  rock,  which  ad- 
raits  you  into  an  open  court  of  about  forty  paces  square,  cut  down 
into  the  rock  with  which  it  is  encompassed  instead  of  walls.  On  the 
south  side  of  the  court  is  a  portico  nine  paces  long  and  four  broad, 
hewn  likewise  out  of  the  natural  rock.  This  has  a  kind  of  architrave 
running  along  its  front,  adorned  Avith  sculpture,  of  fruits  or  flowers, 
still  discernible,  but  by  time  much  defaced.  At  the  end  of  the  por- 
tico on  the  left  hand  you  descend  to  the  passage  into  the  sepulchres. 
The  door  is  now  so  obstructed  with  stones  and  rubbish,  that  it  is  a 
thing  of  some  difficulty  to  creep  through  it.  But  within,  you  arrive 
in  a  large  fair  room,  about  seven  or  eight  yards  square,  cut  out  of  the 
natural  rock.  Its  sides  and  ceiling  are  so  exactly  square,  and  its 
angles  so  just,  that  no  architect  with  levels  and  plummets  could  build 
a  room  more  regular.  And  the  whole  is  so  firm  and  entire,  that  it 
may  be  called  a  chamber  hollowed  out  of  one  piece  of  marble.  From 
this  room,  you  pass  into,  I  think,  six  more,  one  within  another,  all 
of  the  same  fabric  Avith  the  first.  Of  these  the  two  innermost  are 
deeper  than  the  rest,  having  a  second  descent  of  about  six  or  seven 
steps  into  them. 

"  In  every  one  of  these  rooms,  except  the  first,  were  coffins  of 
stone,  placed  in  niches  in  the  sides  of  the  chamber.  They  had 
been  at  first  covered  with  handsome  lids,  and  carved  Avith  gar- 
lands ;  but  now  most  of  them  were  broken  to  pieces  by  sacri- 
legious hands.  The  sides  and  ceiling  of  the  rooms  were  always 
dropping  with  the  moist  damps  condensing  upon  them.  To  remedy 
which  nuisance,  and  to  preserve  these  chambers  of  the  dead  polite 
and  clean,  there  was  in  each  room  a  small  channel  cut  in  the  floor, 
which  served  to  drain  the  drops  that  fall  constantly  into  it." — Maun- 
"Jrell's  Travels,  p.  76,] 

Note  II.  Harmer  ox  the  wniTE-WASiiixG  of  Si:i'Ui,cnnES. 

p'The  general  meaning  of  a  comparison  used  by  our  Lord  is 
obvious,  when  he   said,  Wo  unto  you,  Scribes  and  Pharisees,  hypo- 


§  207.  NOTK  IT.  OX  Tir.:  wniT!>\VAsiiiNo  OF  SKruLcnuES.    243 

a-itcsf  for  ye  are  like  unto  u-hited  sepidchrcs,  ichich  indeed  appear 
beautiful  outicard,  but  are  within  full  of  dead  7ncn's  bones,  and  of  all 
uncleanness,  Matt,  23:  27  ;  but  it  will  appear  with  greater  life,  if  we 
suppose,  that  the  sepulchres  about  Jerusalem  were  just  then  white- 
washed afresh,  which  I  should  suppose  is  extremely  probable,  as  the 
present  Eastern  sepulchres  are  fresh  done  upon  the  approach  of  their 
Ramadan. 

"  Such  is  the  account  of  Xiebuhr,  in  the  first  volume  of  his 
Travels.  Speaking  there  of  Zel)id,  a  city  of  Arabia,  which  had 
been  the  residence  of  a  ISIoharamedan  prince,  and  the  most  com- 
mercial city  of  all  the  country  of  that  part  of  Arabia,  but  which 
had  lost  much  of  its  ancient  splendor  in  these  respects,  he  adds, 
'  that  however,  Zebid  makes  yet,  at  a  distance,  the  most  beautiful 
appearance  of  all  the  cities  of  the  Tehama,  or  low  country,  which  is 
owin"-  to  their  clergy,  who  have  found  means  insensibly  to  appro- 
priate a  very  large  part  of  the  revenues  of  the  city  and  adjoining 
country,  to  themselves  and  the  mosques.  From  thence  have  arisen  a 
multitude  of  mosques  and  kubbets,  which  at  that  time,  when  Rama- 
dan was  near  approaching,*  had  been  almost  all  white-washed.  The 
kubbets  are  little  buildings,  built  over  the  tombs  of  rich.  Mohamme- 
dans, who  pass  for  saints.' 

"  The  Passover  was  at  hand  when  our  Lord  made  this  compari- 
son, as  is  evident  from  the  context ;  and  therefore  it  is  likely  they 
were  just  then  whited  afresh,  when  the  season  for  such  rainy  and 
bad  weather  as  is  wont  to  wash  off  these  decorations  was  just  over, 
and  the  time  was  at  hand  when  Israel  were  about  to  assemble  in 
.Jerusalem  at  their  national  solemnities,  which  were  all  held  in  the 
dry  part  of  the  year,  or  nearly  so :  the  rain  being  at  least  just  over 
at  the  time  of  the  Passover,  by  the  time  of  Pentecost  it  was  gone  in 
Judea,  and  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  was  observed  before  the  rain 
was  wont  to  return. 

"  But  whatever  was  the  time  of  white-washing  the  Jewish  sepul- 
chres anew,  we  may  believe  it  was  often  done  ;  since  to  this  day,  the 
people  of  those  countries  have  not  discovered  any  way  of  so  whiten- 
ing these  buildings  as  to  make  it  durable."  Harraer's  Observations, 
Vol.  III.  p.  02.  Obs.  XXVIIL] 

♦  Ramadan  is  a  kind  of  Mohammedan  Lent,  followed  by  a  festival ;  as  Lent, 
in  the  English  Church,  is  followed  by  Easter. 


244  §  209.  sr.i'L'i.ciinAi.  mon'umknts. 

§  208.    AUTICLES    -WHICH    AVKHK    BL'UIKD    AVITII    THE    DeAD. 

The  custom  ])revailecl  among  many  ancient  nations  of  throwing 
pieces  of  gold  and  silver,  also  other  precious  articles,  into  the  sepul- 
chres of  those  who  were  buried.  The  Hebrews  did  not  think  proper 
to  adopt  this  custom,  but  retained  those  precious  gifts  for  the  use  of 
the  living,  which  other  nations  chose  to  Ijcstow  upon  the  dead. 
There  was  this  exception,  however,  in  the  case  of  the  Hebrews,  that 
they  sometimes  buried  with  their  departed  monarchs  the  appropriate 
ensigns  of  their  aiilhorit}-,  and  sometimes  deposited  in  tlie  tomb  of 
their  lifeless  warriors  the  armor,  which  they  had  worn  while  living, 
Ezek.  32:  27. 

Ilerod,  when  he  had  opened  and  examined  the  tomb  of  David, 
found  within  it  the  ensigns  of  royal  authority.  Josephus  (Antiq. 
XVI.  1.  11.)  states,  that  John  Hyrcanus  found  a  treasure  in  the  sep- 
ulchre of  David.  If  this  were  the  fact,  the  treasure  in  question 
could  have  been  no  other,  than  that,  which  was  deposited  there  by 
Antiochus  Epiphanes. 

§  209.  Sepulchral  Monuments,  nsu^g,   [iptjfieiov. 

Mention  is  made  of  such  monuments  in  various  instances,  from 
the  time  of  Abraham  down  to  the  time  of  Christ,  Gen.  19:  26.  35: 
20.  2  Kings  23:  16,  17.  1  Mace.  13:  25—30.  Matt.  23:  29.  The 
ancient  Arabians  erected  a  heap  of  stones  over  the  body  of  the  dead, 
Job  21:  32.  Among  the  Hebrews,  such  a  heap  was  an  indication 
that  the  person  was  stoned,  and  was  of  course  a  mai-k  of  ignominy. 
Josh.  7:  20.  8:  27,  29.  2  Sam.  18:  17. 

In  progress  of  time,  one  stone  only,  instead  of  a  heap,  was 
selected  and  raised  up  as  a  monument.  It  was,  as  might  be 
expected,  a  large  one  ;  and,  at  a  subsequent  period  still,  it  was  cus- 
tomary to  hew  it,  and  ornament  it  with  insci'iptions.  Sepulchral 
stones  of  this  kind  are  very  ancient,  and  are  common  to  this  day  in 
the  East.  The  Egyptians,  like  the  Arabians,  were  in  the  habit  of 
throwing  together  heaps  of  stones  in  honor  of  the  dead.  After  the 
practice  had  once  commenced,  they  gradually  increased  the  heap  to  a 
very  great  size,  till  at  length  they  exerted  their  ingenuity  and  their 
power,  in  the  erection  of  those  mountains  of  stone,  as  they  may  be 
termed,  the  pyramids. 

Anciently,  monuments   of  another   kind,  resembling   small   obe- 


§  210.  BURNING  OF  TiiK  conrsE.  245 

lisks  01  columns  of  a  large  size,  were  likewise  crectetl,  and  some  of 
Ihem  are  standing  at  the  present  day  in  Syria. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  East  of  the  present  age  are  in  the  habit  of 
erectin'T  over  the  burial  places  of  those  Mohammedans,  who  have 
bv.en  distinguished  for  the  sanctity  of  their  life,  small  houses,  sup- 
ported on  four  columns,  and  displaying  an  arched  roof.  These  edi- 
fices are  repaired  and  ornamented  by  the  great,  who  desire  to  obtain 
the  popular  favor,  in  much  the  same  way,  that  those  of  the  prophets 
were  in  the  time  of  Christ,  Matt.  23:  29. 

The  monument,  erected  in  honor  of  the  Maccabees  at  Modin,  is 
described  in  the  first  Book  of  Maccabees,  13:  27.  It  was  raised  of 
square  stones,  and  was  very  high.  In  the  front  of  it  were  seven 
pvramids,  and  round  about  many  columns,  upon  the  tops  of  which 
were  placed  large  stones,  extending  from  one  to  the  other.  The 
delineation  of  some  parts  of  this  monument  is  still  seen  upon  ancient 
coins.  As  far  as  we  can  judge  from  the  representation  of  it,  given 
upon  these  coins,  one  would  conclude  that  it  resembled  in  some  degree 
the  monuments  of  those  iMohammedans,  who  had  gained  a  celebrity 
for  their  piety. 

§  210.  Burning  of  the  Corpse. 

The  ancient  Hebrews  considered  burning  the  body  a  matter  of 
very  great  reproach,  and  rarely  did  it,  except  when  they  wished, 
together  with  the  greatest  punishment,  to  inflict  the  greatest  ignominy. 
Gen.  38:  24.  The  body  of  Saul,  which  had  been  suspended  by  the 
Philistines  on  the  walls  of  Bethshan,  was  burnt  by  the  inhabitants 
of  Jabesh  Gilead  from  necessity,  not  to  inflict,  but  to  preserve  it  from 
further  disgrace,  1  Sam.  31:  12. 

The  sentiment  in  respect  to  the  burning  of  bodies  seems  at  a  later 
period  to  have  been  changed.  An  hundred  and  forty  years  after 
Saul,  king  Asa  was  hurnt  with  many  aromatic  substances,  not  as  an 
indication  of  disgrace,  but  as  an  honor.  This  ceremony  in  the  case 
of  Asa  is  not  spoken  of,  as  if  it  were  a  new  thing,  and  it  had  j)roba- 
bly  been  introduced,  at  least  some  little  time  previously.  After  the 
time  of  Asa,  the  revolution  of  sentiment  in  regard  to  burning  was  so 
complete,  that,  while  burning  was  considered  the  most  distinguished 
honor,  not  to  be  burnt  was  regarded  a  most  signal  disgi-ace,  2  Chron. 
IG:  14.  21:  19.  Amos  G:  10.  Jer.  34:  5. 
21* 


246  §  211.    OF    MOURNING. 

Another  change  of  sentiment  eventually  took  place.  After  the 
captivity,  the  Jews  conceived  a  great  hatred  to  this  rite.  The  Tal- 
mudists  in  consequence  of  this  endeavored  to  pervert  the  passages 
respecting  it,  and  to  induce  a  belief,  that  the  aromatic  substances 
alone,  and  not  the  body,  were  burnt. 

§  211.  Of  Moukning. 

The  grief  of  the  Orientals  formerly,  on  an  occasion  of  death, 
was,  as  it  is  to  this  day  in  the  East,  very  extreme.  As  soon  as  a  per- 
son dies,  the  females  in  the  family  with  a  loud  voice  set  up  a  sor- 
rowful ciy.  They  continue  it  as  long  as  they  can,  without  taking 
bi'eath,  and  the  first  shriek  of  wailing  dies  away  in  a  low  sob.  After 
a  short  space  of  time,  they  repeat  the  same  cry,  and  continue  it  for 
eight  days.  Every  day,  however,  it  becomes  less  frequent  and  less 
audible. 

Until  the  corpse  is  carried  away  from  the  house,  the  women,  who 
are  related  to  the  deceased,  sit  on  the  ground  together,  in  a  circle,  in 
u  separate  apartment.  The  wife,  or  daughter,  or  other  nearest  rela- 
tion of  the  deceased  occupies  the  centre,  and  each  one  holds  in  her 
hand  a  napkin. 

At  the  present  day,  there  are  present  on  such  an  occasion,  as 
there  were  anciently,  eulogists,  nijj'p"?  who  chant  in  mournful  strains 
the  virtues  of  the  dead.  When  the  one,  who  sat  in  the  centre,  gave 
the  sign  with  her  napkin,  the  persons  who  recalled,  (so  much  to  their 
credit,)  the  memory  of  the  departed,  remained  silent.  The  rest  of 
the  females  arose,  and,  wrapping  together  their  napkins,  ran,  lilit 
mad  persons.  But  the  nearest  relation  remained  in  her  positicn, 
tearing  her  hair,  and  wounding  her  face,  arms,  and  breast  with  bar 
nails,  comp.  Gen.  50:  3.  Num.  20:  29.  Deut.  34:  8.  1  Sam.  31:  13. 
In  addition  to  the  persons,  whose  appropriate  business  it  was  to  eulo- 
gize the  dead,  there  were  sometimes  employed,  on  such  occasions, 
professed  musicians  and  singers,  '^ns ,  "^rni""  particularly  in  ancient 
times,  Amos  5:  IG.  Jer.  9:  20.  48:  36.'  Matt.  9:  23.  Luke  7:  32. 

The  lamentations,  whicli  are  denominated  in  Hebrew  "3 ,  "^na , 
rr^n ,  n:'>; ,  began,  for  the  most  part,  as  follows :  "  Alas,  alas,  my 
brother !  "  or  "  Alas,  alas,  my  sister  !  "  Or  if  the  king  were  dead, 
'^Alas,  alas,  the  ling!"  1  Kings  13:  29,  30.  2  Chron.  35.  2  Sam. 
1:  12.  3:  33.  Jer.  34:  5.      The  men   at  the  present  day  are  more 


§  211.  OF  mocrninXt.  247 

moderate  in  tticir  grief;  yet  there  are  not  wantiig  instances  no?c, 
nor  were  there  wanting  such  Ibrmerly,  in  which  they  indulged  in 
deep  and  overwhelming  sorrow,  2  'Sam.  1:  11,  12.  19:  4.  It  was 
customary  for  the  women  after  the  burial  to  go  to  the  tomb,  and  tc 
pour  out  their  grief  and  their  lamentations  there,  John  11:  3L 
There  were  many  other  indications  of  a  person's  grief  at  the  death 
of  liis  friends,  beside  those  which  have  been  mentioned.  Among  the 
most  common  was  that  of  rending  the  garment  (either  the  outer  gar- 
ment, or  the  inner,  or  both)  from  the  neck  in  front  down  to  the  gir- 
dle. Such  is  the  custom  at  the  present  day  in  Persia,  Gen.  37:  34. 
Judg.  11:  35.  2  Sam.  1:  2.  3:  31.  2  Kings' a:  7,  8.  G:  30.  We  see, 
in  this  custom,  the  origin  of  the  word  p-j  sack-cloth,  from  the  Arabic 

•word  ;^*ii  to  tear  or  rend. 

The  Hebrews,  when  in  mourning,  sometimes  walked  with  their 
shoes  off,  and  with  their  heads  uncovered.  They  concealed  their 
chin  with  tlieir  outer  garment,  tore  or  dishevelled  their  hair  and 
beard,  or  at  least  neglected  to  take  proper  care  of  them.  They  were 
forbidden  to  shave  off  their  eyebrows  on  such  occasions,  Deut.  14. 
1,  2.  Oi>pressed  with  sensations  of  grief,  they  refused  to  anoint  their 
heads,  to  bathe,  or  to  converse  with  people ;  they  scattered  dusi 
and  ashes  into  the  air,  or  placed  them  upon  their  heads,  or  laid  down 
in  them.  Job  1:  20.  2:  12.  Lev.  10:  6.  13:  45.  21:  10.  2  Sam.  1:  2— 
4.  14:  2.  13:  19.  15:  30.  19:  4.  Jer.  6:  26.  They  struck  together 
their  hands,  or  tossed  them  towards  the  sky,  smote  the  thigh  and 
breast  and  stamped  with  the  foot,  2  Sam.  13:  19.  Jer.  31:  19.  Ezek. 
6:  11.  21:  12.  Esth.  4:  1,  3.  They  wounded  their  faces  with  their 
nails,  although  this  was  expressly  prohibited  in  Leviticus  19:  28, 
and  Deuteronomy  14:  1,  2.  They  fasted,  abstained  from  wine,  and 
avoided  mingling  in  festivals,  2  Sam.  1:  11,  12.  3:  25.  12:  16.  Jer. 
25:  34.  Elegies  were  composed  on  the  death  of  those  who  held  a 
distinguished  rank  in  society,  2  Sara.  3:  33.  After  the  burial,  the 
persons,  who  lived  near  the  mourners,  prepared  food  for  them,  in 
order  to  refresh  them,  after  such  a  season  of  suffering  and  grief. 
The  refreshment  supplied  at  such  a  season  was  sometimes  denomi 
nated  cr-x  cnb  the  bread  of  bitterness,  and  sometimes  c-rn:n  0"3  cha 
cup  of  consolation,  2  Sam.  3:  35.  Jer.  10:  4,  7.  Hos.  9:  4.  Ezek.  24- 
16,  17. 

In  the  time    of   Christ,  if  we  may  credit  Josephus,  the  mourn- 
ers themselves    gave    the    entertainment  subsequent    to    the  burial 


248  §  212.    OTIIKR    CAUSKS    OF    MOURNING. 

The  mourning,  or  ratlier  the  ccrenionios  indicative  of  the  grief  in 
case  of  death  continued  eight  days.  "When  tiie  king-^,  or  any  persons 
who  held  a  very  distinguished  raid<,  died,  the  mourning  -was  general, 
including  the  uholc  people,  and  commonly  continued  during  thirty 
days,  Gen.  50:  4.  1  Sam.  25:  1.  1  Mac.  13:  2G. 

JsOTK. — The  grief  exhibited  by  the  Greeks  at  the  departure  of 
their  friends  from  life,  which  is  mentioned  by  Paul  in  1  Thess.  4:  13, 
agreed  in  many  particulars  Avith  that  of  the  orientals ;  ■with  this  ex- 
ception, however,  that  it  was  still  more  excessive.  It  was  so  very 
marked  and  extreme,  as  to  be  made  the  subject  of  ridicule  by  Lucian 
de  TaicIu.  For  among  the  other  extravagances,  which  they  exhib- 
ited, they  bestowed  I'eproaches  even  upon  the  dead  themselves,  be- 
cause they  did  not  remain  in  life ;  uttered  accusations  and  curses 
against  the  gods,  and  gave  many  other  exhibitions  of  their  grief  of  a 
kindred  character. 

§  212.  Other  Causes  of  MorRNiNO. 

Indications  of  mourning  were  not  only  exbibited  on  the  death  of 
friends,  but  also  in  case  of  many  public  calataities,  such  as  lamines, 
the  incursions  of  enemies,  defeat  in  war,  etc.  On  such  occasions 
the  feelings  of  the  prophets  mingled  with  the  deep  sensations  of  the 
people,  and  they  gave  utterance  to  them  by  the  composition  of  ele- 
gies, Ezek.  26:  1—18.  27:  1— 3G.  30:  2  et  seq.  32:  2—32.  Amos  5: 
1  et  seq. 

Thus  David  when  a  fugitive  from  his  rebellious  son,  like  a  mourn- 
er, who  had  lost  a  friend  by  death,  walked  hare-foot,  r,~; ,  and  with 
head  covered ;  and  all  the  others  followed  his  example,  2  Sam.  15: 
30.  comp.  1  Sam.  4:  12.  Josh.  7:  6.  1  Kings  21:  27.  2  Kings  19:  1. 
Isa.  15:  2.  IG:  2,  3.  22:  12.  Gl:  3.  Joel  1:  12,  13.  Mic.  2:  3—5.  7: 
IG.  Amos  5:  1,  2,  etc.  It  was  customary  particularly  for  a  person 
to  rend  his  clothes,  when  he  heard  blasphemy.  This  was  done  by 
the  high  priest  himself,  1  Mac.  11:  71.  Matt.  2G:  65,  who  was  for- 
bidden by  law  to  indulge  in  the  usual  expressions  of  grief,  even  for 
the  dead,  Lev.  10:  G. 

Fast-days  were  accounted  days  of  grief,  and  we  find  in  many  in- 
stances, that  fasting  and  mourning  go  together,  Jonah  3:  5 — 7.  1  Mac. 
3:  47.  Whatever  was  the  cause  of  the  grief,  it  was  not  the  case,  that 
all  the  indications  of  it  were  exhibited  in  the  same  instance,  but  some- 
times, some,  a.nd  at  oHier  times,  others. 


PART  SECOND 


POLITICAL     ANTIQUITIES 


251 


CHAPTER  I. 
ON  THE   HEBREW   COMMONWEALTH. 

§  213.  Patkiauchal  Government. 

The  posterity  of  Jacob,  while  remaining  in  Egypt,  maintained 
notwithstanding  the  augmentation  of  tlieir  numbers,  that  patriar- 
chal form  of  government,  which  is  so  prevalent  among  the  No- 
mades.  Every  father  of  a  family  exercised  a  father's  authority 
over  those  of  his  own  household.  Every  tribe  obeyed  its  own 
prince,  s-r; ,  who  was  originally  the  first-boni  of  the  fou7ider  of 
the  tribe,  but,  in  progress  of  time,  appears  to  have  been  elected. 
As  the  people  increased  in  numbers,  various  heads  of  fiimilies 
united  together,  and  selected  some  individual  from  their  own  body, 
who  was  somewhat  distinguished,  for  their  leader.  Perhaps  the 
choice  was  sometimes  made  merely  by  tacit  consent;  and,  with- 
out giving  him  the  title  of  ruler  in  form,  they  were  willing,  while 
convinced  of  his  virtues,  to  render  submission  to  his  will.  Such 
a  union  of  families  was  denominated  in  Hebrew  nirx  r"?  and 
:x  rrz,  and  also  "nsr-?,  Num.  3:  24,  30,  35.  In  other  instances, 
although  the  number  varied,  being  sometimes  more  and  sometimes 
less  than  a  thousand,  it  was  denominated  c-srx ,  ;^5j< ,  a  thousand 
1  Sam.  10:  19.  23:  23.  Judg.  G:  15.  Num.  2G:  5—50.  The  heads 
of  these  united  families  were  designated  in  Hebrew  by  the  phrases, 
r\-'zx  r'^n  "^rx-n,  ="5X  "^'ilxn,  and  ^s"':;?  ''S'X  "'w'Ji';!,  Numbers 
1:  IG.  10:  4.  They  held  themselves  in  subjection  to  the  princes 
of  the  tribes,  who  were  called,  by  way  of  distinction  from  other 
chiefs,  ^-JfiJ  and  ^x-'r";  ■'::rJ  "'X-'r:.  Both  the  princes  and 
heads  of  families  are  mentioned  under  the  common  names  of 
c^:;rT  seniors  or  senators,  and  c-JS'J  "^rxn  ?ieads  of  tribes.  Fol- 
lowing the  law  of  reason,  and  the  rules  established  by  custom, 
they  governed  with  a  paternal  authority  the  tribes  and  united 
families,  and  while  they  left  the  minor  concerns  to  the  lieads  of 
individual   families,   aimed   to   superintend   and    promote    the   best 


2o2  §  214.    THE    la-NDAMI-.NTAL    LAW 

interests  of  the  community  generally.  Originally  it  fell  tu  the  prin- 
ces of  the  tribes  themselves  to  keep  genealogical  tables  ;  subse- 
quently they  employed  scribes  especially  lor  this  pui-pose,  who, 
in  the  progress  of  time,  acquired  so  great  authority,  that  under 
the  name  of  ai";-Ji":5  [translated  in  the  English  ^•ersion,  ojffkers,'] 
they  were  permitted  to  exercise  a  share  in  the  government  of  the 
nation.  Exod.  5:  14,  15,  19.  It  was  by  magistrates  of  this  descrip- 
tion, that  the  Hebrews  were  governed,  while  they  remained  in  Egypt, 
and  the  Egyptian  king  made  no  objection  to  it,  Exod.  3:  IG.  5:  1,  14, 
15,  19. 

§  214.  The  Fundamental  Law  of  the  Mosaic  Institutions. 

The  posterity  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  were  set  apart 
and  destined  to  the  great  object  of  preserving  and  transmitting 
the  true  rehgion,  Gen.  18:16—20;  corap.  Gen.  17:9—14.  12:  3. 
22:  18.  28:  14.  Having  increased  in  numbers,  it  appeared  very 
evident,  that  they  could  not  live  among  nations  given  to  idolatry, 
without  running  the  hazard  of  becoming  infected  with  the  same 
evil.  They  were,  therefore,  in  the  providence  of  God,  assigned 
to  a  particular  country,  the  extent  of  which  was  so  small,  that 
they  were  obliged,  if  they  would  live  independently  of  other  na- 
tions, to  "-ive  up  in  a  great  measure  the  life  of  shepherds,  and 
devote  themselves  to  agriculture.  Further;  very  many  of  the 
Hebrews,  during  their  residence  in  Egypt,  had  fallen  into  idola- 
trous habits.  These  were  to  be  brought  back  again  to  the  know- 
ledge of  the  true  God,  and  all  were  to  be  excited  to  engage  in 
those  undertakings,  which  should  be  found  necessary  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  true  religion.  All  the  Mosaic  institutions  aim  at  the 
accomplishment  of  these  objects.  The  fundamental  principle, 
therefore,  of  those  institutions  was  this:  that  the  true  God,  the 
creator  and  governor  op  the  universe,  and  none  other, 
OUGHT  TO  be  avorshippkd.  To  sccure  this  end  the  more  certainly, 
God,  through  the  instrumentality  of  Moses,  offered  himself  as  king  to 
tlie  Hebrews,  and  was  accepted  by  the  united  voice  of  their  com- 
munity. Accordingly  the  land  of  Canaan,  which  was  destined  to 
be  occupied  by  them,  was  declared  to  be  the  land  of  Jehovah,  of 
which  He  was  to  be  the  king,  and  the  Hebrews  merely  the  he- 
reditary occupants.     In   consideration  of  their  acknowledgment  of 


OF    THE    MOSAIC    INSTITUTION'S.  2'j.3 

Goil  as  their  ruler,  they  were  bound  like  the  Egyptians,  to  pjiy  a 
twofold   tythe,  Exod.  19:  4—8.    Lev.  27:  20—34.    Num.  18:  21,  22. 

Dent.   12^  17 19.    14:  22,  29.    2G:  12 — 15.      In  compliance  will, 

the  dutie?,  which  naturally  fall  to  the  immediate  ruler  of  a  people, 
God  promulgated,  from  the  clouds  of  mount  Sinai,  the  prominent 
laws  lor  the  government  of  the  people,  considered  as  a  religious 
communitv,  Exod.  xx.  These  laws  were  afterwards  more  fully 
developed  and  illustrated  by  Moses.  The  rewards  which  should 
accompany  the  obedient,  and  the  punishments,  which  should  be  the 
lot  of  the  transgressor,  were  at  the  same  time  announced,  and  the 
Hebrews  promised  by  a  solemn  oath  to  obey.  Exod.  xxi. — xxiv. 
Dent,  xxvii. — xxx. 

In  order  to  keep  the  true  nature  of  the  community  fully  and 
constantly  in  view,  all  the  ceremonial  institutions  had  reference  to 
God,  not  only  as  the  sovereign  of  the  universe,  but  as  the  king 
of  the  people.  The  people  were  taught  to  feel,  that  the  tabernacle 
was  not  only  the  temple  of  Jehovah,  but  the  place  of  their  Idng ; 
that  the  table,  supplied  Avith  wine  and  shew-bread,  was  the  royal 
table  ;  that  the  altar  was  the  place,  where  the  provisions  of  the 
.onarcli  Avere  prepared ;  that  the  priests  were  the  royal  servants, 
and  were  bound  to  attend  not  only  to  sacred  but  secular  atl'airs, 
and  were  to  receive,  as  their  salary  the  first  tyiltes,  which  the  peo- 
lile,  as  subjects,  were  led  to  consider  a  part  of  that  revenue,  which 
was  due  to  God,  their  immediate  sovereign.  Other  things  of  a  less 
prominent  and  important  nature  had  reference  to  the  same  great 
end.  Since,  therefore,  God  was  the  sovereign,  in  a  civil  point  ol' 
view  as  well  as  others,  of  Palestine  and  its  inhabitants,  the  com- 
mission of  idolatry  by  any  inhabitant  of  that  country,  even  a  for- 
eigner, was  a  defection  from  the  true  king.  It  was  in  fact  treason, 
was  considered  a  crime  equal  in  aggravation  to  that  of  murder, 
and  was,  consequently,  attended  with  the  severest  punishment. — 
Whoever  invited  or  exhorted  to  idolatry,  was  considered  seditious, 
and  was  obnoxious  to  the  same  punishment.  Incantations  also,  ne- 
cromancy, and  other  practices  of  this  natuie  were  looked  upon  as 
arts  of  a  kindred  aspect  with  idolatry  itself,  and  the  same  punish- 
ment was  to  be  inflicted  upon  the  perpetrators  of  tliem,  as  upon 
idolaters.  Tiie  same  rigor  of  inquiry  after  the  perpetrators  of 
idolatry  was  enforced,  that  was  exliibited  in  respect  to  other 
crimes  of  the  deepest  aggravation;    and  the   person,  who  knew  of 

22 


254  §  215.  CONDITION  OF  Tin:  Hebrews 

tlio  commission  of  idolatry  in  another,  Ava.s  bound  by  tlie  law  to  cora- 
[>lain  of  tiie  person  thus  guilty  before  the  judge,  though  the  criminal 
sustained  the  near  relationship  of  a  wife  or  brother,  a  daughter  or  a 
son. 

The  law  with  the  penalty  attached  to  it,  as  may  be  learnt  from  other 
sources,  had  reference  only  to  the  overt  acts  of  idolatry ;  it  was  rather 
a  civil  than  a  religious  statute,  and  the  judge,  who  took  cognizance 
of  the  crime,  while  he  had  a  right  to  decide  upon  the  deed,  the  unde- 
niable act  in  any  given  instance,  evidently  went  beyond  his  province, 
if  he  undertook  to  decide  upon  the  thoughts  and  feelings  of  a  person 
implicated,  independently  of  an  overt  commission  of  the  crime,  Deut. 
13:  2—19.  17:  2—5. 

It  has  been  observed,  that  the  law  was  not  so  much  a  religious, 
as  a  civil  one.  The  distinction  is  obvious.  A  religious  law  has 
reference  to  the  feelings,  and  those  laws,  consequently,  which 
command  us  to  love  God,  to  exercise  faith  in  him,  and  to  render 
him  a  heartfelt  obedience  are  of  this  nature,  Deut.  6:  4 — 9.  10: 
12.  11:  1,  13.  It  ought  to  be  remarked,  that  the  severe  treat- 
ment of  idolatry,  of  which  we  have  given  a  statement,  was  de- 
manded by  the  condition  of  the  times.  Tliat  was  an  age,  in  which 
each  nation  selected  its  deity,  not  from  the  dictates  of  con- 
science, but  from  the  hope  of  temporal  aid.  It  was  an  age,  when 
idolaters  were  multiplied,  and  when  nothing  but  the  utmost  severity 
in  the  laws  could  keep  thera  from  contaminating  the  soil  of  the  He- 
brews. 

§  215.  Condition  of  the  Hebrews  as  respected  other  >«'ations. 

That  the  Hebrews,  surrounded  on  every  side  by  idolatrous 
nations,  might  not  be  seduced  to  a  defection  from  their  God  and 
king,  it  was  necessary,  that  they  should  be  kept  from  too  great  an 
intercourse  with  those  nations.  This  was  the  object  of  tUose  sin- 
gular rites,  which,  though  both  proper  and  useful,  were  uncom- 
mon among  the  Gentiles.  For  the  Hebrews,  having  once  been  ac- 
customed to  them,  cculd  not  readily  mingle  with  other  nations  ; 
since  it  was  extremely  difficult  to  desert  and  condemn  those  insti- 
tutions, to  which  they  had  been  accustomed  from  youth.  But 
lest  this  seclusion  from  them  should  be  the  source  of  hatred  to 
other  nations,  Moses  constantly  taught,  that  they  should  love  their 


AS  Ri:sri:cTiNG  otiikr  xations\-  C  -  255 

neighbor,  r';^,  i.  c.  every  one,  with  -whom  they  bad  anythi!i^-to  do, 
indiiding  foreigners,  Exod.  22:  21.    23:  0.    Lev.  19:  34.    Dent.  10: 

18,  10.  24:  17.  27:  19.  To  this  end  he  teaches  them,  that  the  bene- 
fits, wliii-h  God  bad  conferred  upon  them  in  preference  to  other  na- 
tions were  undeserved,  Deut.  7:  6 — 8.  9:  4 — 24.  But  although  the 
Hebrews  individually  were  debarred  from  any  close  intimacy  Avith 
idolatrous  nations,  by  various  rites ;  yet  as  a  nation  they  had  liberty 
to  form  treaties  with  Gentile  states,  with  the  following  exceptions. 

I.  The  Canaanitks,  (including  the  Philistines,  who  were  not 
of  Canactnitish  origin,)  were  excepted. 

Tlicy  were  neither  to  be  admitted  to  treaty  nor  to  servitude,  but 
to  be  destroyed  by  war,  or  driven  from  the  country.  This  was  to 
be  done,  not  only  because  they  unjustly  retained  the  pasturing 
grounds  of  the  Patriarchs,  but  because  they  were  esteemed  of  des- 
picable faith,  both  as  servants  and  companions,  and  were,  moreover, 
addicted  to  idolatry.  Being  idolaters,  they  were  considered  no  less 
than  traitors  in  the  kingdom  of  God,  and  therefore,  were  not  to  be 
tolerated,  since  there  was  a  probability  of  their  leading  the  Israel- 
ites to  the  commission  of  the  same  sin,  Exod.  23:  32,  33.  34:  12,  IG. 
Deut.  7:  1 — 11.  20:  1 — 18.  The  Phenicians  Avere  not  included  in 
this  deep  hostility,  as  they  dwelt  on  the  nortliem  shore  of  the  coun- 
try, were  shut  up  within  their  own  limits,  and  had  occupied  none 
of  the  pasturing  grounds  of  the  Patriarchs.     We  learn  from  Josh.  11: 

19,  that  the  Canaanites  might  have  avoided  the  exercise  of  the  hos- 
tility of  the  Hebrews  by  leaving  the  country,  which  in  truth  many 
of  them  did.  Such  as  pursued  this  course  fled  to  the  Phenicians, 
and  were  transported  by  them  into  Africa,  Procopius  de  Vandal.  11. 
10.  p.  258. 

II.  The  Amalekites  or  Caxaaxites  of  Arabia  Petrea  were 
in  like  manner  to  be  destroyed  with  universal  slaughter. 

This  was  to  be  done,  because  they  had  attacked  the  weak  and 
weary  Hebrews  in  tlieir  journey  through  Arabia ;  and  because  the 
robberies,  which  were  committed  by  them  on  the  southern  borders 
of  Palestine,  could  not  be  restrained  in  any  other  way,  Exod.  17:  8, 
14.  Deut.  25:  17.  comp.  Judges  G:  3—5.  1  Sam.  15:  1  et  seq.  27:  8, 
9,  and  the  30th  chapter. 

ni.  The  MoAiJiTES  AND  AMMONITES  Were  to  be  excluded  forever 
from  the  right  of  treaty  or  citizenship  with  the  Hebrews,  but  were 
not  to  be  attacked  in  war,  Deut.  2:  9 — 19.  23:  7. 


■2.')G      §  2 10.  ruixcirAL  ofiicers  ix  the  ni:cni:w  state. 

Tlio  reason  of  taking  this  middle  course  Avas,  that,  while  they 
had  granted  to  the  Hebrews  a  passage  through  their  country,  they 
had  refused  to  supply  them  with  provisions,  even  if  })aid,  Deut.  2:  29. 
23:  5.  Afterwards  in  conjunction  with  certain  Midianitish  tribes, 
they  invited  the  prophet  Balaam  to  curse  the  Hebrews,  and  finally 
they  allured  them  to  idolatry,  i.  e.  to  the  crime  of  treason,  Deut.  23: 
3 — 8.  comp.  2:  9 — 19,  37.  The  Hebrews,  however,  did  not  feel 
themselves  at  liberty  to  carry  on  wars  against  them,  except  when 
provoked  by  previous  hostility,  Judg.  3:  12 — 30.  1  Sam.  14:  47 
2  Sam.  8:  2  et  seq.  12:  26  et  seq. 

They  ultimately  crushed  the  Midiamtes,  who  had  conspired  with 
the  Moabites  in  their  plans,  in  a  war  of  dreadful  severity.  Num.  25: 
16,  17.  31:  1—24. 

"War  had  not  been  determined  on  against  the  Amorites,  who  had 
anciently  taken  away  the  region  beyond  Jordan  from  the  Moabites 
and  Ammonites  by  arms,  for  they  were  not  in  possession  of  any 
of  the  pasturing  lands  of  the  Patriarchs.  But  as  their  kings,  Sihon 
and  Og,  not  only  refused  a  free  passage,  but  opposed  the  Hebrews 
with  arms,  they  were  attacked  and  beaten,  and  their  country  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Israelites,  Num.  21:  21—35.  Deut.  1:  4.  2:  24^37o 
3;  i_i8.  4:  46—49.  comp.  Judg.  11:  13—23. 

Treaties  were  permitted  with  all  other  nations.  David,  accord- 
ingly, maintained  a  friendly  national  intercourse  with  the  kings  of 
Tyre  and  Hamath ;  and  Solomon  with  tlie  kings  of  Tyre  and  Egypt, 
and  with  the  queen  of  Sheba.  Even  the  religious  Maccabees  made 
treaties  with  the  Eomans.  The  prophets  everywhere  condemn  the 
treaties,  which  were  made  with  the  nations,  not  because  they  were 
contrary  to  the  law  of  Moses;  but  because  they  were  injurious  to  the 
commonwealth,  which  the  event  proved,  Isa.  vii.  xxxvi.  xxxvii. 
2  Kings  xviii.  xix.  Hos.  5:  15.  7:  11.  12:  1  et  seq.  Isa.  30:  2—12. 
31:  1,  2.  2  Kings  17:  4. 

§  216.  Pkixcipae  officers  or  Rulers  ix  the  Hebrew  State. 

Many  things  in  the  administration  of  the  government  remained 
the  same  under  the  Mosaic  economy,  as  it  had  been  before.  The 
authority,  Avhich  they  had  previously  possessed,  was  continued,  in 
the  time  of  Moses  and  after  his  time,  to  the  princes  of  the  tribes, 
to  the  heads  of  families  and  combinations  of  families,  and  to  the 


§  -JIG.  I'ltiNcir.vi,  ini-KS  ok  tiii;  iikivukw  state.        2oi 

genealogists,  Num.  11:  IG.  Dcut.  IG:  18.  20:5.  31:28.  Yet  Mo- 
ses bv  the  advice  of  Jetliro,  liis  <htlier-in-law,  increased  the  num- 
ber of  rulei-s  by  the  appointment  of  an  additional  number  o^  judges, 
ci:;sv'r;  some  to  judge  over  ten,  some  over  fifty,  some  over  an 
hundred,  and  others  over  a  thousand  men.  Exodus  18:  13 — 26. 
These  judges  were  elected  by  the  suffrages  of  the  people  from 
those,  who,  by  their  authority  and  rank,  might  be  reckoned  among 
the  rulers  or  princes  of  the  pcoj)le.  The  inferior  judges,  i.  e. 
those  who  superintended  the  judicial  concerns  of  the  smaller  num- 
bers, were  subordinate  to  the  superior  judges,  or  those  who 
judged  a  larger  number ;  and  cases,  accordingly,  of  a  difficult  na- 
ture, went  up  from  the  inferior  to  the  superior  judges.  Tliose 
of  a  very  difficult  charactei-,  so  much  so  as  to  be  perplexing  to  the 
superior  judges,  were  appealed  to  Moses  himself,  and  in  some 
cases  from  Moses  to  the  high  priest.  The  judges,  of  whom  we 
have  now  spoken,  sustained  a  civil  as  well  as  a  judicial  authority ; 
and  Avere  included  in  the  list  of  those,  who  are  denominated  the 
elders  and  princes  of  Israel.  That  is  to  say;  supposing  they 
were  chosen  from  the  elders  and  princes,  they  did  not  forfeit  their 
seat  among  them  by  accepting  a  judicial  office,  and  on  the  contrary, 
the  respectability  attached  to  their  office,  (supposing  they  were 
not  chosen  from  them,)  entitled  them  to  be  reckoned  in  their 
number,  Deut.  31:  28.  comp.  Josh.  8:  33.  23:  2.  24:  1.  The  vari- 
ous civil  officers  that  have  been  mentioned  in  this  section,  viz. 
judges,  heads  of  families,  genealogists,  elders,  princes  of  the  tribes, 
etc.  were  dispersed,  as  a  matter  of  course,  in  different  parts  of  the 
country.  Those  of  them,  accordingly,  who  dwelt  in  the  same  city, 
or  the  same  neighborhood,  formed  the  comitia,  senate,  or  legisla- 
tive assembly  of  their  immediate  vicinity,  Deut.  19:  12.  20:  8,  9. 
Judg.  8:  14.  9:  3—46.  11:  5.  1  Sam.  8:  4.  16:  4.  When  all,  that 
dwelt  in  any  particular  tribe,  were  convened,  they  formed  the  legis- 
lative assembly  of  the  tribe,  and  when  they  were  convened  in 
one  body  from  all  the  tribes,  they  formed  in  like  manner  the 
legislative  assembly  of  the  nation,  and  were  the  representatives  of  all 
the  people,  Judg.  1:  1—11.  11:  5.  20:  12—24.  Josh.  23:  1,  2.  24:  1. 
Tlie  priests,  who  were  the  learned  class  of  the  community,  and 
besides  were  hereditary  officers  in  the  state,  being  set  apart  for 
civil  as  well  as  religious  purposes,  had,  by  the  divine  command,  a 
right  to  a  sitting  in  this  assembly,  Exod.  32:  29.  Num.  36:  13. 
22* 


•2oS     §  217.  coxxiX'TiON  OF  Tin:  tkiuks  ^vn•II  each  otiiku. 

8:  .1 — 2G.  Being  tlius  called  upon  to  i^uslaiii  very  difTerent  and  yet 
very  important  oirices,  they  became  the  subjects  of  that  envy, 
^vl^K•h  woidd  naturally  be  excited  by  the  honor  and  the  advantages, 
attached  to  their  situation.  In  order  to  confirm  them  in  the  duties 
which  devolved  ujion  them,  and  to  throw  at  the  greatest  dis- 
tance  the  mean  and  lurking  principle  just  mentioned,  God,  after  the 
sedition  of  Korah,  Dathan,  and  Abiram,  sanctioned  the  separation 
of  the  whole  tribe,  which  had  been  previously  made,  to  the  service 
of  religion  and  the  state,  by  a  most  evident  and  striking  miracle, 
Num.  IG:  1—17. 

§  217.    COXNECTIOX    OF    THE    TkIBES    WITH    EACH    OTHER. 

Each  tribe  was  governed  by  its  own  rulers,  and  consequently 
to  a  certain  extent  constituted  a  civil  community,  independent  of 
the  other  tribes,  Judg.  20:  11—46.  2  Sara.  2:  4.  Judg.  1:  21,  27—33. 
If  any  affair  concerned  the  whole  or  many  of  the  tribes,  it  was  de- 
termined by  them  in  conjunction,  in  the  legislative  assembly  of  the 
nation,  Judges  11:  1—11.  1  Chron.  5:  10,  18,  19.  2  Sam.  3:  17. 
1  Kin<TS  12:  1 — 24.  If  any  one  tribe  found  itself  unequal  to  the  exe- 
cution of  any  proposed  plan,  it  might  connect  itself  with  another, 
or  even  a  number  of  the  other  tribes,  Judg.  1:  1 — 3,  22.  4:  10.  7: 
23,  24.  8:  2,  3.  But  although  in  many  things  each  tribe  existed 
by  itself,  and  acted  separately,  yet  in  others,  they  were  united, 
and  formed  but  one  community.  For  all  the  tribes  were  bound 
together,  so  as  to  form  one  church  and  one  civil  community,  not 
only  by  their  common  ancestors,  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  not 
only  by  the  common  promises,  which  they  had  received  from 
those  ancestors,  not  only  by  the  need,  in  which  they  stood  of  mu- 
tual counsel  and  assistance  ;  but  also  by  the  circumstance,  that 
God  was  their  common  king,  that  they  had  a  common  taber- 
nacle for  his  palace,  and  a  common  sacerdotal  and  Leviti- 
cal  order  for  his  ministers.  Accordingly  every  tribe  exerted 
a  sort  of  inspection  over  the  others,  as  respected  their  observ- 
ance of  the  Law.  If  any  thing  had  been  neglected,  or  any  wrong 
been  done,  the  particular  tribe  concerned  Avas  amenable  to  the 
others,  and,  in  case  justice  could  not  be  secured  in  any  other  way, 
might  be  punished  with  war.  Josh.  22:  9—34.  Judg.  20:  1  et  seq. 
It  is  possible,  that  a  community  thus  constituted  may  be  prosper- 


§  21S.  coMiTi.v  OR  LKOisLATivK  assk:.iijliks.  259 

ous  and  tranquil,  but  it  will  probably  want  promptness  in  securin'» 
that  justice,  which  is  its  due,  and  will  also  be  exposed  to  external 
and  internal  wars.  "We  find  examples  of  these  evils  durin'>-  the 
time  of  the  judges.  In  such  a  community,  it  was  to  be  expected 
likewise,  that  the  more  powerful  tribes  would  be  jealous  of  each 
other,  and  rivals.  Accordingly  we  find  this  rivalship  existin"-  be- 
tween the  tribe  of  Judah,  to  which  belonged  the  right  of  primo- 
geniture, and  the  tribe  of  Joseph,  which  had  a  double  jjortion,  Gen, 
49:  8 — 10.  48:  5,  G.  The  right  of  possessing  a  double  portion,  in 
consequence  of  which  the  tribe  of  Joseph  was  divided  into  those 
ot  Ephraim  and  ]Manasseh,  and  which  was  equivalent  in  fact  to 
the  right  of  primogeniture,  placed  these  two  tribes  on  nearly  the 
same  footing,  and  caused  them  to  look  upon  each  other  with  the 
captious  and  unfriendly  eye  of  competitors.  From  the  rivalships  of 
this  kind  a  sad  schism  finally  arose,  which  sundered  the  nation, 
1  Kings  xii. 


§  218.  The  Comitia  on  Legislative  Assemblies. 

(1.)  Person's  aviio  composed  the  Comitia. 

They  have  been  mentioned  in  a  preceding  section,  and  were  as 
follows,  viz.  judges,  i.  e.  those  who  exercised  the  office  in  the  judicial 
sense  of  the  word,  heads  of  famihes,  genealogists,  elders,  and  the 
princes  of  the  tribes. 


(2.)  Titles  applied  to  them  ix  their  collective  capacity. 

~7ti"  "-I^'j  '^^^  elders  of  the  assembly  or  of  the  people. 

"vi;'^~""?' '^'^^V'P?' '^"'^5  ^^'^  Wio/e  assembly.  At  the  conventions 
designated  by  these  words,  not  only  the  persons  mentioned  at  the 
head  of  this  section  were  present,  but  also  in  some  instances  the 
whole  body  of  the  people.  The  words,  therefore,  may  mean  a  na- 
tional legislative  congress,  where  only  the  lawfully  constituted  mem- 
bers are  present,  or  they  may  mean  an  assembly,  which  includes  the 
whole  mass  of  the  people. 

~7?V  '^"'-r^  ^^'^  princes  of  the  assembhj  or  congregation. 

"ir-i-a  ■'s-'-.;^ ,  nnrn  ■'X'l-ip ,  those  called  to  the  assembly. 

nn?n  i~"pp ,  those  deputed  to  the  assembly. 


200  §  218.    POWERS,    ETC.    OF    THE    COMITIA. 

P^xaniiiie  in  reference  lo  this  point,  Exoil.  19:  7.  24:  3 — 8.  34:  31, 
32.  Lev.  4:  13.  8:  .3—5.  0:  5. 


(3.)  INIetiiod  AM)  Place  op  convening  the  Comitia. 

They  were  convened  by  tlie  judge  or  ruler,  for  tlie  time  be- 
ing, and  in  case  of  his  absence,  by  the  high  priest,  Num.  10:  2 — 4. 
Judg.  20:  1,  27,  28.  Josh.  23:  1,  2.  The  place  of  their  assembling 
appears  to  have  been  at  tlie  door  of  the  tabernacle,  Num.  10:  3. 
Judg.  20:  1,  27,  28.  1  Sam.  10:  17.  Sometimes  some  other  place, 
commonly  one  of  some  celebrity,  Avas  selected  as  the  place  of  meet- 
ing, Josh.  24:  1.  1  Sam.  11:  14,  15.  1  Kings  12:  1.  As  long  as  the 
Hebrews  resided  in  camps  in  the  Arabian  ■wilderness,  the  comitia 
ViX're  summoned  together  by  the  blowing  of  the  holy  trumjjets.  It 
appears  from  Num.  10:  2 — 4,  that  the  blowing  of  one  trumpet  only 
was  the  signal  for  a  somewhat  select  convention,  composed  merely 
of  the  heads  of  the  clans  or  associated  families,  and  of  the  princes 
of  the  tribes.  The  blowing  of  two  trumpets  was  the  signal  for  con- 
vening the  great  assembly,  composed  not  only  of  the  heads  of  fami- 
lies, and  the  princes  of  the  tribes,  but  of  the  elders,  judges,  and 
genealogists ;  and  in  some  instances  including,  as  has  been  already 
remarked,  the  whole  body  of  the  people.  When  the  Hebrews  had 
become  fairly  settled  in  Palestine,  the  comitia  were  assembled,  on 
account  of  the  members  living  in  places  distant  from  each  otlrcr,  not 
by  the  sound  of  trumpet,  but  by  messengers  sent  to  them,  see  Deut. 
29:  9,  10.  Judg.  xx. 

(4.)  Powers,  etc.  of  the  Comitia. 

Moses,  while  he  sustained  the  office  of  ruler  among  the  He- 
brews, announced  to  these  public  assemblies  the  commands  of 
God,  which  were  afterwards  repeated  to  the  people  by  the  Shote- 
rim,  C'loio,  [whom,  for  want  of  a  better  term  in  English,  we 
have  denominated  genealogists.']  In  the  comitia,  (those,  which 
met  where  the  people  were  not  present,)  the  rights  of  sovereign- 
ty were  exercised,  wars  were  declared,  peace  was  concluded, 
treaties  were  ratified,  civil  rulers  and  generals,  and  eventually 
kings  were  chosen.  The  oath  of  office  was  administered  to  its  mem- 
bers by  the  judge,  or  the  king  of  the  state ;  and  the  latter  in  turn 


§  219.    FORM    01-    GOVUKX.MF.NT    A    MIXKD    OXE.  2G1 

received  their  oath  from  tlie  coinitia,  actiii::  in  the  name  of  the  peo- 
ple, Exod.  19:  7.  24:  2—8.  Tosh.  9:  lo— 21.  Judg.  20:  1,  11—14. 
21:  13—20.  1  Sam.  10:  24.  11:  14.  2  Sam.  11:  14.  2:  4.  3:  17—10. 
5:  1 — 3.  1  Kings  xii. 

The  coraitia  acted  without  instructions  from  the  people,  on  their 
own  authority,  and  according  to  their  own  views.  Nor  does  any 
instance  occur,  in  which  the  people  exhibited  any  disposition  to  inter- 
fere in  their  deliberations  by  May  of  dictating  what  they  ought, 
or  what  they  ought  not  to  do.  Still  the  comitia  were  in  the  habit 
of  proposing  to  the  people  their  decisions  and  resolves  for  their  rati- 
fication and  consent,  1  Sara.  11:  14,  15;  comp.  Josh.  8:  33.  2'd:  2  et 
seq.  24:  1  et  seq.  When  Gotl  was  chosen,  as  the  special  king  of 
the  Hebrews,  it  was  not  done  by  the  comitia,  independently  of  those 
whom  they  commonly  represented,  but  by  the  people  themselves ; 
all  of  whom,  as  well  as  their  rulers,  took  the  oath  of  obedience, 
even  the  women  and  children,  Exod.  24:  3 — 8.  Deut-  29:  9 — 14. 
The  people  commonly  approved  what  was  done  by  the  senate,  but 
sometimes  objected- 

§  219.    FOUM    OF    GOVERXMENT    A   MIXED    ONE. 

"When  we  remember,  that  God  was  expressly  chosen  the  Idng 
of  the  people,  and  that  He  enacted  laws  and  decided  litigated 
points  of  importance,  Num.  17:  1 — 11.  27:  1 — 11.  36:  1 — 10; 
when  we  remember  also,  that  he  answered  and  solved  questions 
proposed,  Xum.  15:  32—41.  Josh.  7:  16—22.  Judg.  1:  1,  2.  20:  18, 
27,  28.  1  Sam.  14:  37.  23:  9—12.  30:  8.  2  Sam.  2;  1 ;  that  He 
threatened  punishment,  and  that,  in  some  instances,  He  actually 
inflicted  it  upon  the  hardened  and  impenitent,  Num.  11:  33 — 35.  12: 
1—15.  16:  1—50.  Lev.  26:  3—46.  Deut.  xxvi.  xxx.;  when, 
finally,  we  take  into  account  that  He  promised  prophets,  who  were 
to  be  as  it  were  his  ambassadors,  (Deut.  xviii.)  and  afterwards  sent 
them  according  to  his  promise ;  and  that,  in  order  to  preserve  the 
true  religion.  He  governed  the  whole  people  by  a  striking  and  pecu- 
liar providence,  we  are  at  liberty  to  say  that  God  was  in  fact 
the  monarch  of  the  people,  and  that  the  government  was  a  theo- 
cracy. And  indeed  it  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  a  form  of  govern- 
ment, in  some  degree  theocratical  in  its  nature,  was  well  suited 
to   the   character   of    that   distant   ajje.      The    countries   that   bor- 


\^ 


a 


2G2  §  219.  FOU>r  or  govkknmkn  r  a  ?.iixi:d  oxk. 

^  dered  on  Palestine,  liad  tlicir  tutelar  deities ;  and  tliere  existed 
among  them  nearly  the  same  connection  between  religion  and  the 
civil  government,  which  there  existed  among  the  Hebrews.  There 
was  this  difTercnce,  liowever,  in  tlie  two  cases.  The  protection, 
Avhich  tl)e  false  deities  were  supposed  to  afford  to  the  nations  in 
the  vicinity  of  Palestine,  Avas  altogether  a  deception ;  while  the 
protection,  which  the  true  God  threw  around  the  children  of 
Israel,  was  a  reality  and  a  truth.  There  was  likewise  this  further 
point  of  difference,  that  while  among  the  former,  religion  was 
supposed  to  be  the  prop  of  the  state ;  it  was  a  fact,  that  among 
the  Hebrews  the  state  was  designed  to  be  the  supporter  and 
preserver  of  religion.  But  aUhough  the  government  of  the  Jews 
was  a  theocracy,  it  was  not  destitute  of  the  usual  forms,  which 
exist  in  civil  governments  among  men.  God,  it  is  true,  was  the 
king ;  and  tlie  high-priest,  if  we  may  be  allowed  so  to  speak,  was 
his  minister  of  state ;  but  still  the  political  affairs  were  in  a  great 
measure  under  the  disposal  of  the  elders,  princes,  etc.  It  was  to 
them  that  Moses  gave  the  divine  commands  ;  determined  ex- 
pressly their  powers  ;  and  submitted  their  requests  to  the  decision  of 

^  God,  Num.  14:  5.  16:  4  et  seq.  27:  5.  3G:  5,  6.  It  was  m  refer- 
ence to  the  great  power  possessed  by  these  men,  who  formed  the 
legislative  assembly  of  the  nation,  that  Josephus  pronounced  the 
government  to  be  aristocratical.  But  from  the  circumstance,  that 
the  people  possessed  so  much  influence,  as  to  render  it  necessary 
to  submit  laws  to  them  for  their  ratification,  and  that  they  even 
took  it  upon  themselves  sometimes  to  propose  laws,  or  to  resist 
those  which  were  enacted;  from  the  circumstance  also,  that  the 
legislature  of  the  nation  bad  not  the  power   of  laying  taxes,  and 

^  that  the  civil  code  was  regulated  and  enforced  by  God  himself,  inde- 
pendently of  the  legislature,  Loioman  and  John  David  Michcielis 
are  in  favor  of  considering  the  Hebrew  government  a  democracy. 
In  support  of  their  opinion,  such  passages  are  examined  as  the  fol- 
lowing: Exod.  19:  7,  8.  24:  3—8,  comp.  Deut.  29:  9—14.  Josh.  9: 
18,  19.  23:  1  et  seq.  24:  2  et  seq.  1  Sam.  10:  24.  11:  14,  lb. 
Num.  27:  1 — 8.  3G:  1 — 9.  The  truth  seems  to  lie  between  these 
two  opinions.  The  Hebrew  government,  putting  out  of  view  its 
theocratical  features,  was  of  a  mixed  form,  in  some  respects  ap- 
proaching to  a  democracy,  in  others  assuming  more  of  an  aristocrati- 

j>     cal  character. 


§  220.  Rri.ER  OF  THE  israelitish  community.  2G3 


§  220.  The  Kuleu  of  the  Israelitish  Community. 

From  wliat  has  been  said,  it  is  clear,  that  the  ruler,  the  su- 
preme HEAD  of  the  political  COMMUNITY  IX  QUESTION  AVAS 
God,  who  witli  the  design  of  promoting  the  good  of  his  subjects,  con- 
descended lo  exhibit  his  visible  presence  in  the  tabernacle,  Avherever 
it  travelled,  and  wherever  it  dwelt. 


Part  sustained  by  Moses. 

If,  in  reference  to  the  assertion,  that  God  was  the  ruler  of  thy 
Jewish  state,  it  should  be  inquired  what  was  the  part  sustained  by 
Moses,  the  answer  is,  that  God  was  the  ruler,  the  people  were  his 
subjects,  and  Moses  was  the  mediator  or  internuncio  between  them. 
But  the  title  most  appropriate  to  Moses,  and  most  descriptive  of  the 
part  he  sustained,  is  that  of  Legislator  of  the  Israelites  and  their 
Deliverer  from  the  Egyptians.  It  is  clear,  however,  that  a  man 
may  originate  laws  and  may  be  the  meritorious  leader  of  an  emigra- 
tory expedition,  without  being  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word,  the 
ruler  of  a  people.  Accordingly  Moses  had  no  successor  in  those 
employments,  in  which  he  was  himself  especially  occupied,  for  the 
Israelites  were  no  longer  oppressed  with  Egyptian  bondage,  and, 
those  laws  were  already  introduced  which  were  immediately 
necessary^  for  the  well-being  of  the  people.  It  was  on  this  ground, 
viz.  that  the  employments  in  which  he  was  especially  engaged, 
were  of  a  peculiar  nature,  and  having  been  accomplished  while  he 
was  living,  ceased  when  he  was  dead,  that  the  council  of  seven- 
ty elders,  who  were  assigned  him  to  assist  him  in  the  discharge 
of  his  oppressive  duties,  no  longer  had  an  existence  after  his  de- 
cease. 


Part  sustained  by  Joshua. 

If  the  same  question  should  be  put  in  respect  to  Joshua,  that 
was  supposed  in  regard  to  Moses,  the  answer  would  be,  that  he 
was  not  properly  the  successor  of  Moses,  and  that,  so  far  from  be- 
ing the  ruler  of  the  state,  he  was  designated  hij  the  ruler  to  sustain 
the   subordinate  office  of  military  Leader  of  the  Israelites  in  their 


::G4  §  221.  TiiK  Tiii;ocKACY. 

conquest  of  the  land  of  Canaan.  Consequently,  having  been  desig- 
nated to  a  particular  object,  and  having  accomplished  that  object,  it 
was  not  necessary,  when  he  died,  tliat  he  should  have  a  successor, 
nor  was  this  tlie  case. 


Pakt  sustained  by  TIIK  Judges. 

But,  although  the  Hebrew  state  was  so  constituted,  that  b(;side 
God,  the  invisible  king,  and  his  visible  servant,  the  high  priest, 
there  Avas  no  other  general  ruler  of  the  commonwealth,  y^'t  it  is 
wvW  known,  that  there  were  rulers  of  a  high  rank,  appointed  at 
various  times,  called  'JS'"-",  a  word  which  not  only  signifies  a 
judge  in  the  usual  sense  of  the  term,  but  any  governor,  or  admin- 
istrator of  public  affairs,  comp.  1  Sam.  8:  20.  Isa.  11:  4.  1  Kings  o:  i). 
The  power  lodged  in  these  rulers,  who  are  commonly  called  judges, 
in  the  Scriptures,  seems  to  have  been  in  some  respects  paramount 
to  that  of  the  general  comitia  of  the  nation,  and  we  find,  that  they 
declared  war,  led  armies,  concluded  peace,  and  that  this  was  not 
the  whole,  if  indeed  it  was  the  most  important  part  of  their  du- 
ties. For  many  of  the  judges,  for  instance  Jair,  Ibzan,  Elon,  Abdon, 
Eli,  and  Samuel,  ruled  the  nation  in  peace.  They  might  appro- 
priately enough  be  called  the  supreme  executive,  exercising  all 
the  rights  of  sovereignty,  with  the  exception  of  enacting  laws,  and 
imposing  taxes.  They  Avere  honored,  but  they  bore  no  exter- 
nal badges  of  distinction ;  they  were  distinguished,  but  they  enjoy- 
ed no  special  privileges  themselves,  and  communicated  none  to 
their  posterity.  They  subserved  the  public  good  without  emolu- 
ment, that  the  state  might  be  prosperous,  that  religion  might  be 
preserved,  and  that  God  alone  might  be  king  in  Israel. 
It  ouglit  to  be  observed,  however,  that  not  all  of  the  judges  ruled 
the  whole  nation.  Some  of  them  presided  over  only  a  few  separate 
tribes. 


§  221.   TiiE  Theocracy. 

God,  in  the  character  of  king,  had  governed  the  Israelites  for  six- 
teen ages.  He  ruled  them  on  the  terms,  which  he  himself,  through 
the  agency  of  Moses,  had  proposed  to  them,  viz.  that  if  they  ob- 
served their  allegiance  to  Ilim,  they  should  be  prosperous ;    if  not, 


o 


§  221.    TIIK    THKOCK.VCY.  265 

advcrs.itv  and  misery  would  be  the  consequence,  Exod.  19:  4,  5. 
23:  20—33.  Lev.  26:  3 — 46.  Deut.  xxviii — xxx.  We  may  learn 
from  the  ■whole  book  of  Judges,  and  from  the  first  eight  chapters  of 
Samuel,  how  exactly  the  result,  from  the  days  of  Joshua  down  to 
the  time  of  Samuel,  agreed  with  these  conditions.  In  the  time  of 
Samuel,  the  government,  in  point  of  form,  was  changed  into  a 
monarchy.  The  election  of  king,  however,  was  committed  to 
God,  who  chose  one  by  lot.  So  that  God  was  still  the  ruler,  and 
the  king  the  vicegerent.  The  terms  of  the  government,  as  re- 
spected God,  were  the  same  as  before,  and  the  same  duties  and 
principles  were  inculcated  on  the  Israelites,  as  had  been  originally, 
1  Sam.  8:  7.  10:  17—23.  12:  14,  15,  20—22,  24,  25.  In  con- 
sequence of  the  fact,  that  Saul  did  not  choose  at  all  times  to  obey 
the  commands  of  God,  the  kingdom  was  taken  from  him  and  given 
to  another,  1  Sam.  13:  5 — 14.  15:  1 — 31.  David,  through  the 
agency  of  Samuel,  was  selected  by  Jehovah  for  king,  who  thus 
gave  a  proof,  that  he  still  retained,  and  was  disposed  to  exercise 
the  right  of  appointing  the  ruler  under  him,  1  Sam.  16:  1 — 3.  Da- 
vid was  first  made  king  over  Judah,  but  as  be  received  his  ap- 
pointment from  God,  and  acted  under  his  authority,  the  other 
eleven  tribes  submitted  to  him,  2  Sara.  5:  1 — 3.  comp.  1  Chron. 
28:  4 — 6.  David  expressly  acknowledged  God,  as  the  sovereign,  v 
and  as  having  a  right  to  appoint  the  immediate  ruler  of  the  people, 
1  Chron.  28:  7 — 10 ;  he  religiously  obeyed  Ilis  statutes,  the  peo- 
ple adhered  firmly  to  God,  and  his  reign  was  prosperous.  The 
paramount  authority  of  God,  as  the  king  of  the  nation,  and  his 
right  to  appoint  one,  who  should  act  in  the  capacity  of  his  vicege- 
rent, are  expressly  recognized  in  the  books  of  Kings  and  Chronicles,  ^ 
but  dissensions  and  tumults,  notwithstanding,  arose  upon  the  death 
of  Solomon.  Tlie  principles,  recognized  in  Kings  and  Chronicles, 
are  repeated  in  the  Psalms  and  the  Prophets.  And  all  these  books 
inculcate  faith  toward  God,  and  obedience,  and  the  keeping  of  his 
commandments,  and  threaten,  unless  his  commands  are  kept,  and 
faith  and  obedience  exercised,  the  infliction  of  those  punishments, 
and  that  captivity,  which  are  mentioned  by  Moses,  Deut.  28:  49, 
63 — 65.  29:  17 — 27.  But  the  same  prophets,  who  predicted  the 
miseries  of  the  Captivity,  promised  also  a  return,  a  greater  con- 
stancy in  religion,  tranquillity  and  prosperity,  a  once  more  indepen- 
dent tneocracy,  the  propagation  of  the  knowledge  of  the  true  God,      9 

23 


20G       TAr,i,i:s  of  iiistoiucal  kvknts  and  successions. 

through  all  nations,  and  the  final  overthrow  of  the  Hebrews,  and 
their  nltiniate  and  effectual  expulsion  from  their  native  country. 
All  which  accordingly  followed.  Thus  under  the  government  and 
guardianship  of  God,  the  true  religion  was  pi'eserved  among  the  He- 
brews, and  at  length  propagated  to  other  nations,  as  was  promised, 
Gen.  18:  18.  2-2:  18.  2G:  4.''28:  14. 


TABLES 

OF  THE  PUOMINENT  HISTORICAL  EVENTS,  AND  OF  THE  SUCCESSIVE 
KINGS  BOTH  IN  PALESTINE,  AND  IN  THOSE  NEIGHBORING  NA- 
TIONS, WHOSE  HISTORY  IS  MOST  INTIMATELY  INTERWOA'EN  "WITH 
THAT    OF    THE    JEWS. 


TABLE  FIRST. 


Before 
Christ. 

After 
Deluge. 

2332 

292 

2257 

367 

2232 

392 

2192 

432 

2172 

452 

2157 

467 

2052 

572 

2051 

573 

2044 

580 

2042 

582 

2025 

599 

1971 

653 

1684 

932 

1644 

972 

1604 

1012 

Birth  of  Abraham. 

Calling  of  Abraham,  being  75  yeai's  of  age. 

Birtli  of  Isaac. 

Marriage  of  Isaac. 

Birth  of  Esau  and  Jacob. 

Death  of  Abraham,  being  175  years  of  age. 

Death  of  Isaac,  being  180  years  of  age. 

Joseph,  being  30  years  old,  made  a  ruler  in  Egypt 

Beginning  of  the  Egyptian  famine. 

Jacob,  aged  130  years,  emigrates  into  Egypt. 

Jacob  dies  at  the  age  of  147. 

Joseph  dies  at  the  age  of  110. 

Birth  of  Moses. 

Flight  of  Moses  into  Arabia. 

Exodus  of  the  Hebrews  from  Egypt. 


IN    PALESTFN'E    AXD    THE    XEIGIIBORING    CorNTRIES  2Gi 


TABLE   SECOND. 

lliis  Table  gives  a  chronological  vieio  of  historiccu  events  from  ihe 
Departure  from  Egypt  to  the  revolt  of  the  Ten  Tribes  ;  a  ])eriod 
extending  from  the  year  15G3  to  1015  before  Oirist. 


Before  1 
Christ.  1 

Af;or  Depar- 
ture fr.  E;;vpt 

• 

1563 

40 

Moses  dies  at  the  age  of  120  years. 

1546 

57 

Joshua  dies  at  the  age  of  110  years. 

Otliniel  dies  at  the  age  of  forty  years. 

Ehud. 

Shamgar. 

Deborah  and  Barak. 

Gideon  judged  Israel  40  years. 

Abimelech,  king  of  Shechem. 

Tola*. 

Jair. 

1263 

340 

Jephthah,  Judg.  11:  26. 

Ibzan. 

Elon. 

Abdon. 

Samson. 

1196 

407 

Eli  succeeds  as  a  Judge  of  Israel. 

1156 

447 

Eli  dies. 

1136 

467 

Samuel  sustains  the  office  of  Judge. 

1006 

507 

Saul  chosen  king. 

1050 

547 

David  made  king. 

1015 

587 

Solomon  succeeds  him. 

2G8 


TABLKS    OF    IIISTOUICAL    KYKXTS    AND    SUCCESSIOXS. 


TAliLK   rillRD. 


B.C. 

Kovolt 
oflOT. 

1 

Judali 

i)75 

Rehoboam  reigns  17  yfar 

058 
955 

17 

20 

Abijam,  3  years. 
Asa,  41  years. 

954 

22 

2 

952 

24 

4 

930 

45 

25 

929 

46 

26 

918 

57 

37 

914 

S97 

61 

78 

Jehoshapliat,  35  years. 
17 

89G 

79 

18 

891 

84 

Jehoram,  8  years. 

884 

91 

Ahaziah,  1  year. 

884 

91 

Athaliah,  7  years. 

877 

98 

Jehoash,  40  years. 

856 

119 

21 

840 

135 

37 

838 

137 

Amaziah,  27  years. 

826 

149 

14 

825 

150 

15 

811  164 

797  178 

785  i  190 
784  191 
774 
773 


772 
761 
759 

753 
747 
/43 
740 
739 
734 
733 
731 
730 
728 
726 
722 


201 
202 

203 
214 
216 

222 

228 
232 
235 
236 
241 
242 
244 
245 
247 
249 
253 


Uzziah,  52  years. 

14 
25 

26 
37 
38 

39 
50 
Jotham,  16  years. 
Isaiah,  Micah. 
6 
12 
Ahaz,  16  years. 
3 
4 
9 
10 
12 
12 
Hezekiah,  29  years. 
2 
6 


Jeroboam  I.  22  years. 

17 

20 
Nadab,  2  yeai-s. 
Baasha,  21  years. 
Ela  reigns  1  year. 
Omri,  11  years. 
Ahab,  21  years. 

Ahaziah,  1  year. 
Jehoram,  13  years. 
5 
12 
Jehu,  18  years. 

7 
Jehoahaz,  17  years. 
Joash  or  Jehoash,  16  years. 
2 
15 
Jeroboam  II.  41  years. 
Jonah,  the  prophet. 

27 
Amos,  the  prophet. 

41 
Hosea,  the  prophet. 
Interregnum  of  12  years. 

10 
Zechariah,  6  months. 
Shallum,  1  month. 
Menahom,  10  years. 
Pekahiah,  2  years. 
Pekah,  20  years. 

6 
12 

16 

19 
Interregnum  8  or  9  years. 

5 

6 

8 
Hosea,  9  years. 

2 

4 
Overthrow  of  Israel. 


IN    TALESTIXE    AND    TIIK    NEIGIIIiOUINCr    COUNTRIES. 


2C9 


TABLE  FOURTH. 

This  (able  (/ices  the  royal  successions  during  the  latter  part  of  the  peri- 
ods, mentioned  in  the  third  table,  in  Assyria,  Media,  and  Babylon. 


;  Anor 

u.  c. 

:i!evoh 
oflOT. 

i  149 

Assyria. 

Media. 

826 

Arbaces  29  yrs. 

820 

!  150 

2 

811 

164 

15 

707 

178 

{ 

[nterregnum 
79  yeai-s 

785 

190 

12 

784 

191 

13 

774 

201 

Phul  21 

years. 

23 

773 

202 

2 

24 

772 

203 

3 

25 

7G1 

214 

14 

36 

759 

216 

16 

38 

753 

222 

Tiglath- 

pileser  19 

years. 

44 

747 

228 

6 

50 

743 

232 

10 

54 

740 

235 

(  He  conquers  Damascus, 
\  Galilee  and  Gilcad. 

57 

1  1.V 

^vv 

739 

236 

12 

58 

734 

241 

Salmanassar  14  y 

ears. 

63 

733 

242 

2 

64 

731 

244 

4 

66 

730 

245 

5 

67 

728 

247 

8 

69 

726 

240 

10 

71 

722 

253 

13 

76 

Bubyloa. 


Nabonassar  14 
4 


8 

13 
Nadius2  3ears. 

(  Chinzirus  or 
(  Porus  5  yrs. 

9 


Jugacus  5  yrs. 
(  Merodach 
\  Baladan. 


23* 


270 


TABLKS    OF   IIISTOKICAL    EVENTS    AND    SUCCESSIONS 


TABLE  FIFTH. 

The  fuUoicing  is  a  view  of  the  royal  successions  in  the  kingdom  of  Ju- 
dith after  the  overthrow  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  and  also  of  those 
in  the  neighboring  nations  of  Assyria,  Media,  and  Babylon. 


B.C. 


722 


253 


720  255 

718257 
714'2G1 
713:2G2 
709j266 
704271 
702273 


9 
14 
15 
19 
24 
26 


G99  27GManasseh5o 
G93282  6 

G92I283  7 

Nahum. 

Joel. 

Habakkuk. 
688'287j         11 
G80  295|         19       . 
678  :ii)7  21 

665  311  34 

658  317  41 

644  331  Amon  2  yrs. 
643  332  2 

642  333Josiali3ly. 


636 

339 

6 

630.345 

12 

\st  Reform 
under  Josiah 

629 

346 

Zeplianiah. 
13 

1 

Jeremiah. 

625  355 

18 

Ind  Ileform 

under  Josiali 

13 

Sennacherib  7y, 

2 
Sennach.  in  Jud. 
Esax'-haddon  35. 
4 
9 
11 
14 
20 
21 


25 
33 

Sardocliaeiis20y 

14 
Chyniladan  22  y. 

14 

15 

16 
Savacus  13  yrs. 
6 


13 
Nineveh  over- 
thrown. 


76 

77 
Dejoces  53  y. 

4 

5 

9 
14 
16 
19 
25 
26 


30 

38 

40 

Phraortes20y, 

7 

21 

Cyaxares  1. 40 

2 

7 
13 


14 

18 


{ MerodachBa- 
( ladan  1 2  yrs. 

2 
4 

7 

8 
Arkianus  5  yrs. 
Interregn.  2  yrs. 
Belibus  3  yrs. 
Apronadius  6  y. 
Rigebelus  1  yr. 
Messomordacus 
[4  yrs. 


Interregnum  8  y 
Is  joined  to  As- 
4  [syria. 

16 

22 

36 

37 

38 

44 

50 


51 

Nabopolassar  o- 
vertumsNineveh 
3;  reigns  20  yrs. 


IN-    PALESTINE    AND    TUE    XEIGIIIJOUIXG    COUNTUIES. 


271 


.huUh. 

Media.               ! 

Uabylon. 

Gil  oG-lJelioaliaz  3  mo. 

32 

14 

GlOoG.JJchoiakim  U  yrs. 

33 

15 

GOGoGO              4 

i 

37 

19 

Beginning  of  the  Buhg- 

lonish    Caplivitg,  Daniel 

carried  aicag  captive. 

GOo  o70              b 

38 

Nebuchadnezzar  43  }ts. 

G03  372              7 

Astyages  34  yrs. 

3 

599  37G  Jehoiakira  3  mo. 

4 

6 

Ezehiel  carried  aicag 

captive. 

599  376  Zedekiah  11  yrs. 

4 

G 

!     Gbadiah. 

595  380  Zedek.  goes  to  Bahg- 

8 

10 

1 

Ion,  Jer.  51:  59. 

594  381 

Ezekiel,  proph. 

9 

11 

590  385 

Zedekiah  rebels. 

14 

IG 

588  387 

Jeru.  overtlirown. 

IG 

18 

5G9 

19 

Cyaxaresn.32y 

3G 

(  Jehoiakim  freed 

5G2 

\from  bondage. 

7 

Evil-merodach  2  yrs. 

5  CO 

9 

Neriglissor  4  years. 

55C 

1 

1 

13 

Laborasoarchad  9  mo. 

55G 

1 

13 

Nabonned  17  years. 

539 

30 

Baby,  tiilvcn  by  Cyrus. 

272         T.VIU.KS    01'   IIISTOUICAL    EVENTS   AND    SUCCESSIONS 


TABLE  SIXTH. 

This  table  extends  from  lite  time  of  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  cap- 
tivity, till  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  gidnfj  in  connection 
toith  the  Jewish  chronology,  the  con-esponding  successions  in  the  Per- 
sian Dynasty. 

!?.  (".I  The  IIebi-ew3.  I  IVrsmn  Monarrhs. 


536 


Return  of  Hebrews  from  cap- 


521 
515 


f  Return  ( 
\      tivity, 


Cyrus  reigns  7  years. 


Cambyses  reigns  7  yrs.  and  7  mo. 
Pseudo-Sraerdis  seven  months. 


529      1th  year  after  return 

522    15 

,^  (Temple  forbidden  to  be  t>.„  ..,^  ^^,.^^^r.,.^  or  ,.  .„., 
IG  J  '    ..  Darius  llytaspes  ou  years 

t,.^  \  Temple  completed 
""1      Haggai  and  Zechariah. 
485|  41 

48     Ezra,  Esther. 

0 


478 

4G4|   /-' 

444    92 

432  104  Neliemiah  comes  to  Jerus. 

424  112  Nell,  returns  to  P<irsia. 

423113 

412124 

408  128  Nell.  2d  return  to  Jerus. 

404132 

358  178 

337199 

335  202  Alexander  at  Jerusalem. 

331  207  Conquers  Darius. 

324  214  Alexander  dies. 


Xerxes  reigns  21  years. 

7 
Ai'taxerxes  Longimanus  40  y.3  ra. 

20 

32 
Xerxes  II.  2  mo.  Sogdianus  7  mo. 
Darius  Nothus  reigns  19  yrs. 

11 

15 
Artaxerxes  jNInemon  4G  years. 
Darius  Oclius  21  years. 
Ai'ses  two  years. 
Darius  Codomanus  4  years. 
Overthrow  of  Persian  JMonarcliy. 


IX    TALESTIXE    AXD    TOE    NEIGHBOKING    COUNTRIES. 


TABLE    SEVENTH. 

Tin's  taUe  gives  the  succession  of  the  Syrian  and  Egyptian  Icings  in 
connection  toith  the  History  of  the  Jews  from  the  year  323  to  27 
before  Christ. 

D.C.i  Syrian  Kings.  1        Ejvptian  Kin-xs.  Hebrews. 


323 

3201 

312  Seleucus  I.  Xicator. 

302j  10 

300  12 

292  20 

284  28 

280  Antiochus  I.  Sidetus. 

260  Antiochus  II.  Theos. 

246  14 

24.5  Seleucus  1 1.  Callinicus 

225  SeleucusIII.Keraunus 

223  Antiochus  III.Magnus 

221 1  2 

204  19 

192  24 

186  Seleucus  IV.Philopat. 

180  6 

1 75' Antiochus  IV.  Epipha. 

167|  8 

166  9 

164' Antiochus  V.Eupator. 

162  Demetrius  Soter. 

159|  3 

150Alexand.  Balas. 

145  Demetr.  Nicator. 

144  2 

140  Antiochus  VI.  Sidctes. 

1351  5 

130  Demetrius  Jsicat.  II. 

125'Zebina. 

123  Antiochus  VII.Grypus 

116 

105 

104 

92 

83 

80 


Philip. 

Tigranes. 

3 

6 

14 

The  Romans. 


Ptolemy  Lagus. 

4 

11 

21 

23 

31 

Ptolemy  Philadel. 

4 

24 

Ptolemy  Evergetes. 

2 

21 

23 

Ptolemy  Philopater 

Ptolemy  Epiphanes 

5 

18 


At  this  time  subject  to  the  Syrians. 
Many  carried  into  Egypt. 

At  this  time  subject  to  Egyptians 
Simon  the  Just,  High  Priest. 
Simon  the  Just  dies. 
Jesus,  the  Son  of  Sirach, 


Simon  11.  the  High  Priest  dies. 


Ptolemy  Philometor 

5 

13 

Mattathias. 

14 

Judas  Maccabee  reigned  7  years 

16 

3 

18 

5 

22 

Jonathan  i-uled  14  years. 

30 

9 

Ptol.  Physcon. 

14 

"2 

Simon  8  years. 

6 

5 

11 

John  Hyrcanus,  prince  29  years 

1 0 
20 

0 

10 

22 

12 

Ptol.  Lath\TUS. 

20 

12"' 

Aristobulus  I.  1  year. 

13 

-(Vlexander  Jannaeus  27  years. 

24 

12 

33 

21 

Ptol.  Alexander. 

24 

3 

Alexander  9  years 

11 

Aristobulus  II.  4  years. 

14 

3 

Ptol.  Auletes. 

4 

2 

Pompey  at  Jeru.  H^Tcanus  11. 9  y 

12 

IIjTcanus  II.  High  Priest. 

Cleopatra. 

Hyrcanus  II.  again  prince. 

14 

Antigonus,  king. 

17 

Herod  king,  he  takes  Jerusalem. 

23 

HjTcanus  II.  slain. 

The  Romans. 

9 

36.  Birth  of  Christ. 

•274      TABLES  OF  HISTORICAL  EVENTS  AND  SUCCESSIONS,  ETC 


TABLE  EIGHTH. 

This  table  gives  a  vieio  of  the  Hebrew  rulers,  independenthj  of  other 
nations  and  in  chronological  order,  froin  the  time  of  Christ  till  the 
dcstructio7i  of  Jerusalem. 

A.  C.  Ilobrews. 

2  Arclielaus,  ethnarch  nine  years. 

12  Judea,  a  Roman  Province,  Judas  of  Galilee. 

21  Pontius  Pilate,  procurator  12  years. 

34  Jesus  Christ  is  crucified. 

35  Philip,  the  tetrarch  dies. 

38  Herod  Agrippa,  king  of  the  tetrarcliate  of  Philippi. 

42  Herod  Antipas  recalled,  and  his  tetrarchate  added  to  that  of 
Herod  Agrippa. 

44  Herod  Agrippa  dies. 

45  Fadus,  procurator. 
4G  Tiberius,  procurator. 
47  Cumanus,  procurator. 
53  Felix,  procurator. 

CO  Festus,  procurator. 

C3  Albinus,  procurator. 

Go  Florus,  procurator. 

GG  Beginning  of  the  war  between  the  Jews  and  Romans. 

71  The  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 


275 


CHAPTER  II. 


OF    KINGS,   OFFICERS    OF    STATE,   AND 
OTHER   MAGISTRATES. 

§  223.  The  Axointixg  of  Kings. 

AViiEN  \ve  bear  of  the  anointing  of  the  Jewish  kings,  we  are  to 
understand  by  it  the  same  as  their  inauguration ;  in  as  mucli  as 
anointing  was  the  principal  ceremony  on  sucli  an  occasion,  2  Sam.  2: 
■1.  5:  3. 

As  far  as  we  are  informed,  however.  Unction,  as  a  sign  of  in- 
vestiture with  the  royal  autliority,  was  bestowed  only  upon  the  two 
first  kings,  who  ruled  the  Hebrews,  viz.  Saul  and  David ;  and,  sub- 
sequently, upon  Solomon  and  Joash,  who  ascended  the  throne  under 
such  circumstances,  that  there  was  danger  of  their  right  to  the  suc- 
cession being  forcibly  disputed,  1  Sam.  10:  24.  2  Sam.  2:  4.  5:  1—3. 
1  Chron.  11:  1,  2.  2  Kings  11:  12— 20.  2  Chron.  23:  1— 21.  That 
the  ceremony  of  regal  anointing  should  be  repeated  in  every  instance 
of  succession  to  the  throne,  was  not  to  be  expected,  from  the  fact  that 
the  unction  which  the  first  one  who  held  the  sceptre,  in  any  particu- 
lar line  of  princes,  had  received,  was  supposed  to  suffice  for  the  suc- 
ceeding incumbents  in  the  same  descent. 

In  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  those  who  were  inducted  into  the  royal 
office,  appear  to  have  been  inaugurated  with  some  additional  cere- 
monies, 2  Kings  9:  13.  The  private  anointings,  which  we  learn  to 
have  been  performed  by  the  prophets,  (2  Kings  9:  3,  comp.  1  Sam. 
10:  1.  IG:  1 — 13.)  were  only  prophetic  symbols  or  intimations,  that 
the  persons  who  were  thus  anointed  should  eventually  receive  the 
kingdom.  "Without  the  consent,  however,  of  the  rulers  of  the  nation, 
(of  the  public  legislative  assembly,)  they  communicated  no  legal  right 
to  the  crown ;  no  more  than  the  prophecies  of  dissensions  and  civil 
wars  gave  a  right  to  attempt  perpetrations  of  that  kind,  1  Kings  11: 
29—40.  12:  20.  2  Kings  8:  11—14. 

The  ceremonies  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  which  u-ere  customary  at 
the  inauguration  of  lings,  were  as  follows. 


27()  ■?  *-'-;3.    Tin:    AN<)INTING    OF    KINGS. 

I.  Tlie  Uin_L^  .-uirour.ik'd  with  soldiers,  was  conducted  into  some 
public  place,  (latterly  into  tlie  temple,)  and  was  there  anointed  by 
the  high-priest  witli  the  sacred  oil.  The  circumstance  that  there 
is  no  mention  made  of  anointings  on  these  occasions,  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  as  separate  from  that  of  Judah,  is 
to  be  accounted  fur  from  the  fact,  that  the  rulers  of  that  kingdom 
had  not  the  oj)portiu>ity  of  obtaining  possession  of  the  sort  of  oil 
denominated  sacred ;  as  no  other  was  thought  to  answer  the  pur- 
pose, 1  Kings  1:  32—34.  2  Kings  11:  12—20.  2  Chron.  23:  1-21. 
"We  see  in  this  ceremony  the  ground  of  the  epithet  n-J-2  or 
anointed,  which  is  applied  to  kings ;  and  a  reason  also,  (when  it  is 
taken  into  consideration,  that  kings  were  yirtually  the  vicegerents 
of  Jehovah,  and  Avere  appointed  by  his  authority,)  why  they  were 
denominated  the  anointed  of,  i.  e.  by,  the  Lord,  'r\'^r\'^_  n-r*: ,  1  Sam. 
24:  G,  10.  26:  9,  11,  IG,  23.  2  Sam.  23:  1.  Ps,..2:  2.  89:  38.  Ilabak. 
3:  13,  etc.  Whether  the  king  was  likewise  girded  with  a  sword 
at  the  time  of  his  succession  to  the  throne,  is  a  point  Avhich  cannot  be 
determined  at  any  rate  (as  some  have  imagined)  from  the  forty-fifth 
Psalm. 

II.  It  appears  from  2  Sam.  1:  10.  Ezek.  21:  26,  and  Ps.  45:  G, 
that  a  sceptre  was  presented  to  the  raonai-ch  at  his  inauguration,  and 
that  a  diadem  was  placed  upon  his  head. 

III.  The  Covenant,  ni-na,  which  defined  and  fixed  the  prin- 
ciples, according  to  Avhicli  the  government  was  to  be  conducted, 
nr^i^rn  -jsr?: ,  and  likewise  the  Laws  of  Moses,  were  presented  to 
hi'm,  and  he  accordingly  took  an  oath,  that  he  would  rule  according 
to  the  principles  of  that  Covenant,  and  of  the  Mosaic  Law,  1  Sam. 
10:  25.  2  Sam.  5:  3.  1  Chron.  11:  3.  2  Kings  11:  12.  2  Chron.  23: 
11,  comp.  Deut.  17:  18.  The  principal  men  of  the  kingdom,  princes, 
elders,  etc.  promised  obedience  on  their  part,  and  as  a  pledge  and  a 
proof  of  their  determination  to  do  what  they  had  promised,  they 
kissed,  as  it  seems,  either  the  feet  or  the  knees  of  the  person  inaugu- 
rated, Ps.  2:  13. 

IV.  After  the  ceremonies  were  completed,  and  the  individual 
concerned  was  legally  constituted  the  ruler  of  the  kingdom,  he 
was  conducted  into  the  city  with  great  pomp,  amid  the  acclama- 
tions and  the  applauses  of  the  people,  and  the  cries  of  "  Long  live 
the  king!"  Ti^rn  -^nM  The  joy,  which  was  the  natural  result 
of  such  an  occasion,  expressed  itself  likcAvise  in  songs,  and  on  in- 


§  •224.    KOVAL    UOBK,    DIADK.M    AND    cf? 

strumcnls  of  music.  Sacrifices,  which  in  the  later  ages  of  the 
nation,  were  converted  into  feasts,  were  offered  up,  and  were  in- 
tended prohably  as  a  confirmation  of  the  oath,  which  had  been 
taken,  1  Kings  1:  1,  11,  10,  24,  34,  39.  40.  2  Ivings  11:  12,  19. 
2  Chron.  23:  11.  comp.  Matt.  21:  1—11.  John.  12:  3.  Tliere  are  al- 
lusions in  many  passages  of  Scripture  to  the  puijlic  entrance  into 
cities,  which  took  place  at  the  time  of  coronation,  and  to  the  rejoicings 
and  acclamations  on  that  occasion,  Ps.  47:  2 — 9.  83:  1,  2.  97:  1. 
99:  1. 

V.  Finallj  the  king  is  seated  upon  the  throne,  and  as  the  con- 
cluding ceremony  at  his  accession,  receives  the  congratulations, 
which  are  then  customarily  presented,  1  Ivings  1:  3o,  48.  comp.  2 
Kings  9:  13.  11:  19. 

It  is  almost  unnecessary  to  remark,  that,  at  the  accession  of  king 
Saul  to  the  monarchy,  when  there  was  neither  diadem,  throne,  nor 
sceptre,  many  of  these  ceremonies  were  not  observed.  The  most 
of  them  also  were  omitted  in  the  case  of  conquest,  when  the  con- 
queror himself,  without  consulting  the  people  or  their  principal  men, 
designated  the  king  for  the  nation,  whom  he  had  subdued,  merely 
gave  him  another  name,  in  token  of  his  new  dignity,  exacted  the  oath 
of  fidelity,  and  signalized  the  event  by  a  feast,  2  Kings  23:  34.  24: 17. 
2  Chron.  3G:  4. 

§  224.  Royal  Robk,  Diadem,  and  Crown. 

The  robe,  which  was  worn  by  kings,  as  might  be  expected  from 
their  elevated  rank,  was  costly  and  gorgeous ;  and  the  retinue  which 
attended  them,  was  both  large  in  point  of  number,  and  splendid  in  re- 
spect to  appearance,  Ezek.  28:  13 — 20.  1  Kings  iv.  The  materials, 
of  which  their  robe  was  made,  was  fine,  white,  linen  or  cotton  ;  the 
usual  color  was  purple,  ^lonrfvna  y.al  ^vooOi,  1"::-X"1  "13,  Luke  16: 18. 
Rev.  18:  12,  IG.  The  kings  of  Media  and  Persia  appear  to  have 
used  silk,  Esth.  G:  8.  10:  11.  8:  lo. 

Among  the  appropriate  ornaments  of  the  king's  person,  there 
was  none  so  rich  and  valuable  anciently,  and  there  is  none  so  cost- 
ly and  splendid  at  the  present  day  in  Asia,  as  the  royal  diadem ; 
which  is  irradiated  with  pearls  and  gems.  This  article  of  their 
dress,  also  the  chain  for  the  neck  and  the  bracelets  for  the  arms, 
were  worn  by  them  constantly.     In  Persia  a  diadem  was  worn  not 

24 


278  §  22o.  Tin:  tiiuonk. 

only  by  the  king  liimsclf,  but  likewise,  witli  a  little  iliffeieiit  shnpe  in 
its  roiistnic'tion,  by  liis  volatioiis  and  others,  to  whom  special  favors 
had  been  conceded,  Esth.  8:  15. 

As  far  as  respects  tlie  form  of  the  diadem,  (in  Ilebi'ow  denom- 
inated "ITS ,  we  have  only  to  observe,  that  it  was  a  fillet,  two  inches 
broad,  bound  round  the  head,  so  as  to  pass  the  forehead  and  temples, 
and  tied  behind.  It  had  its  origin  from  the  fdlet  or  ribband,  which 
in  the  most  ancient  times,  was  tied  roimd  the  hair  for  the  purpose  of 
confining  it,  and  wliicli  was  used,  subsequently,  to  secure  the  head- 
dress ujion  the  head. 

The  color  of  the  diadem  seems  to  have  varied  in  different  coun- 
tries. That  of  the  diadem  of  the  Persian  kings  (according  to  Cur- 
tius  YI.  11.)  was  purple  mingled  with  white,  Ps.  89:  39.  2  Sam.  1: 
10.  2  Kings  11:  12.  2  Chron.  23:  11. 

Croicns,  t-ii-i;:?.'  fT^V?'  ^^'<^''^  likewise  in  use,  2  Sam.  12:  30. 
Zech.  G:  11,  14.  Ps.  21:  3.  These  words  are  also  used,  in  some 
instances,  to  denote  a  diadem,  and  likewise  an  ornamental  head- 
dress for  the  ladies.  It  may  be,  moreover,  that  they  are  used  to 
signify  a  sort  of  mitre,  which  ascends  very  high  and  is  made  of 
metal;  of  which  Ave  have  given  an  engraved  representation  in 
the  large  German  Edition  of  this  work,  Part  I.  Vol.  11.  tab.  IX. 
No.  4  and  8.  It  is  possible,  that  the  forms  of  those  crowns,  which 
were  worn  by  kings  at  the  earliest  period,  resembled  that  of  the  mitre 
in  the  engraving  referred  to,  but  it  is  a  point,  which  is  by  no  means 
determined. 


§  225.  The  Throne,  t<&3 . 

The  Throne  was  a  seat  with  a  back  and  arms,  and  of  so  great 
height,  as  to  render  a  footstool  cinn,  necessary.  Gen.  41:  40.  Ps. 
110:  1.  Curtius  V.  7. 

The  throne  of  Solomon,  which  consisted  wholly  of  gold  orna- 
mented with  ivory,  was  made  in  this  manner,  excepting  that  the  back 
was  a  little  curved,  and  contiguous  to  each  arm  or  side,  was  placed 
the  figure  of  a  lion,  {the  symbol  of  a  ling,)  1  Kings  10:  18 — 20.  2 
Chron.  9:  17.  This  throne  was  placed  on  a  flooring  elevated  six 
steps,  on  each  of  which  steps,  and  on  either  side,  was  the  figure  of  a 
lion,  making  twelve  of  them  in  the  whole. 

It  was  customary  for  the  high  priest,  previous  to  the  time  of  the 


§  22G.  THE  scF.rTitK.  279 

monarchy,  if  not  to  sit  upon  a  throne  properly  so  called,  at  least,  to 
take  a  position  on  an  elevated  seat,  1  Sara.  1:  9.  4:  18. 

Both  the  "  throne  "  itself,  and  likewise  " sitting  upon  the  throne" 
are  expressions  used  tropically,  to  denote  power  and  government, 
2  Sam.  3:  10.  Ps.  9:  7.  89:  44.  Isa.  47:  1,  etc.  That  the  throne 
of  the  Hebrew  kings  is  also  called  the  "  throiie  of  Jehovah"  origi- 
nated from  the  fact,  that  those  kings  were  in  reality  his  vicege- 
rents, and  exercised  in  respect  to  God  a  vicarious  authority,  2  Chron. 
9:8. 

In  some  passages,  a  throne  is  assigned  to  God  not  only  as  the 
king  of  the  Hebrews,  but  also  as  the  ruler  of  the  universe.  Job  23: 
3.  Exod,  17:  16.  Isa.  6:  1.  1  Kings  22:  19.  It  is  represented  as  a 
chariot  of  thunder,  drawn  by  cherubim,  f'S^ilS,  Ezek.  1:  3  et  seq. 
2  Kings  19:  15.  1  Chron.  1.3:  G.  Ps.  18:  11.  Hence  the  cherubim, 
placed  over  the  ark  of  the  covenant,  represented  the  throne  of  God, 
as  the  ark  itself  was  his  footstool,  Ps.  99:  5.  132:  7.  1  Chron-  28:  2. 
These  images  are  magnified  and  rendered  more  intense,  when  it  is 
said  of  God,  "  that  heaven  is  his  throne  and  earth  his  footstool,"  Isa. 
66:  1.  Matt.  5:  34. 

§  226.  The  Sceptre. 

The  sceptre  of  king  Saul  was  a  spear,  r":ri,  1  Sam.  18:  10.  22:  6. 
This  agrees  with  w^hat  Justin,  (Lib.  43.  c.  3.)  relates,  viz.  that  in 
ancient  times  kings  bore  a  spear,  instead  of  a  sceptre. 

But  generally,  as  appears  from  the  Iliad  itself,  the  sceptre,  •^'i;:: 
(comp.  Ezek.  19:  11,)  was  a  wooden  rod  or  staff,  which  was  not 
much  short,  in  point  of  length,  of  the  ordinary  height  of  the 
human  form,  and  was  surmounted  with  an  ornamental  ball  on 
the  upper  extremity,  as  may  still  be  seen  in  the  ruins  of  Pcrse- 
polis.  This  sceptre  was  either  overlaid  with  gold,  or,  according  to 
the  representation  of  Homer,  was  adorned  with  golden  studs  and 
rings. 

If  we  endeavor  to  seek  for  the  origin  of  this  ensign  of  royal  author- 
ity, we  shall  find  the  first  suggestion  of  it  either  in  the  pastoral  staff, 
that  was  borne  by  shepherds,  or  in  those  staves,  which,  at  the  earliest 
period,  were  carried  by  persons  in  high  rank,  merely  for  show  and 
ornament,  Gen.  38:  18.  Num.  17:  7.  Ps.  23:  4. 

A  sceptre  is  used  tropically  for  the  royal  dignity  and  authority,  and 


280  §  227.  THE  noY.VL  tahlk. 

a  just  sct'ptre  for  just  government,  Gen.  49:  10.  Kum.  24:  7.  i\jno3 
1:  5,  8.  Jer.  48:  17.  Ps.  45:  6. 


§  227.  Tm:  Koyal  Table. 

The  table  of  the  Hebrew  kings,  and  every  thing  connected  with 
it,  exhibited  the  same  marks  of  exorbitant  luxur}-,  as  may  be  wit- 
nessed at  this  day  under  like  circumstances  in  Asia.  Vast  numbers 
of  persons,  who  acted,  in  some  capacity  or  other,  as  the  servants 
or  ofilcers  of  the  king,  were  reckoned  among  those,  who  drev; 
their  sustenance  from  the  palace ;  and  hence  it  very  naturally  hap- 
pened, that  immense  quantities  of  provisions  were  consumed,  1  Kings 
4:  22,  23. 

In  the  earlier  periods  of  the  Hebrew  monarchy,  the  table  of 
the  kings  was  set  with  numerous  articles  of  gold,  especially  on 
occasion  of  feasts,  of  which  there  was  no  deficiency,  1  Kings  10:  21. 
To  impart  an  eclat  and  a  joy  to  feasts,  that  were  prepared  by  the 
kins,  there  were  present  not  only  musicians,  but  also  ladies,  whose 
business  it  was  to  dance ;  although  this  latter  class  of  personages 
do  not  appear  to  be  spoken  of  among  "  the  singing  men,  and  the 
singing  women,"  that  are  mentioned  in  2  Sam.  19:  35.  The  splen- 
dor of  preparation,  which  has  been  alluded  to,  and  the  classes  of 
persons,  who  were  invited  in  order  to  increase  the  hilarity  of  the 
occasion,  we  must  suppose,  found  a  place,  (more  or  less  according 
to  circumstances,)  in  all  the  royal  festivals,  of  which  we  have  an 
account  in  the  Bible,  Gen.  40:  20.  Dan.  5:  1.  Matt.  22:  1  et  seq. 
Mark  6:  21. 

In  Persia  the  queen  herself  seems  to  have  made  one  of  the  party  at 
such  times,  and  at  Babylon  other  ladies  of  distinction  ;  but  they  were 
in  the  habit  of  retiring,  as  soon  as  the  men  gave  indications,  that  they 
began  to  feel  the  effects  of  the  wine,  Dan.  5:  2.  Esth.  1:  9.  5:  4,  8. 
7:1.  Curtius,  V.  5.  Herod.  I.  199. 

But  among  the  Hebrews,  there  was  a  class  of  royal  festivals  of 
a  peculiar  kind ;  such  as  were  not  known  in  other  nations.  As 
God  was  their  king,  they  were  in  the  habit,  at  the  season  of  the  great 
national  festivals,  of  preparing  a  feast,  either  at  the  tabernacle  or 
in  Jerusalem,  of  the  thank-offering  sacrifi.ces,  and  in  this  way  they 
participated  in  a  season  of  joy,  of  which  God  himself,  who  was  the 
ruler  of  the  nation,  mieht  be  considered  as  the  immediate  author. 


§  228.    SECLUSION    OF    KINGS,    JOUUNEYS,    ETC. 


281 


The  blood  of  the  sacrifices,  which  were  thus  approin-iatecl,  was  shed 
at  the  foot  of  the  altar,  and  some  parts  of  them  burnt  upon  it. 

§  228.  Seclusion  of  Kings,  Journeys,  etc 

In  the  East,  those,  who  sustain  the  office  of  kings,  very  rarely 
make  their  appearance  in  public,  and.  to  obtain  access  to  them  in 
any  way,  is  a  matter  of  great  diiriculty.  Among  the  Persians,  a  per- 
son was  forbidden  to  make  his  appearance,  in  the  presence  of  a 
monarch,  without  being  expressly  invited,  under  the  penalty  of 
punishment  with  death,  Esth.  4:  11.  Herod,  in.  48.  In  more 
remote  times,  when  kings  had  more  to  do  personally  in  the  manage- 
ment of  their  affairs,  it  may  be  well  concluded,  that  they  lived  in 
less  seclusion,  tmd  that  it  is  quite  certain,  that  there  was  a  very  free 
access  to  the  monarchs  of  the  Jews,  2  Sam.  18:  4.  19:  7.  2  Kings 
22:  10.  Jer.  38:  7. 

It  was  esteemed  a  good  and  propitious  omen,  if  any  one  was  so 
fortunate,  as  to  behold  the  face  of  the  king,  Prov.  29:  26.  Isa.  33:  17. 
The  tropical  expressions,  therefore,  "  io  see  God,"  must  be  understood 
to  signify  the  same,  as  to  experience  his  favor. 

When  the  kings  of  Asia  perform  long  journeys,  they  are  sur- 
rounded with  a  great  and  splendid  retinue.  When  they  journey 
into  the  Provinces,  one  runs  before,  who  announces  the  approach 
of  the  distinguished  guest,  in  order  that  the  roads  may  be  in  readi- 
ness, and  every  thing  else,  that  is  necessary,  may  be  prepared. 
The  forerunner,  on  such  an  occasion,  is  denominated  in  the  Persian 
-'^  the  joyful  messenger:'  Comp.  "ir?-:,  d<(r/Yihori]g  ixn^  r^xb-:,Mal. 
3:  1.  Isa.  G2:  10—12. 

The  Talmudists  contend  that  God  himself  has  such  a  forerun- 
ner. They  call  him,  T'^-Ji-z,  and  r^^^^^  Metatkon.  They 
consult  the  following  passages  in  respect  to  his  existence  and 
character,  viz.  Zech.  3:  1,3.  4:  5  et  seq.  Gen.  16:  10—14.  22:  15. 
Exod.  3:4—20.  20:  2,  3.  23:  20—23.  Isa.  48:  16.  43:  14;  and 
think,  that  they  are  at  liberty  to  conclude  from  them,  that  Meta- 
tron  is  supreme  and  uncreated,  that  in  his  character  he  approaches 
nearest  to  God  himself,  and  is  the  same  being,  who  anciently  ap- 
peared to  the  Patriarchs,  and  is  expressly  called  God.  Consult 
BuxtorPs  Chaldaic,  Talmudic,  and  Rabbinic  Lexicon,  col.  1192, 
24* 


282  §  230.  TiTLics  OF  kings,  ktc. 

arid   also    the    Appendix  to  my  Ilernieneutics,    Fasc.    I.    p.    58 — 
G3. 

The  Ilebrew  king?,  wlien  they  travelled,  either  rode  on  asses  and 
mules,  (2  Sam.  13:  29.  17:  23.  1  Kings  1:  33 — 38,)  or  were  carried 
on  chariots,  being  preceded  by  the  soldiers,  who  sustained  the  part 
of  body-guards,  1  Kings  1:  5.  2  Kings  9:  17,  21.  10:  15. 

§  229.  The  Royal  Palace  and  Gardens. 

The  monarchs  of  the  East  were  accustomed  to  seek  for  glory 
by  building  magnificent  palaces  and  temples,  by  hewing  sepulchres 
out  of  stone,  by  planting  gardens,  and  building  fortifications ;  in  a 
word  by  doing  any  tiling,  wliich  might  tend  to  strengthen  and 
ornament  their  cities,  especially  the  one,  which  held  the  distin- 
guished rank  of  a  metropolis.  Such  were  the  associations  of  dignity, 
and  worth,  and  elevation,  connected  with  the  metropolis,  that  a  per- 
son was  said  "^o  ascend  up  into  it,''  or  ^' descend  from  it,''  even 
though  it  were  situated,  as  was  the  case  with  Babylon  upon  a  plain, 
1  Kings  12:  27,  28.  22:  2.  Ezra  7:  6,  7.  Acts  8:  5,  15.  15.  2.  18:  22. 
24:  1,  etc. 

Among  the  edifices,  upon  which  were  expended  much  ingenuity 
and  wealth,  in  order  to  render  them  suitably  splendid,  the  royal 
palace  deserves  particular  mention.  The  palace  of  the  kings  occurs, 
in  the  most  ancient  times,  as  well  as  at  the  present  day,  under  the 
name  of  "^^e  Gate^'  2  Sam.  15:  2.  Dan.  2:  49.  Esth.  2:  19,  21. 
3:  2,  3.  comp.  Matt.  16:  18. 

§  230.  Veneration  paid  to  Kings,  and  Titles  -wnicn  were 

BESTOAVED    UPON    THEM. 

It  was  contrary  to  the  law  of  Moses  for  a  man  to  speak  ill  of  a 
5LA.GISTRATE,  eveu  in  a  clandestine  manner.  Although  this  law  was 
not  enforced  by  a  penalty,  it  was  religiously  observed ;  and  kings, 
especially,  were  the  objects  of  the  greatest  veneration,  1  Sam.  24: 
4 — 15.  26:  6 — 20.  Those,  who  from  a  neglect  to  render  that  vene- 
ration, which  was  due  to  his  character,  liad  given  offence  to  the 
king,  were  liable  to  be  punished  with  death.  Still  there  were  not 
wanting  regicides,  especially  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  in  which  morala 
were  more  corrupted,  than  in  that  of  Judah. 


§  230.    TITLES    OF    KINGS,    ETC.  283 

Blagistratcs  are  sometimes  called  gods,  C"in5i<,  both  in  poetry, 
Ps.  82:  1,  6,  7.  138:  1,  and  sometimes  in  prose  likewise,  Exodus  4: 
16.  7:  1.  The  Plebrew  word  etymologically  means  one  who  is  to 
he  feared  or  venerated,  and  tliis  is  the  ground  of  its  api)lication  in 
the  present  instance.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  however,  that  it  is 
never  applied  to  lings,  except  perliaps  in  Ps.  45:  7,  8.  In  other 
instances,  the  word  "("nN ,  the  Lord,  '^;-c ,  the  king,  nrn-;  n"'"r': ,  the 
anointed  or  inaugurated  of  Jehovah,  are  the  usual  appellations 
applied  to  a  monarch,  and  the  customary  titles  of  address,  1  Sam.  12: 
3—5.  24:  7—11.  2G:  9—16,  16,  23.  2  Sam.  19:  21.  23:  1.  Ps. 
132:17.  The  word  ni"r"a,</ie  anointed,  is  synonymous  w-ith  T\?^.i 
king.  Accordingly  we  find  in  Isa.  45:  1,  the  following  expressions 
in  regard  to  Cyrus  :  '■'Tims  saitk  the  Lord  to  his  axointed,  to  Cyrus, 
whose  right  hand  I  have  holden"  etc. 

In  poetry  the  king  is  sometimes  denominated  the  son  of  God ; 
a  phraseology  which  has  its  origin  from  2  Sam.  7:  14,  and  1  Chron. 
17:  13.  "We  see  in  this  an  adequate  and  a  satisfactory  reason,  why 
the  inauguration  of  a  king  is  called  in  poetry  his  hirth.  Ps.  2:  6 — 8, 
12 ;  and  why  a  king,  who  from  any  circumstance  is  peculiarly 
exalted,  is  denominated  the  frst-horn  of  the  kings  of  the  earth,  i.  e. 
the  most  illustrious,  Ps.  89:  27.  Among  the  appellations  of  honor, 
usually  bestowed  upon  monarchs,  which  have  been  mentioned, 
THE  Messiah  and  the  Son  of  God  were  in  a  subsequent  age  par- 
ticularly applied  to  Jesus,  the  memorable  descendant  of  David,  who 
had  been  so  long  predicted,  John  1:  41,  49.  4:  25.  Matt.  1:  16—18. 
16:  16.  Luke  4:  41. 

In  many  nations  it  appears  that  there  existed  a  sort  of  appellative 
for  their  monarchs,  which  was  applied  indiscriminately  to  every  indi- 
vidual who  sat  upon  the  throne. 

Appellatives  for  Monarchs. 

(1)  Cesar,  a  general  name  for  king  or  emperor  among  the 
Romans. 

(2)  Ptolemy,  an  appellative  used  in  the  same  way  among  the 
more  recent  Egyptians. 

(3)  Agag.  This  was  the  common  name  for  the  kings  of  tlie 
Amak'kites,  1  Sam.  15:  20,  comp.  Num.  24:  7. 

(4)  IIadad,  Adad,  or  Ben  IIadad,  the  name  for  the  kings  of 
Syria,  2  Kings  8:  9.  1  Kings  15:  18. 


284  §  231.  DLTiKS  OF  Tin:  iiKuianv  moxakciis. 

(5)  AiiiMicLKCii,  the  same  among  the  Philistines,  Ps.  31:  1.  Gen. 
20:  2.  2G:  10.  comp.  1  Sam.  21:  12. 

(0)  Candack,  the  usual  appellation  of  the  Ethiopian  queens, 
Strabo,  p.  281.     Die  Cassius,  Lib.  IV.  p.  525,  comp.  Acts  8:  27. 

The  wonl  Piiauaoii,  used  so  often  in  reference  to  the  nionarchs 
of  E?v[)t,  is  not,  as  some  might  be  iuiluced  to  suppose,  an  appelhitive 
of  this  kind,  nor  the  word  Dauius,  which  is  applied  in  a  similar  way 
to  those  of  Persia.  The  proper  signification  of  both  these  words  is 
no  other  than  that  of  Idng  or  monarch  ;  and  this  signification  is  itself 
sufficient  to  account  for  the  frequent  recurrence  of  these  words  in 
connection  with  the  rulers  of  those  nations.  That  my  assertion  in 
respect  to  Darius  is  not  without  foundation,  will  appear  by  collating 
the  Zendish  word  ^.l"'";'!  Darafesch,  which  is  the  same  with  the 
Persian  s^Xi  Dara,  king.  It  is  exj)lained,  however,  in  Herodotus 
(VI.  08.)  by  the  word  tQ^tOjg,  conqueror.  Compare  my  Introduction 
to  the  Old  Testament,  P.  U.  §  57  and  §  6G. 

"We  find  in  poetry,  that  kings  are  sometimes  denominated 
shepherds  ;  and  sometimes  indeed  the  hushands  of  the  state.  The 
state  on  the  contrary  is  called  sometimes  the  wife  of  the  king, 
sometimes  a  virgin,  and  sometimes  the  mother  of  the  citizens.  It  is 
likewise  represented  as  a  widoto,  and  in  some  instances  as  childless. 
Hence  God,  who  was  the  king  of  the  Hebrews,  was  the  husband 
of  the  state,  and  we  find  that  the  Hebrew  commonwealth,  as  might 
be  expected  from  the  general  aspect  of  this  language,  is  represented 
as  his  spouse.  Wlienever,  therefore,  she  became  idolatrous,  she  was 
denominated,  to  keep  up  a  consistency  of  language,  an  adulteress  or 
fornicatress. 

§  231.  The  Dutiks  of  the  Hebueav^  IMonakchs. 

At  first,  kings  fulfilled  those  offices,  which  subsequently  de- 
volved upon  the  persons,  who  acted  as  generals,  as  judges,  and 
as  high-priests.  Gen.  14:  18,  19.  This  accounts  for  the  circum- 
stance, that  the  word  "jrib  signifies  both  a  priest,  and  the  supreme 
civil  magistrate,  Exod.  2:  IG.  3:  1.  It  occurs  with  this  last  significa- 
tion, as  late  as  the  time  of  David,  2  Sam.  8:  18,  comp.  1  Chron. 
18:  19.  In  respect  to  the  kings  of  the  Hebrews,  however,  it 
appears,  that  they  were  not  at  liberty  to  assume,  or  to  exercise  the 
sacred   functions,   which   were   conferred   upon   the   tribe  of  Levi, 


§  2r!-2.    r.XTKNT    OK    ROYAL    I'OWF.n    AND    rr.F.IJOGATIVF.S.        285 

and  upon  the  family  of  Aaron,  2  Sam.  1-3:  1  ct  seq.  2  Chron.  20:  IG 
et  seq. 

Tlii-v  liad  the  oversight  of  tlicm,  nevertheless,  so  far  as  to  see,  that 
all  thins^s  were  done  rightly,  a  privilege  which  was  well  used  by  Da- 
vid Jehoshaphat,  Ilezekiah,  and  Josiah,  but  abused  by  many  others 
to  the  purpose  of  introducing  idolatry. 

The  Hebrews  were  accustomed  to  expect  of  their  kings,  the  ful- 
filment of  two  offices  at  least,  those  of  judge  and  chieftain;  both  of 
which,  they  in  truth  did  fulfil,  either  themselves,  or  with  the  assist- 
ance of  other  persons,  whom  they  had  chosen,  1  Sam.  8:  o.  12:  12. 
comp.  2  Cliron.  26:  21.  Isa,  IG:  5.  "\Ve  learn,  that  kings  employed 
generals  to  conduct  their  armies,  as  early  as  Genesis,  (21:  22.)  and 
that  David,  though  a  warrior,  did  not  always  go  to  battle.  The 
Mosaic  institutions  themselves  recognized  the  existence  of  a  class  of 
inferior  judges,  and  the  only  trouble,  that  was  occasioned  to  the 
kings  afterwards  on  the  subject,  was  that  of  selecting  them  and  see- 
ing^that  they  fulfdled  their  duty,  1  Chron.  23:  4.  2G:  29  et  seq.  2 
Chron.  10:  5—11. 

It  was  the  duty  of  the  king  to  try  appeals  from  these  judges. 
This,  clearly,  was  a  much  better  course,  than  if  he  had  undertaken  to 
try  all  the  causes  himself,  or  even  the  greater  part  of  them,  2  Sam, 
15:  2  et  seq.  1  Sam.  17:  9—19. 

§  232.    EXTKNT  OF  THE  ROYAL  POWFK  AND  PmCKOGATIVES. 

It  is  known,  that  the  kings  of  Asia  at  the  present  day  exercise  the 
most  unlimited  and  arbitrary  power,  but  this  was  not  the  state  of 
things  anciently  in  cdl  instances,  however  it  might  have  been  in  some; 
for  the  power  of  the  Phenician  and  Philistine  kings  was  restricted. 

Moses  himself,  it  seems,  (Deut.  17:  1-1—20.)  imposed  certain 
conditions  upon  the  kings,  who  should  afterwards  arise  in  Pales- 
tine;  and  "</(e  elders  of  Israel"  as  they  are  termed,  those,  who 
from  their  rank  had  the  principal  management  in  the  civil  con- 
cerns of  the  nation,  exacted  conditions  likewise  in  wiiting,  respect- 
ing the  manner,  in  which  they  should  exercise  the  government, 
both  from  David  and  Saul,  which  they  received  with  an  oath  for 
themselves  and  their  successors,  1  Sam.  10:  25.  2  Sam.  5:  3.  comp. 
1  Kings  12: 1 — 18.  It  may  be  added  in  confn-mation  of  the  fact,  that 
the  power  of  the  Hebrew  kings  w:us  restricted,  tliat  the  heads  of 


2SG  §  233.  MiiTiiODS  OF  ruoMULC axing  laws,  etc. 

tribes,  or  the  princes,  possessed  of  themselves  very  great  power,  and 
so  far  may  be  considered,  as  having  a  negative  on  the  authority  of 
the  king.  It  may  hkewise  be  remarked,  tiiat  the  prophets  felt  them- 
selves at  liberty,  in  the  character  of  divine  messengers,  to  reprove 
those  monarchs,  \\\\o  had  violated  their  prerogatives  by  doing  that 
which  was  wrong.  But  notwithstanding  all  this,  it  is  a  fact,  tliat 
many  kings  abused  to  bad  purposes,  tlie  power,  which  was  committed 
to  them. 

As  tlie  king  acted  the  part  of  vicegerent  to  Jehovah  himself, 
(a  point,  which  is  very  clearly  established  in  the  INIosaic  Institutes,) 
it  was  his  duty  and  Ijis  right,  as  a  matter  of  course,  to  secure  obe- 
dience to  the  Laws  of  the  state,  and  to  punish  the  violations  of  them. 
He,  accordingly,  had  the  power,  not  only  to  issue  his  commands, 
in  the  manner  of  the  Judges,  but  also  to  enact  permanent  laws,  2 
Chron.  19:  11.  Isa.  10:  1.  AVhen  we  say,  that  the  Hebrew  kings 
had  the  power  of  enacting  permanent  laws,  it  seems  natural  to  ob- 
serve, that  they  had  not  the  right  of  making  laws  of  the  same  char- 
acter with  those  of  the  Persian  kings,  which,  it  appears,  were  immu- 
table, and  coidd  never  be  changed,  Esth.  1:  19.  Dan.  6:  16.  It  may 
be  inferred  from  2  Sam.  xiv.  that  the  Hebrew  kings,  in  some  in- 
stances, dispensed,  on  their  own  authority,  with  the  infliction  of 
the  penalty,  which  was  threatened  against  an  infringement  of  the 
Mosaic  laws ;  but  a  liberty  of  this  kind  was  certainly  very  rarely 
taken  Ity  those  kings,  who  had  a  well-founded  claim  to  being  called 
religious. 

David,  accordingly,  (2  Sam.  21:  1 — 14,)  delivered  up  the  homi- 
cides to  be  i)unished  by  the  avengers  of  blood,  and,  in  first  Kings, 
(2:  1 — 9,)  left  orders  to  his  successor  to  punish  certain  persons, 
whom  he  himself,  on  account  of  his  situation,  had  not  been  able  to 
treat,  as  they  deserved. 

§  233.  Methods  of  tromulgating  Laws,  etc. 

The  laws  of  IMoses,  as  well  as  the  temporary  edicts  of  Joshua, 
(1:  11,  12.  3:  2  et  seq.)  were  communicated  to  the  people  by 
means  of  the  genealogists,  [in  the  English  versions,  officers.']  The 
laws  and  edicts  of  those,  who  subsequently  held  the  office  of  kings, 
were  proclaimed  publicly  by  criers,  (Jer.  34:  8,  9.  Jon.  3:  5 — 7,) 
a  class  of  persons,  who  occur  in  Daniel,  (3:  4.   5:  29,)  under  the 


§  234.    ox    THE    KOYAL    KKVENUES.  287 

word  N""~s .  They  were  made  known  in  distant  provinces,  towns, 
and  cities  by  messengers,  sent  for  that  purpose,  1  Sam.  11:  7.  Amos 
4:  5.  2  Chron.  36:  22.  Ezra  1:  1. 

Tlie  message  thus  to  be  communicated  in  any  town,  or  city,  was 
publicly  announced,  when  the  messenger  liud  ari-ived  in  the  gate 
of  the  city,  or  in  some  other  public  place.  At  Jerusalem,  it  was 
announced  in  the  temple,  where  there  Avere  always  a  great  many 
persons  present.  It  was  for  the  same  reason,  viz.  on  account  of  the 
concoui-se  of  people  there  assembled,  that  the  prophets  were  in  the 
habit  of  uttering  their  prophecies  in  the  temple,  which  were  the  edicts 
of  God,  the  Supreme  King. 

In  a  more  recent  age,  the  learned,  the  Saviour  himself,  and  the 
Apostles,  taught  in  the  same  place,  Jer.  7:  2,  3.  11:  6.  17:  19,  20. 
36:  9—19.  John  10:  3.  Luke  2:  46.  Matt.  26:  bo.  Mark  12:  35. 
Acts  3:  11.  5:  12. 

§  234.    Ox  THE  Royal  Revexues. 

The  conquerors  of  a  country  not  only  exacted  tribute  from 
those  whom  they  had  subdued,  but  were  likewise,  in  the  habit  of 
compelling  them  to  render  certain  menial  services,  [whicli  in  Eng- 
lish are  denominated  soccage,  i.  e.  services  in  husbandry  and  the 
like,  rendered  to  the  lord  of  the  fee,  as  a  sort  of  consideration  for 
the  tenure  of  the  lands.]  Both  tribute  and  soccage  are  compre- 
hended under  the  Avord  Ct ,  though  they  are  sometimes  expressed 
by  the  word  nn:."?  which  usually  signifies  a  gift^  Exod.  1:  11.  Josh. 
16:10. 

But  whatever  they  might  exact  from  those,  whom  the  fortunes 
of  war  had  placed  in  their-  power,  it  does  not  appear,  that  kixgs 
demanded  from  their  oicn  people,  or  exacted,  when  they  chose  and 
of  their  own  arbitrary  will,  either  labor,  or  burdens  of  any  kind 
whatever,  Gen.  47:  19 — 27.  Ilerod.  III.  97.  In  fact  the  Hebrews 
were  so  tenacious  of  their  personal  rights  in  this  respect,  that  they 
went  so  far,  as  to  define  in  express  terms,  by  a  particular  agree- 
ment or  covenant  for  that  purpose,  what  services  should  be  ren- 
dered to  the  king,  and  what  he  could  legally  require,  1  Sam.  10:  25. 
2  Sara.  5:  3. 

It  is  not  precisely  known  to  us  what  the  terms  of  this  cove- 
nant were,  but  it  certainly  did  not  give  the  king  the  liberty  of  ex- 


2SB  §  2ol.    SOURCKS    OF    TIIK    ItOYAL    KEVKNUi:. 

acting  from  the  people  all  the  various  services,  which  are  enumera- 
ted in  1  Sam.  viii.  As  there  seems  *hen  to  be  nothing  especially 
peculiar  in  respect  to  this  subject  among  the  Hebrews,  it  is  very 
natural  to  conclude,  that  the  sources  of  ijivVknuu:  to  their  kings,  were 
nearly  the  same  with  those  in  other  oriental  countries.  With  this 
general  remark  in  view,  and  with  the  aid  of  various  hints,  which  oc- 
cur in  the  Scriptures,  relative  to  the  point  in  question,  we  proceed  to 
make  the  i'ullowin^  statement. 


Sowres  of  the  Royal  lievenue. 

I.    Presents,  which   were   given  voluntarily,  1  Sam.  10:  27.    IC: 
20. 

II.  The  produce  of  the  royal  flocks,  1  Sam.  21:  7,  8.  2  Sam.  13: 
23.  2  Chron.  2G:  10.  32:  28,  29.  comp.  Gen.  47:  6. 

III.  The  royal  demesnes,  vineyards,  and  olive  gardens,  which  had 
been  taken  u[)  from  a  state  of  nature  by  the  authority  of  the  sove- 
reign, or  were  the  confiscated  possessions  of  criminals ;  they  Avere 
tilled  either  by  slaves  or  by  conquered  nations,  1  Kings  21:  9 — 16. 
Ezek.  4G:  IG— 18.  1  Chrom  27:  28.  2  Chron.  2G:  10. 

IV.  That  the  Hebrews  by  agreement  promised  the  payment  of 
certain  tributes  appears  from  1  Sam.  17:  25.  [Consult  Gesenius  on 
the  word  '''Jsrt .]  Pei'haps  they  were  the  same  with  the  tythe  or 
tenth  part  of  their  income,  which,  as  may  be  inferred  from  1  Sam.  8: 
15,  was  paid  by  other  nations  to  their  kings.  The  collection 
and  management  of  imposts  and  taxes  appear  to  have  been  com- 
mitted to  the  officers,  who  are  mentioned  1  Kings  4:  C — 9.  1  Chron. 
27:  25.  Whatever  the  amount  of  the  customary  tax  was,  it 
appears  to  ha\e  been  increased  in  the-  reign  of  Solomon ;  and  the 
people  after  his  death  expressed  a  wish  to  have  it  diminished,  1 
Kings  12: 13.  Something  appears  also  to  have  been  paid  to  the  king 
as  a  tribute  in  ready  money,  which  occurs  under  the  word  nM:*9 , 
commonly  i-endered  a  2)7-esejit,  2  Chron.  17:  5.  comp.  Ezek.  45:  13 — 
18. 

V.  One  source  of  revenue  to  the  king  was  the  spoils  of  con- 
quered nations,  to  whose  share  the  most  precious  of  them  fell.  It 
was  in  this  way  that  David  collected  the  most  of  his  treasures. 
The  nations  which  were  subdued  in  war,  likewise  paid  tribute, 
whirh   was  also  denominated  n":-; .      It  was  paid  partly  in  ready 


§  235.    MAGISTRATES    UNDKIi    TH1-:    MOXAKCIIY.  281) 

money,  partly  jn  flocks,  grain,  etc.  1  Kings  4:21.  Ps.  72:  10.  2 
Cliron.  27:  5. 

VI.  The  tribute  imposed  upon  merchants,  who  passed  through  the 
Hebrew  territories,  1  Kings  10:  15. 

In  Pei-sia,  Darius  the  Midian,  the  same  with  Cyaxares  II.,  was 
the  first  person  who  enforced  a  system  of  taxation,  r--c,  t^^p"?) 
Dan.  G:  2,  3.  Strabo,  accordingly^  is  in  an  error,  when,  (p.  735.) 
on  the  authority  of  Polycritus,  he  makes  Darius  Ilystaspes  the  author 
of  this  mode  of  raising  a  revenue.  It  is  true,  however,  that  the  sys- 
tem of  taxation,  which  had  been  laid  aside  for  three  years  by  Pseudo- 
Smerdis,  was  renewed  by  Darius  Ilystaspes,  and  that  the  amount, 
raised  in  this  way,  was  increased  by  Xerxes,  Esth.  10:  1. 

Other  sources  of  revenue  to  the  king,  besides  those  already  men- 
tioned, were  the  excise  -^ ,  or  tax  on  articles  of  consumption,  and 
the  toll  -"^n,  Ezra  4:  U,  19,  20. 

§  235.  Magistrates  under  tde  Moxarchy. 

Judges,  genealogists,  the  heads  of  ftirailies  or  clans,  and  those 
who,  from  the  relation  they  sustained  to  the  common  class  of  people, 
may  be  called  the  princes  of  the  tribes,  retained  their  authority  after, 
as  well  as  before,  the  introduction  of  a  monarchical  form  of  govern- 
ment, and  acted  the  part  of  a  legislative  assembly  to  the  respective 
cities,  in  or  near  which  they  resided,  1  Kings  12:  1 — 24.  1  Chron.  23: 
4.  26:  29  et  seq.  28:  1—21.  29:  6.  The  judges  and  genealogists 
were  appointed  by  the  king,  as  were  other  royal  officers,  the  principal 
of  whom  were  as  follows. 

I.  The  kotal  counsellors,  1  Kings  12:  G — 12.  1  Chron.  27: 
32.  Isa.  3:  3.  19:  11—13.  Jer.  2G:  11. 

II.  The  prophets,  who  were  consulted  by  pious  kings,  2  Sam. 
7:  2.  1  Kings  22:  7,  8.  2  Kings  19:  2—20.  22:  14—20.  Others  of 
a  different  character  imitated  the  example  of  heathen  kings,  and 
called  in  to  their  aid  soothsayers  and  false  prophets,  1  Ivings,  18:  22. 
22:  6.  comp.  Exod.  7:  11.  8:  18.  Dan.  1:  20.  2:  2.  5:  8.  Jer. 
22:  9. 

III.  The  secretary  or  scribe,  ""rj^sn,  who  committed  to 
writing  not  only  the  edicts  and  sayings  of  the  king,  but  every  thing 
of  a  public  nature,  that  related  to  the  kingdom  :  and  whose  business 
it  was  likewise  to  present  to  the  king  in  writing  an  account  of  the 

25 


'290  §  23G.  orncERs  or  tiii-:  palace. 

state  of  anfairs,  2  Sam.  8:  IG.  20:  2-1.  1  Kings  4:  3.  2  Kings  18;  18, 
37.  1  Chron.  18:  15.  2  Cliron.  32:  8.  Isa.  3C:  3.  Estli.  3:  12.  G:  1. 
10:  2.  comp.  Herod.  YI.  100.  VII.  9.  YIU.  90. 

IV.  The  high  pkiest  is  to  be  reckoned  among  those,  ^vho  had 
access  to  the  king  in  the  character  of  counsellors,  2  Sam.  8:  17. 
1  Chron.  18:  16;  as  one  would  naturally  expect  from  the  prevalent 
notions  in  respect  to  a  theocracy. 

§  23G.  Oeficers  of  the  Palace. 

In  oriental  countries,  the  persons,  who  are  immediately  attached 
lo  the  palace,  and  make,  as  it  Avere,  the  king's  domestic  establish- 
ment, are  commonly  numerous.  The  principal  among  them  are  as 
follows : 

I.  w?i:"r;  i';;r,  1  Ciiron.  27:  25 — 31  ;  who,  (1  Kings  4:  5,  7 — 19,) 
are  denominated  n"^n::: ,  and,  in  1  Kings  20:  15,  are  called  '^ni:: 
rir'i'irj .  They  merely  supplied  the  king's  table,  and  are  not  to  be 
confounded  with  those,  who  exacted  the  tribute  C":,  (1  Kings  4:  G.) 

II.  rT^Sfj  hv  1": ,  otherwise  called  T'z:}  hv  ^rs ,  the  governor 
of  the  palace,  answering,  as  to  his  employment  and  standing,  to  the 
stewards,  who  were  employed  by  rich  men,  to  superintend  their 
afiairs.  He  had  charge  of  the  servants,  and  indeed  of  every 
thing,  which  pertained  to  the  palace,  1  Kings  4:  6.  18:  3.  2  Kings 
18:  18.  2  Chron.  28:  7.  Isa.  36:  3.  37:  2.  22:  15  et  seq.  He  wore, 
as  a  mark  of  his  office,  a  robe  of  a  peculiar  make,  bound  with  a  pre- 
cious girdle,  and  carried  on  his  shoulder  a  richly  ornamented  key, 
Isa.  22:  22. 

HI.  nnnVj^rt  h'J  ^:t)^,  the  heeper  of  the  wardrohe,  the  place,  in 
which  were  deposited  the  garments,  destined  by  the  king  for  those, 
whom  he  designed  particularly  to  honor,  2  Kings  10:  22. 

IV.  T\r.'^^  ^>".'}.  or  rn ,  the  king's  friend  or  intimate.  It  was 
the  person,  who  sustained  this  relation  to  the  king,  with  whom  he 
conversed  with  the  greatest  fomiliarity,  who  sometimes  had  the 
oversight  of  the  palace,  and  sometimes  even  tlie  charge  of  the  king- 
dom, 1  Kings  4:  5.  1  Chron.  27:  33.  In  tlie  time  of  the  Maccabees, 
however,  the  h'ng's  friend  was  a  phi'ase  of  somewhat  broader  signifi- 
cation, and  was  applied  to  any  one,  who  was  employed  to  execute 
tlie  royal  commands,  or  who  sustained  a  high  office  in  the  govern- 
nia^i,  1  Mace.  10:  65.  11:  26,  27. 


§  23G.    OFFICERS    OF    THE    TALACE.  291 

Y.  TIte  Ihuis  Vft'-gitarJ.  They  Avere  dcnoniinatod  by  the  Egyp- 
tians and  Babylonians  S'nz::  executioners ;  and,  by  the  Hebrews,  in 
the  time  of  David,  "^ri";?  cheretiiites,  i.  e.  extirpators,  Gen.  37:  36. 
39:  1.  2  Kings  2o:  8.  10:  11—20.  2  Sam.  20:  23.  1  Kings  1:  38.  2: 
25,  34.  The  commander  of  this  body  of  men  was  called  the  prefect 
or  the  captain  of  the  guard,  ^''"r:;?!  ":r ,  likewise  ="nz::n  -■] ,  Gen. 
40:  3,  4.  Jer.  39:  9—11.  40:  1—5.  41:  10.  43:  6.  52:  12—20.  Dan. 
2:  14,  15.  They  derived  their  name  from  the  fact,  that  they  were 
the  persons  whose  business  it  was  to  execute  the  sentence  of  death, 
when  it  had  been  pronounced  by  the  king. 

In  tlie  time  of  David,  they  were  likewise  called  "::"Vs 
pelethites,  i.  e.  the  eorpeditious.  In  the  reign  of  Saul,  and  also 
subsequently  to  the  time  of  David,  the  name  commonly  applied  to 
them  was  that  of  i~unners,  t:"-^"; ;  for  although  they  were  soldiers,  and 
it  was  their  particular  business  to  guard  the  palace,  they  were  never- 
theless employed  to  transmit  the  royal  laws  and  edicts  to  distant 
places,  to  run  before  the  king's  chariot,  as  a  part  of  his  retinue,  and 
likewise,  as  we  have  no  reason  to  doubt,  when  the  king  walked  out 
with  his  wives,  to  drive  the  multitude  from  the  way ;  a  custom  which 
still  prevails  in  the  East,  2  Sam.  15:  1.  1  Kings  14:  27.  2  Kings  10: 
14. 

In  Persia,  the  hinges  runners  were  a  class  of  persons  distinct 
from  his  guards.  In  order  that  they  might  be  known  v.-here  they 
went,  they  bore  a  peculiar  sort  of  poniard,  called  changar,  in  the 

Persian  -Svli*..  They  had  the  liberty  of  compelling  any  one, 
whom  they  met,  to  furnish  them  with  a  horse  or  other  animal  to 
ride  on,  or  to  go  himself,  and  show  the  way.  Hence  the  origin  of 
tlie  exotic  Greek  word  dy'/anaveiv,  axgariare.  Matt.  5:  41.  27:  32. 
^lark  15:  21. 

The  life-guard  (otherwise  cailed  the  preforian  band)  of  the  Mac- 
cabees, and  subsequently  of  Herod  and  his  sons,  were  foreigners. 
They  bore  a  lance  or  long  spear,  and  were  thence  denominated  in 
Greek,  a:ziy.ov).uTO}Q£';,  !Mark  G:  27. 


292  §  237.  THE  king's  ii.\ni:M. 


§  237.   Tin:  King's  IIake.m. 

The  women  of  the  khig's  harem  are  to  be  considered  as  making  a 
part  of  his  retinue  or  equipage ;  since,  generally  speaking,  they  -were 
merely  destined  to  augment  the  pomp,  that  was  wont  to  be  attached 
to  his  character  and  his  situation.  The  multiplication  of  women  in 
the  character  of  wives  and  concubines  was  forbidden,  it  is  true,  by 
Moses,  (Deut.  17:  17.)  but  the  Hebrew  kings,  especially  Solomon, 
gave  but  too  little  heed  to  his  admonitions,  and  too  readily  and  wick- 
edly exposed  themselves  to  the  dangers  which  IMoses  had  anticipated 
as  the  result  of  pursuing  the  course  which  he  had  interdicted,  1  Kings 
11:  1—3.  2  Cliroii.  11:  21.  13:  21. 

The  kings  willingly  encountered  any  expense  (whatever  it  might 
be)  Avhich  might  be  deemed  necessary,  in  ornamenting  the  persons 
of  their  women,  and  of  the  eunuchs  (the  black  ones  especially)  who 
guarded  them.  It  may  be  remarked  here,  that  eunuchs  were  brought 
at  a  great  expense  from  foreign  countries,  in  as  much  as  castration 
was  contrary  to  the  Mosaic  law,  Lev.  22:  24.  Deut.  23:  1.  For 
proof  of  the  employment  of  eunuchs  at  the  Hebrew  court,  see  the  fol- 
lowing passages,  1  Kings  22:  9,  2  Kings  8:  G.  9:  32,  33.  20:  18.  23: 
11.  Jer.  13:  23.  38:  7.  39:  16.  41:  16.  The  maids  of  the  Harem 
were  considered  (at  least  when  he  wished  to  have  them  so  considered) 
in  the  light  of  concubines  to  the  king.  But  the  successor  to  the 
throne,  although  he  came  into  possession  of  the  Harem,  was  not  at 
liberty  to  have  any  intercourse  with  the  members  of  it. 

Adonijah,  accordingly,  who  in  his  zeal  to  obtain  Abishag  (a  con- 
cubine of  David's  that  had  been  untouched)  let  iall  certain  unad- 
vised expressions  relative  to  the  kingdom,  was  punished  with 
death;  having  given,  both  by  the  nature  of  the  request,  (which 
was  not  customary,  and  unlawful,)  and  by  the  manner  in  which  it 
was  made,  too  evident  indications  of  a  seditious  spirit,  1  Kings  2: 
13 — 15  et  seq.  Though  the  king  had  tinlimited  power  over  the 
Harem,  yet  the  wife  who  was  chiefly  m  favor,  and  especially  the 
mother  of  the  king,  had  no  little  authority  and  weight  in  political 
concerns,  1  Kings  11:  3.  2  Chron.  21:  6.  22:  3.  Hence  in  the 
Books  of  Kimrs  and  Chronicles  the  mother  of  the  king  is  every- 


§  233.    INTERCOURSE    OF    OFFICERS    ■WITH    THE    KING.         293 

where  spoken  of;  and  in  truth,  in  Jer.  20:  2,  is  expressly  mentioned 
amoniT  tiic  roval  counsellors. 


§  238.  The  Method  in  -which  the  Officers  and  others  held 
Intercourse  with  the  King. 

The  kings  of  the  East,  as  has  been  already  obser%-ed,  are 
almost  inaccessible.  Those,  who  seek  any  favor,  or  wish  to  pre- 
sent any  accusation,  are  under  the  necessity  of  giving  a  paper  to 
that  effect  to  one  of  the  officers,  attached  to  the  court,  in  order  that 
it  may  be  handed  by  him  to  the  king,  2  Kings  4:  13.  In  case  no 
one  is  willing  to  receive  it,  they  themselves  take  the  opportunity, 
when  the  king  is  promenading  in  public,  to  present  it  to  him  in 
pei-son.  If  the  inhabitants  of  a  province  wish  to  accuse  the  gov- 
ernor, many  hundreds  of  them,  assembling  at  the  Harem,  utter 
loud  exclamations,  tear  their  clothes,  and  scatter  dust  in  the  air,  till 
a  messenger  is  sent  from  the  king  to  inquire  the  cause,  Exodus  5: 
15—19. 

But  to  the  kings  of  the  Hebrews,  as  has  also  been  stated,  there 
was  more  easy  access,  2  Sam.  14:  2,  3.  15:  2,  3. 

Those,  who  v/ent  before  the  king,  ^-en  the  principal  officers 
in  the  government,  appeared  in  his  presence  with  the  accustomary 
obeisance  and  ceremony,  and  stood,  like  servants  before  their  mas- 
ter. Hence  to  •■' stand  before  the  king"  is  a  phrase,  which  means 
the  same,  as  to  be  occupied  in  his  service  and  to  perlbrm  some 
duty  for  him,  Gen.  41:  46.  1  Sam.  22:  6,7.  1  Kings  10:  8.  12:  6—8. 
Dan.  1:  18.  The  same  expressions  are  used  in  respect  to  the 
priests  and  Levites,  who  were  the  ministers  or  officers  of  God,  to 
denote  the  religious  services,  which  it  was  their  part  to  perform, 
Deut.  10:  8.  17:  12.  Jer.  15:  1.  IS:  20.  28:  5.  Ps.  24:  3.  Luke  18 
11,  13. 

Those,  who  sustained  the  station  of  servants  and  officers  to  the 
king,  were  entirely  dependent  on  his  will,  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
they  exercised  a  similar  arbitrary  power,  (for  instance  the  governors 
of  provinces,)  over  those,  who  were  immediately  subject  to  them- 
selves. Hence  it  is,  that  the  prophets  frequently  complain  of  their 
oppressions  and  violence. 

The  royal  officers  of  every  grade  are  denominated  the  servants 
of  the  Icing,  and,  like  the  Orientals  of  the  present  day,  they  took  a 
25* 


294       §  209.    MAGISTRATKS  DUUING  AND  AITICR  TIIK  CAPTIVITV. 

l)ri(lc  in  hciiig  thus  denominated.  To  this  appellation  is  wont  to  be 
attached  tlie  glory  of  prompt  obedience,  jjrompt,  though  tlie  com- 
mand should  be  unjust. 

Those,  Avho  have  the  management  of  the  collection  of  the  reve- 
nues, or  are  entrusted  indeed  in  any  way,  are  not  customarily  called 
to  an  account.  In  case  they  are  called  upon  to  render  an  account 
of  their  proceedings,  they  show  themselves  prompt  at  the  arts  of 
deception  ;  but  the  consequence  of  an  attempt  at  misrepresenting  or 
defrauding,  is  almost  certain  destruction,  Luke  16:  2.  It  should  be 
observed,  however,  that  the  case  was  somewhat  different  in  respect 
to  Persia,  in  as  much  as  the  magistrates  in  the  provinces  were  vis- 
ited yearly  by  a  legate  from  the  king,  who,  being  supported  in  his 
duties  by  the  attendance  of  an  army,  examined  into  the  condition 
of  affairs,  and  the  pre\alent  management  of  the  governors,  Zech.  1: 
7—12. 

§  239.  Magistrates  during  and  after  the  Captivity. 

The  Hebrews,  during  the  captivity,  and  after  that  period,  contin- 
ued among  them  that  class  of  officers,  denominated  heads  of  families, 
and  perhaps  likewise  the  frinces  of  the  tribes  ;  M'ho,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  royal  governors,  ruled  their  respective  tribes,  and  family 
associations,  Ezek.  14:  1.  20:  1—8.  Ezra  1:  5.  4:  3.  5:  5.  6:  8. 
Neh.  2:  16.  4:  13.  6:  17,  18.  But  it  is  most  probable,  that  Jehoia- 
chin,  and  afterwards,  Shealtiel,  and  Zerubbabel  held  the  first  rank 
among  them,  or  in  other  words,  were  their  princes. 

After  their  return  to  their  native  country,  the  Hebrews  obeyed 
their  nrs,  or  jjresideJit.  Sucli  were  Zerubbabel,  Ezra,  and  Ne- 
hemiah,  who  were  invested  with  ample  powers  for  the  purpo- 
ses of  government,  Ezra  7:  25.  When  from  any  cause,  there 
was  no  person  to  act  as  president,  authorized  by  the  civil  govern- 
ment, the  high  priest  commonly  undertook  the  government  of  the 
state. 

This  state  of  things  continued,  while  the  Hebrews  were  under  the 
Persians  and  Greeks,  till  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  in  whose 
reign,  they  appealed  to  arms,  shook  off  the  yoke  of  foreign  subjuga- 
tion, and  having  obtained  their  freedom,  made  their  high  priests 
princes,  and  at  length  kings. 

The  Jews  likewise,   who  were  scattered   abroad,  and  had  taken 


§  2-iO.    TKTKAUCIIS.  295 

up  their  residence  in  countries  at  a  distance  from  Palestine,  had 
rulers  of  their  own.  The  person,  ^vho  sustain'ed  the  highest  ofTicc, 
among  those  who  dwelt  in  Egypt,  was  denominated  Alacakciius  ; 
the  magistrate  at  the  head  of  the  Syrian  Jews  was  denominated 
Arciiox. 

"While  the  Jews  were  under  the  Ixoraan  Government,  they  en- 
joyed the  privilege  of  referring  litigated  questions  to  referees,  whose 
decisions  in  reference  to  them,  the  Koman  pretor  was  bound  to  see 
put  in  execution.  Cod.  L.  I.  Tit.  9.  /.  8.  de  Judaeis.  As  Christians, 
when  they  first  made  their  appearance,  were  regarded,  as  a  sect  of 
the  Jews,  (Acts  23:  24,)  they  likewise  enjoyed  the  same  privilege. 
Paul,  accordingly,  blamed  them,  1  Cor.  6:  1 — 7,)  because  they  were 
in  the  habit  of  bringing  their  causes  before  the  pretor,  instead  of 
leaving  them  out  to  referees. 

§  2-iO.  Tetrarchs. 

After  the  subjugation  of  the  Jews  by  the  Romans,  certain 
provinces  of  Judea,  were  governed  by  that  class  of  Roman  ma- 
gistrates, denominated  Tdrarchs.  The  office  of  Tetrarch  had  its 
origin  from  tlie  Gauls.  Having,  at  a  certain  time,  made  an  incur- 
sion into  Asia  Minor,  they  succeeded  in  taking  from  the  king  of 
Bithynia  that  part  of  it,  which  is  denominated  from  their  own 
name,  Galatia.  The  Gauls,  who  made  this  invasion,  consisted 
of  three  tribes ;  and  each  tribe  was  divided  into  four  parts  or  Te- 
trarchates,  each  of  which  obeyed  its  own  Tetrarch.  The  Tetrarch 
was  of  course  subordinate  to  the  king.  The  appellation  of  Te- 
trarch, which  "was  thus  originally  applied  to  the  chief  magistrate  of 
the  fourth  part  of  a  tribe,  subject  to  the  authority  of  the  king, 
■was  afterwards  extended  in  its  application,  and  applied  to  any  gov- 
ernors, subject  to  some  king  or  emperor,  Avithout  reference  to  the 
fact,  whether  they  ruled,  or  not,  precisely  the  fourth  part  of  a 
tribe  or  people.  Herod  Antipas,  accordingly,  and  Philip,  although 
they  did  not  rule  so  much  as  a  fourth  part  of  Judea,  were  denom- 
inated Tetrarchs,  Matt.  M:  1.  Luke  9:  7.  Acts  13:  1.  Although 
this  class  of  rulers  were  dependent  upon  Cesar,  i.  e.  the  Roman 
emperor,  they,  nevertheless,  governed  the  people,  who  were  com- 
mitted to  their  immediate  jurisdiction,  as  much  according  to  their 
own  choice  and  discretion,  as  if  they  had  not  been  thus  dependent. 


296  §  241.  itOMAX  rnocuiJATOKS. 

They  were  inferior,  however,  in  i)oint  of  rank,  to  the  Ethnarchs, 
who,  ahhough  they '  did  not  publicly  assume  the  nantie  of  king, 
were  addressed  with  that  title  by  their  subjects  ;  as  was  the  case, 
for  instance,  in  respect  to  Archelaus,  Matt.  2:  22.  Josephus.  Anfiq. 
XVII.  11.4. 


§  241.  Roman  Pkocuuators. 

Procurators,  (a  magistrate  well  known  among  the  Romans,)  are 
denominated  in  the  New  Testament  Tiy^novsg,  but  it  appears,  that 
they  are  called  by  Josephus  stzitqotzoi.  Judea,  after  the  termina- 
tion of  the  Ethnarchate  of  Archelaus,  was  governed  by  rulers  of  this 
description,  and  likewise  during  the  period,  wliicli  immediately  suc- 
ceeded the  reign  of  Ilerod  Agrippa. 

Procuratoks  Avere  sometimes  Roman  knights,  and  sometimes 
the  freemen  of  the  emperor.  Eeh'x  was  one  of  the  latter  class, 
Acts  23:  24— 2G.  24:  3,  22—27.  The  procurator,  if  we  may  credit 
some  remarks  of  Suetonius  in  his  life  of  Claudius,  which  in 
truth,  are  confirmed  by  Tacitus  in  his  History,  (V.  9.)  was  for 
some  particular  reason,  very  dear  to  the  emperor,  but  was  never- 
theless, a  vary  miserable  governor.  Festus  also,  according  to 
Herodian,  (IV.  8.  11.)  was  a  freedman,  Acts  24:  27.  25:  12.  2G:  24, 
25.  It  may  be  necessary  to  remark  here  by  way  of  explanation, 
that  procurators  were  sent  by  the  emperor,  independently  of  the 
vote  or  concurrence  of  the  senate  into  those  pi'ovinces,  which 
had  been  reserved  for  liis  own  use,  and  might  be  considered  dur- 
ing his  reign,  as  his  ])ersonal  property.  They  were  commonly 
situated  in  the  extremities  of  the  empire.  The  business  of  the 
procurators,  who  Avere  sent  to  them,  was  to  exact  tribute,  to  ad- 
minister justice,  and  to  repress  seditions.  Some  of  the  procurators 
were  dependent  on  tlie  nearest  proconsul  or  president  ;  for  in- 
stance, those  of  Judea  were  dependent  on  the  proconsul  gover- 
nor, or  president  of  Syria.  Tliey  enjoyed,  however,  great  au- 
thority, and  possessed  tlie  power  of  life  and  death.  The  only 
privilege  in  res{)ect  to  the  officers  of  government,  tliat  was 
granted  by  the  procui-ators  of  Judea  to  that  nation,  was  the  appoint- 
ment from  among  them  of  persons,  to  manage  and  collect  the 
taxes.     In  all  other  things,  they  administered  the  government  them- 


§  242.     OF    THE    Tnir.LTE    OF    THE    TEMPLE.  297 

selves,  except  that  they  fVequently  liail  re.<oi-t  to  the  counsel  of  other 
persons,  Aets  23:  24— 3G.  24:  1— U).   2.";:  23. 

The  miUlary  force,  that  w:is  granted  to  the  procurators  of  Judea, 
consisted  of  six  cohorts,  gtthihu,  of  wliich  five  were  stationed  at  Cesa- 
rea,  wliere  they  resided,  and  one  at  rlcnisaleni  in  the  tower  of  Anto- 
nia,  which  was  so  situated  as  to  command  the  temple.  Acts  10:  1.  21: 
32.  It  was  the  duty  of  the  militar}-  cohorts  (o  I'xecute  the  [)rocura- 
tor's  commands,  and  to  repress  seditions,  Alatt.  8:  5.  27:  27.  28:  12. 
John  19:  2,  23.  Mark  15:  IG. 

On  the  return  of  the  great  festivals,  when  there  were  vast 
crowds  of  people  at  Jerusalem,  the  procurators  themselves  went  from 
Cesarea  to  that  city  in  order  to  be  at  hand  to  suppress  any 
commotions,  which  might  arise,  Matt.  27:  2 — G<3.  John  18:  29.  19: 
38. 

§  242.  Of  THE  Tribute  and  Half-shekel  of  the  Temple. 

The  management  of  the  provincial  revenues  was  generally 
committed  to  the  Roman  knights,  who  were  thence  denominated 
dn/iTihorai  and  Tthovuoyui,  publicans,  while  the  tax-gatherers  or 
exactors,  whom  they  employed,  were  termed  Ttlcovui.  The  case, 
however,  was  somewhat  different  in  Judea,  where  the  management 
of  the  revenues,  as  already  observed,  was  committed  to  the  Jews 
themselves ;  so  that  those  of  them,  to  whom  the  management  of 
these  affairs  was  instrusted,  eventually  obtained  an  equal  rank 
with  the  knights  of  Rome,  Luke  19:  2.  Josephus,  Jewish  AYar,  II. 
14,9. 

The  subordinate  agents  in  collecting  the  revenues,  relarai, 
who  are  denominated  in  the  Vulgate,  though  somewhat  incorrectly, 
puhlicans,  took  their  positions  at  the  gates  of  cities,  and  in  the 
public  ways,  and,  at  the  place  for  that  purpose,  called  the  "  re- 
ceipt of  custom,"  examined  the  goods  that  passed,  and  received  the 
monies  that  were  to  be  pai<l,  Matt.  9:  9.  Mark  2:  14.  Luke  5:  27, 
29.  These  tax-gatherers,  if  we  may  credit  Cicero,  were  more  in- 
clined to  exact  too  much,  than  to  belie  the  promise,  they  had 
made  to  their  masters  ;  anrl  were,  accordingly,  in  consequence  of 
their  extortions,  everywhere,  esi)ecially  in  Judea,  objects  of  hatred, 
and  were  reckoned  in  the  same  class  with  notorious  sinners,  Luke 
3:13.    31ark  2:  15,  IG.    comp.  Talmud,  Baba  Kama  c.  10,  113.    Cob 


298  §  242.  OF  Tin:  Tiur.UTi:  or  tiiI':  tejiple. 

1.  Ncdariin  c.  3.  Tlie  Pliarisccs  would  liave  no  communication 
with  tliL'Ui,  ami  one  ground  of  their  reproaches  against  the  Saviour 
was.  that  he  did  not  refuse  to  sit  at  meat  with  persons  of  such  a  char- 
acter, ISIatt.  r>:  4G,  47.  9:  10,  11.  11:  19.   18:  17.  21:  31,  32. 

TiiH  JiAi.r-siir.ivr.L  tax  was  a  tax  or  tribute  to  be  paid  every 
year  by  every  adult  Jew,  at  the  temple.  It  was  introduced  after  the 
captivity,  in  consequence  of  a  wrong  understanding  of  certain  ex- 
pressions in  tlie  Pentateuch,  and  was  a  diflerent  thing  both  from  the 
revenue,  which  accrued  to  the  kings,  tetrarchs,  and  ethnarchs,  and 
from  the  general  tax,  that  was  assessed  for  the  Roman  Cesars.  It 
was  required,  that  this  tax  should  be  paid  in  Jewish  coin,  a  circum- 
stance, to  which  an  allusion  is  made  in  Matt.  22:  17 — 19,  and  like- 
wise in  Mark  12:  14,  15.  It  was  in  consequence  of  this  state  of 
things,  (as  the  Talmudists  assert,  S/iehdim,  I.  1.  3.)  that  money- 
changers y.oV.v^taTui',  seated  themselves  in  the  temple,  on  the  fif- 
teenth of  the  month  Adar,  and  after,  for  the  purpose  of  exchanging, 
for  those  who  might  wish  it,  Eoman  and  Greek  coins,  for  Jewish 
half-shekels.  The  prominent  object  of  the  temple  money-changers 
was  their  own  personal  emolument,  but  the  acquisition  of  property  in 
this  Avay  was  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  the  law  in  Deut.  23:  20,  21.  It 
was  for  this  reason,  that  Jesus  drove  them  from  the  temple,  Matt.  21: 
12.  Mark  11:  15.  John  2:  15. 

Messengers  were  sent  abroad  into  other  cities,  for  the  purpose  of 
collecting  this  tax,  (Matt.  17:  25,)  according  to  the  Talmudists, 
(S/iehdim  I.  1.  3.)  during  the  month  Ada?;  who  add  further,  that,  in 
case  payment  was  not  made  by  the  twent}'-fifth  of  that  month,  a  pledge 
was  taken  from  the  pei'son  who  was  delinquent. 

The  Jews,  who  collected  this  tax  from  their  countrymen  dwelling 
in  foreign  nations,  transmitted  the  sums  collected  every  year  to  Jeru- 
salem. It  is  not  surprising  then,  that  the  vast  amount  of  treasures, 
of  which  we  are  informed,  flowed  into  the  temple,  Josephus,  Antiq. 
XIV.  7.  2.  Cicero  pro  Flacco,  28. 


299 


CHAPTER  III. 


OF    TRIALS   AND    PUNISHMENTS. 


§  243.  Of  Jl-dges. 

According  to  the  Mosaic  Law,  there  were  to  be  judges  in  all 
the  cities,  whose  duty  it  was  likewise  to  exei'cise  judicial  authority 
in  the  neighboring  villages  ;  but  weighty  causes  and  appeals  went  up 
to  the  supreme  judge  or  ruler  of  the  commonwealtli ;  and  in  case  of  a 
failure  here,  to  the  high-priest,  Deut.  17:  8,  9. 

In  the  time  of  the  monarchy,  weighty  causes  and  appeals  went  up 
of  course  to  the  king,  who,  in  very  difficult  cases,  seems  to  have  con- 
sulted the  high-priest,  as  is  customary  at  the  present  day  among  the 
Pei'sians  and  Ottomans. 

The  judicial  establishment  was  reorganized  after  the  captivity, 
and  two  classes  of  judges,  the  inferior  and  superior,  were  appointed, 
Ezra  7:  25.  The  more  difficult  cases,  nevertheless,  and  appeals, 
were  either  brought  before  the  ruler  of  the  state  called  nnB ,  or  be- 
fore the  high-priest ;  until,  in  the  age  of  the  Maccabees,  a  supreme, 
judicial  tribunal  was  instituted,  which  is  first  mentioned  under  Hyx'- 
canus  II.  (Josephus,  Antiq.  XIY.  9.  3.) 

Tliis  tribunal  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  seventy-two 
counsellors  who  wei'e  appointed  to  assist  Moses  in  the  civil  ad- 
ministration of  the  government,  but  who  never  fulfilled  the  office 
of  judges. 

§  241.  The  Saxhedrin. 

This  tribunal,  which  is  properly  called  ovn'dnioy,  Synedriuji, 
but  is  denominated  by  the  Talmudists  Saniiedrix,  was  instituted 
in  the  time  of  the  Maccabees,  and  was  composed  of  seventy-two 
members.     The  high-priest  generally  sustained  the  office  of  presi- 


300  §214.  Tin-;  6AMiin)i:iN'. 

rff«^,  "iJ*"!,  or  J<-r:n,  in  this  Irilmnal.  The  next  in  ruithority,  or  tlic 
vice-president,  was  called  in  Hebrew  -"in  "2N:,  likewise  '";  and  tlie 
second  vicc-jn'csident,  csnn ;  tlie  ibrnier  of  whom  sat  on  the  right, 
and  the  latter  on  the  left  hand  of  the  president;  comp.  ]Malt.  20: 
21. 

The  nieniber?,  who  were  admitted  to  a  .scat  in  the  Sanhedrin,  were 
as  follows : 

I.  CniEP  Priests,  unyie(ji:i\;  who  are  often  mentioned  in  the 
New  Testament  and  in  Josephus,  as  if  they  were  many  in  number. 
They  consisted  partly  of  priests,  who  Jiad  previously  exercised  the 
hio-h-jnuesthood,  and  partly  of  the  heads  of  tlie  twenty-four  class(?6 
of  priests,  who  were  called,  in  an  honorary  way,  /liyh  or  cMef 
priests. 

II.  Eldicks,  !7Q(:6^VTtQoi.  That  is  to  say,  the  princes  of  the 
tribes,  and  the  heads  of  family  associations. 

III.  The  Scribes,  or  learned  men. 

When  we  say  that  scribes  and  elders  were  members  of  the  San- 
hedrin, we  are  not  to  be  understood  as  saying  that  all  the  scribes 
or  learned  men  of  the  nation,  or  that  all  the  elders  held  a  seat  in  that 
body ;  but  those  only  who  had  obtained  the  privilege  by  election,  or 
by  a  nomination  from  the  ruling  executive  authority.  For  this  rea- 
son, viz.  because  they  were  made  members  of  the  Sanhedrin  in  the 
same  way,  they  are  constantly  joined  together,  TiQta^vzfQOi  y.ai 
yQUftfiuzth;  scribes  and  elders,  Matt.  26:  57,  59.  27:  3,  12,  20,  41. 
Acts  4:  5.  G:  12. 

The  Talmudists  assert,  that  this  tribunal  had  secretaries  and  ap- 
paritors, and  the  very  nature  of  the  case  forbids  us  to  doubt  the  truth 
of  the  assertion.  The  place  of  their  sitting,  however,  is  a  question 
on  which  there  is  more  difference  of  opinion.  The  Talmudists  state, 
that  it  was  in  the  temple ;  but  Josephus,  in  his  history  of  the  Jewish 
war,  (V.  4.  2.  VI.  6.  3.)  mentions  ^ovh'jv  the  council,  ^ovhwi'^Qiov 
the  place  of  assemhling,  and  also  the  Archives,  as  being  not  far  from 
the  temple  on  mount  Zion.  But  in  the  trial  of  Jesus,  it  appears  they 
were  assembled,  and  that  very  hastily,  in  the  palace  of  tlie  hirjh-priest, 
Matt.  26:  3,  57.  John  18:  24. 

The  Talmudists  state,  that  Avhen  met,  they  took  their  seats  in 
such  a  way  as  to  form  a  semicircle;  and  that  the  president  and 
two  vice-presidents  occupied  the  centre.  We  learn  from  other 
sources,  that    they  either  sat  upon    the    floor,  a  car[)et  merely  be- 


^  244.    THE    SAMIEDRIX    OF    THK    NVILDEUXESS.  301 

ing  fprt-ad  iimk-r  tliein,  or  upon  cushions  slightly  elevated,  witli 
their  knee?  bent  and  crossed  ;  as  is  the  custom  at  the  present  day,  in 
the  East. 

Appeals  and  other  weighty  matters  were  brought  before  this 
tribunal.  Among  other  questions  of  importance,  subject  to  its 
decision,  the  Talmudists  (Sanhedrin  I.  5.  X.  89.)  include  the  inquiry, 
'•  "Whether  a  person  be  a  false  prophet  or  not  ?  "  Comp.  Luke  13: 
33.  Its  power  had  been  limited,  in  the  time  of  Christ,  by  the 
interference  of  the  Romans.  It  was  still,  however,  in  the  habit  of 
sending  its  legates  or  messengei's  to  the  synagogues  in  foreign 
countries,  (Acts  9:  2,)  and  retained  the  right  of  passing  the  sen- 
tence of  condemnation,  or  what  is  the  same  thing  in  amount,  of 
decreeing  punishment  in  cases,  where  there  was  proof  of  criminal- 
ity ;  but  the  power  of  executing  the  sentence  when  passed  was 
taken  away  from  it,  and  lodged  with  the  Roman  procurator,  John  18: 
31.  Sanhedrin  p.  24.  col.  2.  There  was  one  exception,  it  is  true, 
during  the  procuratorship  of  Pilate,  and  only  one ;  who  permitted 
the  Sanhedrin  themselves,  in  the  case  of  Christ,  to  see  the  sen- 
tence, of  which  they  had  been  the  authors,  put  in  execution,  John 
18:  31.  19:  6.  The  stoning  of  Stephen  was  not  done  by  the  au- 
thority of  the  Sanhedrin,  but  in  a  riot.  Acts  vii.  James,  the  brother 
of  John,  (Acts  12:  2,)  was  slain,  in  consequence  of  a  sentence  to 
that  effect  from  king  Herod  Agrippa.  The  high  priest  Ananus  did 
indeed  condemn  James,  the  brother  of  Jesus,  (i.  e.  relation  or 
cousin.)  to  be  stoned,  and  others  likewise,  but  it  was  done,  when 
the  procurator  was  absent,  and  was  disapproved  by  the  Jews  them- 
selves. Consult  the  large  German  edition  of  this  "Work,  P.  II.  "N  ol. 
n.  §  132.  p.  121,  122. 

[Note.  Ox  the  Sanhedrin  of  Seventy,  instituted  by  Mo- 
ses IX  the  "V\"ildeeness.  a  remark  was  made  at  the  close  of  the 
243d  section  as  follows :  "  This  tribunal,  (viz.  the  Jewish  Sanhe- 
drin,) is  not  to  he  confounded  tcith  tlte  seveniy-iu-o  counsellors,  tcfio 
icere  appointed  to  assist  Moses,  etc."  The  Ibllowing  extract  from 
Michaelis,  whose  opinions  on  such  a  subject  every  scholar  will  feel 
an  interest  in  knowing,  will  give  probably  a  coiTCOt  idea  of  the  insti- 
tution, to  wJiich  an  allusion  is  made  in  tliat  section. 

'•  Moses  established  in  the  wilderness  another  institution  which  has 
been  commonly  held  to  be  of  a  judicial  nature  ;  and  under  the 
2G 


.302  §  2-14.    Tin:    SAMIKDKIN    OK    TIIK    "WILDKKNKSS. 

name  of  San/iedrin  or  Si/nedriioii,  nnicli  spoken  of"  both  liy  Jews 
anil  Christians,  aUhough  it  probably  Mas  not  of  long  continuance. 
\Ve  have  the  account  of  its  establislnncnt  in  Num.  xi. ;  and  if  we 
read  the  passage  impartially,  and  without  prejudice,  we  shall  proba- 
bly entertain  an  opinion  of  the  Synedriuni  diHerent  from  tliat  gener- 
ally received,  which  exalts  it  into  a  su[)reme  college  of  justice  that 
was  to  endure  forever. 

"  A  rebellion  that  arose  among  the  Israelites  distressed  Moses 
exceedingly.  In  order  to  alleviate  the  weight  of  the  burden  that 
oppressed  him,  he  chose  from  the  twelve  tribes  collectively,  a  coun- 
cil of  seventy  persons  to  assist  him.  These,  however,  could  hardly 
have  been  judges;  for  of  i/ie?n,  the  people  already  had  between  sixty 
and  seventy  thousand.*  Besides,  of  what  use  could  seventy  new 
judges,  or  a  supreme  court  of  appeal,  have  been  in  crushing  a  rebel- 
lion. It  seems  much  more  likely,  that  this  selection  was  intended 
for  a  supreme  senate  to  take  a  share  with  Moses  in  the  govern- 
ment ;  and  as  it  consisted  of  persons  of  respectability,  either  in 
point  of  family  or  merits,  it  would  serve  materially  to  support  liis 
power  and  influence  among  the  people  in  general.  By  a  mixture 
of  aristocracy,  it  would  moderate  the  monarchical  appearance  which 
the  constitution  must  liave  assumed  from  Moses  giving  his  laws  by 
command  of  God,  and  it  would  unite  a  number  of  powerful  families 
together,  from  their  being  all  associated  with  Moses  in  the  govern- 
ment. 

"  It  is  commonly  supposed  that  this  Synedrium  continued  per- 
manent ;  but  this  I  doubt.  For  in  the  whole  period  from  the 
death  of  Moses  to  the  ]>al)yIonish  captivity,  we  find  not  the  least 
mention  of  it  in  the  Bible  ;  and  this  silence,  methinks,  is  decisive  ; 
for  in  the  time  of  the  judges,  but  particularly  on  those  occasions 
when,  according  to  the  expression  of  the  book  of  Judges,  there  was 
neither  Icing  nor  judge  in  Israel;  and  again,  during  those  great 
political  revolutions,  when  David  by  degrees  became  king  over  all 
the  tribes,  and  when  the    ten  tribes  afterwards  revolted  from   his 

*  AVithout  inchuling  tlie  tribe  of  Levi,  there  were, 

Judges  of  tens,  60,355 

of  liiuidreds,  6,035 

of  tliousands,  603 

in  all,  GG,993 


§  '2i').    OTIIKK    TKIDL'XALS    IX    TIIK    THIK    01^    CIirjIST.  303 

grandson,  Relioboain  ;  and  lastly,  under  the  tyrannical  reigns  of  some 
of  the  subsequent  kings  ;  such  a  supreme  council  of  seventy  per- 
sons, if  it  had  been  in  existence,  must  have  made  a  conspicuous 
figure  in  the  history;  and  yet  we  find  not  the  least  trace  of  it;  so 
that  it  merely  appears  to  have  been  a  temporary  council  instituted  by 
Moses  for  his  personal  service  and  security,  and  as  he  did  not  fill  up 
the  vacancies  occasioned  in  it  by  deaths,  it  must  have  died  out  alto- 
gether in  the  wilderness. 

"  No  doubt  the  Jews,  after  their  return  from  the  Babylonish  cap- 
tivity, did  institute  a  Sanhedrin  at  Jerusalem,  of  which  frequent 
mention  is  made  not  only  in  the  New  Testament,  but  also  in  Jewish 
writings.  But  this  was  merely  an  imitation  of  the  ancient  Mosaic 
Synedrium,  with  the  nature  of  whose  constitution  the  later  Jews 
were  no  longer  acquainted  ;  for  they  had  indeed  b(!Come  ignorant  of 
almost  all  the  customs  of  their  ancestors."] 


§  245.  Otiikr  Tiubuxals  ix  the  time  of  Christ. 

Josepluis,  (Antiq.  IV.  8.  li.)  states,  that  in  every  city  there 
was  a  tribunal  of  seven  Judges,  with  two  Levites  as  apparitors,  and 
that  it  was  a  Mosaic  institution.  That  there  existed  such  an  institu- 
tion in  his  time,  there  is  no  reason  to  doubty  but  he  probably  erred  in 
referring  its  origin  to  so  early  a  period,  as  the  days  of  Moses.  This 
tribunal,  Avhich  decided  causes  of  less  moment,  is  denominated,  in  the 
New  Testament,  y.oioi'^  or  the  judgment,  Matt.  5:  22. 

The  Talmudists  mention  a  tribunal  of  twenty-three  judges, 
and  another  of  three  judges,  but  Josephus  is  silent  in  respect  to 
them.  The  courts  of  twenty-tlu-ee  judges  were  the  same  with 
the  synagogue  tribunals,  mentioned  in  John  16:  2 ;  which  merely 
tried  questions  of  a  religious  nature,  and  sentenced  to  no  other  pun- 
ishment than  "forty  stripes  save  one,"  2  Cor.  11:  24. 

The  court  of  three  judges  was  merely  a  session  of  referees, 
wiiich  was  allowed  to  the  Jews  by  the  Roman  laws ;  for  the  Tal- 
mudists themselves,  in  describing  this  court,  go  on  to  observe,  that 
one  judge  was  chosen  by  the  accuser,  another  by  the  accused,  and  a 
third  by  the  two  parties  conjointly,  which  shows  at  once  the  nature 
of  the  tribunal. 


304  ^  217.    OF    TIIF.    FOUUJI  OR   TLACF    OF   TRIALS. 


§  21C).  Tin-:  Tnii-:  of  Trials. 

The  lime  at  wliieli  courts  were  held,  and  causes  were  brought 
before  them  iur  trial,  was  in  the  morning,  lira,  Jer.  21:  12.  Ps.  101: 
8.  According  to  the  Talmudists,  (SnnJiednn  IV.)  it  was  not  lawful 
to  try  causes  of  a  capital  nature  in  the  night,  and  it  was  equally 
unlawful  to  examine  a  cause,  pass  sentence,  and  put  it  in  execution 
on  the  same  day.  The  last  particular  was  very  strenuously  insisted 
on.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  all  of  these  practices,  which  were 
observed  in  other  trials,  were  neglected  in  the  tumultuous  trial  of 
Jesus,  INIatt.  2G:  57.  John  18:  13 — 18.  For  what  the  modern  Jews 
assert,  viz.  that  forty  days  were  allowed  to  Jesus,  to  make  his  defence 
in,  is  not  mentioned  by  tlie  more  ancient  writers. 

The  trial  of  causes  on  the  days  of  the  national  festivals  is  for- 
bidden in  many  passages  in  the  Talmud.  Whatever  might  have 
been  the  ground  of  this  prohibition,  it  at  any  rate  contravened  the 
spirit  of  the  remark  in  Deut.  17:  1.3,  viz.  '^  And  all  the  people  shall 
hear,  and  fear,  and  do  no  more  presumptuously."  That  is,  shall  hear 
and  tremble  at  the  sentence  passed  upon  the  guilty ;  for  which  they 
could  not  in  general  find  so  good  an  opportunity,  as  on  the  da}s  of 
those  festivals.  Nor  was  there  any  reason  to  fear  that  the  religious 
festivals  of  the  nation,  would  be  profaned  in  this  way,  in  as  much 
as  judicial  tribunals,  in  a  tlicocrac}-,  were  of  divine  institution.  It 
may  be  observed  further  on  this  point,  that  the  reason  assigned,  why 
the  Jews  in  Matt.  26:  5,  avoided  the  festival  day,  was  the  fear  of  an 
uproar  among  the  people.  But  it  appears,  as  soon  as  a  person  was 
found  treacherous  enough  to  betray  the  Saviour,  that  even  the  fears 
from  this  source  vanished. 


§  247.  Of  Tin:  Foru:\i  or  plack  of  Trials. 

Tije  places  for  judicial  trials  were  in  very  ancient  times  the 
gates  of  cities,  wliich  were  well  adapted  to  this  purpose.  They 
were  adapted  to  this  -purpose,  in  as  much  as  they  were  public, 
and  were  used  not  only  for  entering  and  departing,  but  for  fairs, 
places  of  business,  and  to  accommodate  those,  who  were  assembled 


§  243.    FOKM    OK    TUIAL.  305 

nuTclv  to  ];afs  away  the  :ime,  Gen.  23:  10  et  seq.  Deut.  21:19.  25- 
G,  7.  iicth  4:  1  et  seq.  Fs.  127:  o.^Prov.  22:  22.  24:  7.  The  place 
of  trial  was  tlic  same  after  the  captivity  as  before,  Zech.  8:  16.  The 
Gveck  fonim  uyoQU,  was  also  a  place  for  fairs. 

Tlte  Areopagus  itself,  «V)4/0s  nuyo^',  i.  c.  the  hill  of  Mars,  was 
so  calleil,  because  justice  was  said  to  have  been  pronounced  there 
formerly  against  i\Iars,  Acts  17:  19. 

The  Greeks  assembled  in  the  forum  likewise,  where  the  judicial 
tribunals  had  the  place  of  their  sitting,  in  order  to  examine  into  the 
conduct  and  qualifications  of  public  magistrates,  and  candidates  lor 
ollice.  Inquiries  and  examinations  of  this  kind  were  expressed  by 
the  Greek  word  doy.tuu^ity,  comp.  1  Cor.  11:  28.  The  assembly  of 
the  citizens,  convened  on  extraordinary  occasions,  was  called  in 
Greek  ixxh^oia  or  Gvy/lr^rog.  The  convention  of  the  citizens, 
which  met  on  certain  stated  days  i^ut'occi  xvoiai,  which  were  de- 
signated by  the  law,  and  which  recurred  four  times  within  every 
period  of  thirty-five  days  called  y.tnt'a. 

§  248.  FouM  OF  Trial. 

Originally  trials  were  everywhere  very  summary,  excepting 
in  Egypt ;  where  the  accuser  committed  the  charge  to  writing, 
the  accused  replied  in  writing,  the  accuser  repeated  the  charge,  and 
the  accused  answered  again,  etc.  Diodorus  Sic.  I.  p.  75.  comp.  Job 
14:  17. 

It  was  customary  in  Egypt  for  the  judge  to  have  the  code  of  laws 
placed  before  him,  a  practice,  which  still  prevails  in  the  East,  comp. 
Dan.  7:  10. 

!Moses,  however,  when  called  upon  to  decide  upon  any  litigated 
question,  pursued  that  summary  course,  which  was  common 
among  the  Nomadic  tribes ;  and  in  those  laws  of  a  permanent 
character,  which  he  established,  he  did  not  lay  the  ground  for  any 
more  formal  or  complicated  method  of  procedure  in  such  cases. 
He  was,  nevertheless,  anxious  that  justice  should  be  administered 
in  a  right  manner,  and,  accordingly,  frequently  inculcated  the  idea, 
that  God  was  a  witness  to  judicial  transactions.  He  interdicted, 
in  the  most  express  and  decided  manner,  gifts  or  bribes,  "ni",  which 
were  intended  to  corrupt  the  judges,  Exod.  22:  20,  21.  23:  1 — 9. 
Lev.  19:  lo.  Deut.  24:  14,  15.      Moses  also,  by  legal  precautions, 

2C* 


30G  §  218.  FOUM  c)i'  Tni.vL. 

prevented  capital  puiiisliment.-^,  ami  corporal  punishment?,  ■which 
were  not  capital,  ironi  being  extentled,  as  was  done  in  otlier  na- 
tions, botli  to  parents  and  their  children,  and  thus  involving  tlie 
innocent  and  the  gnilty  in  that  misery,  which  Avas  justly  due  only 
to  the  latter,  Exod.  23:  7.  Dent.  24:  IG.  comp.  Dan.  G.  24.  -This 
salutary  arrangement  seems  to  have  been  neglected  by  the  kings, 
2  Kings  9:  26 ;  although  in  all  other  cases,  where  it  was  deemed 
expedient  to  inflict  punishment,  the  form  of  trial  was  gone  through, 
even  in  respect  to  those  innocent  persons,  who  had  become  the 
subjects  of  the  royal  disjileasure,  and  were  tried  only  to  be  con- 
demned, 1  Kings  21:  7 — IG.  The  disregard  of  justice,  which,  in 
such  instances  was  manifested  by  the  kings,  exerted  a  bad  influence 
on  the  minds  of  the  judges,  and,  as  we  may  learn  from  the  repeated 
complaints  of  the  prophets,  they  were  too  often  guilty  of  partiality  in 
their  decisions. 

The  ceremonies,  which  were  observed,  in  conducting  a  judicial 
trial,  were  as  follows : 

I.  The  accuser  and  the  accused  both  made  their  appearance 
before  the  judge  or  judges,  Deut.  25:  1 ;  who  sat  with  legs  crossed 
upon  the  floor,  which  was  furnished  for  their  accommodation  with  a 
carpet  and  cushions.  A  secretary  was  present,  at  least  in  more 
modern  times,  who  wrote  down  the  sentence,  and  indeed  every 
thing  in  relation  to  the  trial,  for  instance,  the  articles  of  agreement, 
that  might  be  entered  into,  previous  to  the  commencement  of  the 
judicial  proceedings,  Isa.  10:  1,  2.  Jer.  32:  1 — 14.  Tiie  Jews  assert, 
that  there  were  two  secretaries,  the  one  being  seated  to  the  right 
of  the  judge,  who  wrote  the  sentence  of  not  guilty,  the  other  to  the 
left,  who  wrote  the  sentence  of  condemnation.  Comp.  Matt.  25: 
33 — 46.  That  an  apparitor  or  beadle  was  present,  is  apparent  from 
other  sources. 

II.  The  accuser  was  denominated  in  Hebrew  ":;•_  satax  or 
the  adversary,  Zech.  3:  !■ — 3.  Ps.  109:  6.  The  judge  or  judges 
were  seated,  but  both  of  the  parties  implicated  stood  up,  the  ac- 
cuser standing  to  the  right  hand  of  the  accused.  The  latter,  at 
least  after  the  captivity,  when  the  cause  was  one  of  great  conse- 
quence, appeared  with  hair  disheveled,  and  in  a  garment  of  mourn- 
ing. 

III.  The  witnesses  were  sworn,  and  in  capital  cases,  tlie  par- 
ties concerned,  1  Sam.  14:  37 — 40.  Matt.  26:  Go.      In  order  to  es- 


§  219.    IMUSOXS  AM)    TOKTLIJKS.  307 

t.'vblisli  the  charges  alleged,  two  witnesses  were  necessary,  and, 
ineludiii'^  the  accuser,  three.  The  witnesses  were  examined  sepa- 
rately, but  the  person  accused  had  the  liberty  to  be  present, 
Avheu  their  testimony  was  given  in,  ]Nnm.  35:  30.  Deut.  17:  1 — 15. 
Matt.  2G:  59. 

Proofs  might  be  brought  from  other  sources  ;  for  instance,  from 
written  contracts,  or  from  papers  in  evidence  of  anything  purchased 
or  sold,  of  which  there  were  commonly  taken  two  copies,  the  one  to 
be  sealed,  tlie  other  to  be  left  open,  as  was  customary  in  the  time  of 
Jerome,  Jer.  32:  10 — 13. 

IV.  The  parties  sometimes,  as  may  be  inferred  from  Prov. 
18:  18,  made  use  of  the  lot  in  determining  the  points  of  diffi- 
culty between  them,  but  not  without  a  mutual  agreement.  The 
sacred  lot  of  Urim  and  Tliummim  was  anciently  resorted  to,  in 
order  to  detect  the  guilt)^,  Josh.  7:  14—24.  1  Sara.  xiv. ;  but  the 
determination  of  a  case  of  riglit  or  wrong,  in  this  way,  was  not 
commanded  by  Moses. 

V.  The  sentence,  very  soon  after  the  completion  of  the  ex- 
amination, was  pronounced;  and  the  criminal,  without  any  delay, 
even  if  the  offence  were  a  capital  one,  was  hastened  away  to 
the  place  of  punishment.  Josh.  7:  22  et  seq.  1  Sam.  22:  18. 
1  Kings  2:  23. 

§  240.  Prisons  and  Tortures. 

As  the  execution  followed  so  soon  after  the  sentence,  there 
was  no  special  need  of  prisons.  Indeed  they  are  not  to  be 
found  in  Persia  at  the  present  day,  and  it  is  customary  to  con- 
fine the  criminal  in  an  apartment  of  the  house  of  the  judge.  Com- 
pare Gen.  40:  3,  4. 

The  instrument  of  punishment,  mentioned  in  Job  13:  27.  33:  11, 
in  Hebrew  no  the  stocks,  was  probably  of  Egyptian  origin.  Among 
the  Hebrews  anciently,  criminals  were  put  under  a  guard  of  persons 
employed  for  that  purpose,  Lev.  24:  12.  Not  unfrequcntly  they  were 
confined  in  empty  cisterns. 

The  great  variety  in  the  names  of  jmsons  would  lead  one  to 
suppose,  that  they  were  more  frequently  erected,  and  more  often 
used,  in  the  latter  than  in  the  early  periods  of  the  Jewish  nation. 
They  are  as  follows : 


308  §  2-19.    PKIS0N6  AND  TOUTUIIKS. 

(1)  i""2,  ~X2,  ^vllic•h  usually  signifies  a  cistern,  Gen.  40:  \b. 

(2)  "^rizr^^  n-is,  Gun.  39:  20.  (The  word  ".nb  appears  to  be  of 
Coptic  origin. 

(3)  c-n^cn  n"^2 ,  (for  D-^n^oxn  r^2)  Eccles.  4:  14. 

(4)  n^csnVi-2,  Jer.  37:  15." 

(5)  X22n'r,^2 ,  1  Kings  22:  27.  2  Kings  25:  29. 

(6)  S!;b2,  N^b2,  Jer.  37:  4.  52:  31. 

(7)  Tzlin^'n  n^2,  2  Chron.  16:  10. 

(8)  '^^p":',  Isa.  42:  7.   24:  22.  Ps.  142:  7. 

If  the  great  variety  in  the  names  of  prisons  is  a  proof,  that  in 
the  i)rogress  of  time  they  were  more  and  more  multiplied  ;  it  is  like- 
wise an  indirect  evidence  that  they  were  employed  not  only 
for  the  detention  of  criminals,  but  as  a  means  of  punishment  and  cor- 
rection, Jcr.  37:  15 — 20. 

Persons  who  were  committed  to  prison,  were  subjected  to  the 
further  evil  of  being  confined  wath  chains,  which  occur  under  the 
Hebrew  words  C!"i;3T ,  ^22 ,  and  bn2 ;  likewise  under  the  word  nrrrn; 
made  of  brass,  Jer.  40:  4.  52:  11. 'Ps.  105:  18.  107:  10. 

The  Jews,  after  the  captivity,  followed  the  example  of  other 
nations,  and  shut  up  in  prison  those  who  failed  in  the  payment 
of  their  debts.  They  had  the  liberty  likewise  to  put  in  requisition 
the  aid  of  tortures,  ^aaanardg,  and  to  punish  the  debtor  with  stripes, 
Matt.  5:  26.  18:  28—34. 

At  a  more  recent  period  still,  they  borrowed  from  the  Greeks 
the  custom  of  applying  the  torture,  ^doavoi,  in  order  to  extort  a 
confession  from  the  person  accused,  Wisd.  2:  19.  The  different  kinds 
of  torture  are  mentioned  in  the  Treatise  concerning  the  Maccabees, 
appended  to  the  Works  of  Josephus.  The  Romans,  in  some  in 
stances,  fastened  their  criminals,  sometimes  by  one,  sometimes  by  both 
hands  to  a  soldier.  Such  remained  in  their  own  house,  Acts  28:  16 
Seneca  Epist.  5  ct  de  Tranquill.  c.  20. 

It  was  not  unfrequently  the  case,  that  the  keepers  of  prisons,  when 
those  who  were  committed  to  their  charge  had  escaped,  were  sub- 
jected to  the  same  punishment  which  had  been  intended  for  the  pris- 
oners, Acts  12:  19.  16:  27. 


§  250.    REGULATIONS,    ETC    IX    KESPKCT    TO    DEUTOUS. 


309 


§  i.jO.    Eix.ULATIOXS,    ETC.    IX    RESPECT    TO    DEBTORS. 

Tliose  who  had  property  due  to  them,  might,  if  they  chose,  secure, 
it  by  means  of  a  mortgage,  or  by  a  pledge,  or  by- a  bondsman. 

The  following  remarks,  in  relation  to  this  subject,  are  worthy  of 
attention. 

I.  The  creditor,  when  about  to  receive  a  pledge  for  a  debt,  was 
not  allowed  to  enter  the  house  of  the  debtor,  and  take  what  he 
pleased;  but  was  to  wait  before  the  door,  till  the  debtor  should  de- 
liver up  that  pledge,  which  he  could  most  easily  do  without.  Dent.  24: 
10,  11.  comp.  Job  22:  G.   24:  3,  7—9. 

II.  When  a  mill  or  mill-stone,  or  an  upper  garment  was  given, 
as  a  pledge,  it  was  not  to  be  kept  over  night;  and  these  appear  to 
stand  as  examples  for  all  other  things,  which  the  debtor  could  not 
without  great  inconvenience,  dispense  with,  Exod.  22:  25,  26.  Deut. 
24:  6,  12. 

III.  The  debt,  which  remained  till  the  seventh,  or  sabbatic 
year,  (during  which  the  soil  was  to  be  left  -without  cultivation, 
and  a  person,  consequently,  Avas  not  supposed  to  be  in  a  condition 
to  make  payments,)  could  not  be  exacted  during  said  period. 
Hence  the  sabbatic  year  was  denominated  lTJ"r:'i  or  deferring, 
Deut.  15:  1 — 11.  But  at  other  times,  in  case  the  debt  was  not  paid, 
the  lands  or  the  house  of  the  debtor  might  be  sold.  The  property 
thus  sold  appears  to  have  continued  in  the  hands  of  the  purchaser 
only  till  the  year  of  Jubilee,  Avhen  it  returned  again  to  the  original 
possessors,  or  their  heirs,  Prov.  31:  16. 

In  case  the  house  or  land  was  not  sufficient  to  cancel  the  debt,  or 
if  it  so  happened  that  the  debtor  had  none,  the  debtor  himself,  together 
with  his  wife  and  children,  was  sold  into  slavery,  Prov.  22:  27. 
Mic.  2:  9. 

If  a  person  had  become  bondsman  for  another,  he  was  liable  to  be 
called  upon  for  payment  in  the  same  way  with  the  original  debtor. 
"We  see  in  this  the  grounds  of  the  admonitions  in  the  Book  of  Pro- 
verbs, (G:  1—4.  11:  15.  17:  18.  22:  26,)  that  a  person  should  not 
too  readily  give  his  liands  to,  or  '^strike  hands"  with  the  debtor,  in 
the  presence  of  the  creditor,  i.  e.  become  his  surety. 


310  §  2ol.    ox   USUKY. 

Novae  Tabulae. 

This  Mas  a  i)hrase  applied  by  the  Romans  to  a  general  cancel- 
ling of  debts.  The  assertion  of  Josephus,  (Antiq.  111.  12.  1.)  that 
there  was  an  extinction  of  debts  on  every  returning  Jubilee 
among  the  Hebrews,  corresponding  to  the  state  of  things  among 
the  IJomans  at  the  recurrence  of  the  Novae  Tcihulue,  is  necessarily 
aj)plicable  only  to  the  age  in  which  he  himself  lived.  It  is  true, 
however,   (but   it  was  an   extraordinary  case)   that  Neliemiah,   (5: 

1 12)  in  order  to  relieve  the  wants  and  to  improve  the  condition  of 

the  poor,  permitted  Novae  Tabulae. 


§  251.  Ox  Usury. 

Moses  enacted  a  law  to  the  effect,  (Exod.  22:  25.  Lev.  25:  35 — 
31,)  that  interest  should  not  be  taken  from  a  poor  person,  neither  for 
borroiced  money,  Ti'^V!!!  ?  "o^*  for  articles  of  consumption,  ^'''y-pz  n''2-i?i , 
for  instance  (irain,  which  was  borrowed  with  the  expectation  of  being 
returned.  A  difficulty  arose,  in  determining  who  was  to  be  considered 
a  poor  person,  in  a  case  of  this  kind ;  and  the  law  was  accordingly 
altered,  in  Deut.  23:  20,  21,  and  extended  in  its  operation  to  all  the 
Hebrews,  whether  they  had  more  or  less  property ;  so  that  interest 
could  be  lawfully  taken  only  of  foreigners. 

The  Hebrews  were,  therefore,  exhorted  to  lend  money,  etc.  as 
a  deed  of  mercy  and  brotherly  kindness,  Deut.  15:  7 — 11.  24:  13. 
And  hence  it  happens,  that  we  find  encomiums  every  where  lavished 
npon  those,  who  were  willing  to  lend,  without  insisting  upon  interest 
for  the  use  of  the  thing  lent,  Ps.  15:  15.  37:  21,  26.  112:  C.  Prov. 
19:  17.  Ezek.  18:  8. 

This  regulation  in  regard  to  taking  interest  was  very  well  suited 
to  the  condition  of  a  state,  that  had  been  recently  founded,  and 
which  had  but  very  little  mercantile  dealings,  but  it  would  be  very 
unwisely  introduced  into  communities  that  are  much  engaged  in 
commerce. 


§  2.32.    TIIK    SMALLEST    rUNISIIMENT.  311 


§  252.  The  smallest  Punishment. 

Excision  from  the  people,  of  which  we  shall  speak  more  partic- 
ularly bv  and  by,  was  the  punishment,  that  was  consequent  on  a 
deliberate  transgression  of  the  ceremonial  law.  If  transgressions 
of  the  ceremonial  law,  (or  indeed,  of  certain  natural  laws,  sanc- 
tioned by  a  civil  penalty,)  were  committed,  tcithout  deliberate  pre- 
meditation, through  error,  precipitancy,  or  ignorance,  the  offender 
could  avoid  the  punishment  of  excision,  if  lie  chose,  by  volunta- 
rily otllriug  a  sacrifice.  Num.  15:  27—31.  In  this  way  transgres- 
sors were  invited  to  return,  to  render  satisfaction  to  the  person 
injured,  and  to  pursue  in  future  a  less  erroneous  course.  But  it 
ought  to  be  remarked,  tliat,  in  offering  a  sacrifice,  the  offender 
merely  avoided  the  penalty  of  the  civil  laio ;  the  merely  taking 
this  step  could  not  of  itself  reconcile  him  to  God,  and  do  away 
the  evil  he  had  committed  in  the  sight  of  Omniscience,  Hebrews  9: 
13,  14. 

Expiatory  sacrifices  of  this  kind  could  be  offered  only  for  trans- 
gressions of  a  particular  character ;  viz.  those,  which  are  called  in 
Hebrew  r'-x-jn,  r!x:;r!,  rx:;n  sins,  and  those,  which  are  denomi- 
nated r'".":rx ,  crs ,  trespasses. 

It  is  worthy  to  be  observed,  that  a  sin-offering  is  expressed  in 
Hebrew  by  the  same  words,  viz.  rJtan ,  which  mean  the  sin  itself, 
and  it  is  the  same  in  the  other  case,  viz.  =rx ,  etc.  a  trespass,  also  a 
trespass-offering. 

Both  the  sin  and  trespass  offerings  are  expressly  defined,  (Lev. 
iv.  V.)  but  the  exact  distinction  between  the  transgressions,  to  which 
they  have  reference,  is  very  obscure.  From  an  examination,  how- 
ever, of  the  statements  in  the  chapters  just  referred  to,  it  would  seem, 
that  sins,  according  to  the  technical  application  of  the  term  in  the 
ceremonial  law,  are  violations  of  prohibitory  statutes,  i.  e.  doing 
something,  which  the  law  commands  not  to  do.  Trespasses,  on  the 
other  hand,  are  violations  of  imperative  statutes,  i.  e.  neglecting  to 
do  those  things  which  are  commanded.  Consult  the  large  German 
edition  of  this  Work,  P.  HI.  §  101. 

The  guilty  person  incurred  tlie  expense  of  the  victim.  He  con- 
fessed to  his  confusion  and  shame  the  sin  or  trespass  over  the  head 
of  the  animal,  and,  if  he  had  unjustly  taken  another's  property,  and 


^]-2  §  253.  fim:s  and  iNnr/MNincATioxs. 

liad  not  previously  made  a  rt'storatioii  of  it,  lie  not  only  restored  it, 
but  added  in  the  restoration  a  lil'ili  jiart.  Lev.  G:  1 — 5.  Num.  5:  5, 
10.  In  ease  the  [)erson,  to  whom  restitution  was  to  Ije  made,  was  not 
livinc:,  it  was  made  to  his  heirs  ;  if  this  eould  not  be  done,  it  was 
made  to  the  high  priest,  as  the  minister  of  Jehovah. 

The  fact  that  restitution,  wdiich,  under  the  old  dispensations,  was  so 
frequently  mentioned,  and  so  strenuously  insisted  on,  is  not  incul- 
cated in  the  New  Testament,  is  owing  to  the  circumstance,  that  it 
was  considered  a  duty  so  generally  known,  and  so  freely  admitted,  as 
to  require  no  farther  mention,  Eph.  4:  28. 

§  2o3.  Finks  and  Ixdi:mnii"icatioxs,  rri". 

In  some  instances,  the  amount  of  a  fine,  or  of  an  indemnification, 
that  was  to  be  made,  was  determined  by  the  person,  who  had  been 
injured.  In  other  instances,  it  was  fixed. by  the  estimation  of  the 
judge,  and,  in  others,  was  defined  by  the  law. 

For  instance, 

(1.)  The  indemnification,  which  is  termed  rs:  nsr ,  and 
-•s:  V"'^~S )  the  ransom  of  one's  life,  i.  e.  the  payment  which  might 
he  made  by  a  person,  who  had  injured  another,  as  a  commutation 
tor  those  corporal  punishments,  to  which,  in  consequence  of  the  law 
of  retaliation,  (Jus  talionis,)  he  had  exposed  himself,  was  left  to  be 
determined  by  the  mere  pleasure  of  the  person,  who  had  been 
injured,  Exod.  21:  30. 

(2!)  The  amount  to  be  paid,  in  order  to  secure  a  commutation 
of  the  punishment,  that  Avas  enacted  by  law,  against  the  owner  of  a 
bull,  which,  although  the  owner  had  been  previously  admonished  of 
the  bull's  character  for  pushing,  had  killed  a  free  person,  was  left  to 
be  determined  by  the  avenger  of  blood.  This  is  the  only  instance, 
in  which  a  commutation  of  the  punishment  was  allowable,  where 
death  was  the  penalty  of  the  crime,  Exod.  21:  28 — 31. 

(3.)  If  two  men,  in  contending  with  each  other,  injured  a  wo- 
man with  child,  so  that  she  came  to  a  premature  birth,  a  fine  was 
to  be  paid,  according  to  the  estimation  of  the  husband  and  the 
judge. 

(4.)  If  a  servant  were  slain  by  a  cross  ox,  when  known  to  be 
such  by  the  owner,  the  owner  was  obliged  to  pay  thirty  shekels, 
Exod.  21:  32.  comp.  Deut.  22:  19. 


§  2o-i.    PUMSIIMEXT    OF    TIIEIT.  313 

None  of  these  fines  were  paid  to  tlie  state,  but  all  of  them  to  the 
person,  who  had  been  injured. 

§  254.  PuNisintENT  OF  Theft. 

The  restitution,  tliat  was  required  to  be  made,  in  case  of  tlieft,  was 
double  of  the  amount  taken,  Exod,  22:  3,  G,  8.  If  a  sheep,  ho^vever, 
were  stolen  and  had  already  been  slain  or  sold,  so  tiat  it  was  e\  i- 
dent,  that  the  thief  had  no  design  to  make  restitution,  a  fourfold ;  and, 
if  this  were  the  case  in  respect  to  an  ox,  a  fivefold  restitution  was  to 
be  made.  The  reason  of  this  distinction  was,  that  sheep,  being  kept 
in  the  desert,  were  more  exposed,  than  other  animals,  to  be  stolen ; 
and  oxen,  being  so  indispensably  necessary  in  an  agricultural  commu- 
nity, could  not  be  taken  from  their  owners  in  this  way,  without  great 
injury,  and  peculiar  aggravation,  Exod.  22:  1. 

In  case  the  iJtief,  Zll,  was  unable  to  make  the  restitution  demanded 
by  the  law,  he  was  sold  with  his  wife  and  children  into  servitude, 
Exod.  22:  2.  2  Ivings  4:  1.  comp.  Gen.  43:  19.  44:  17. 

In  the  days  of  the  kings,  the  fine  for  theft  seems  to  have  been  in- 
creased, Prov.  G:  30,  31. 

Cajiital  punishment  was  decreed  only  against  a  thief,  who  had  ta- 
ken anything  that  was  accursed,  anything  to  which  the  epithet  -"n 
was  applicable.  Josh.  7:  25 ;  for  what  David  asserts,  in  2  Sam.  12:  5, 
in  respect  to  the  person,  who  took  away  the  lamb,  \\/..  that  he  was 
worthy  of  death,  means  merely,  that  he  was  guilty,  since  he  imme- 
diately adds,  "  He  shall  restore  fourfold."  It  appears  from  this  para- 
ble, however,  to  which  we  allude,  that  both  thieving  and  taking  away 
violently  by  force,  came  under  the  same  law,  and  were  followed  by 
the  same  punishment. 

"Whoever  slev,-  a  thief,  that  was  attempting  to  break  open  a  house 
at  night,  let  it  be  what  hour  it  might  before  sunrise,  was  left  unpun- 
ished ;  since  he  did  not  know,  but  the  thief  might  have  a  design  upon 
his  life,  and  he  was  unable  also  to  notice  his  appearance,  and  thereby 
bring  him  to  justice  at  a  subsequent  period,  Exod.  22:  1. 


27 


314  §  2o5.   coitroijAL  rrMSiiMEXTS. 


§  255.    Coni'OKAi.  TrNisiiMKNTS. 

Corponil  i)nni>liinc!its  may  be  liinited  to  one  kind,  viz.  the  inflic- 
tion of  \>](>\\>  with  :i  rod  or  scourging,  Lev.  19:  20.  Deut.  22:  18. 
25:  2,  o.  'I'hc  di-iiily  or  liigh  standing  of  the  person,  who  had  ren- 
dered himself  hable  to  this  pnnishnient,  could  not  excuse  him  from 
its  being  inflicted.  Stripes,  the  rod,  etc.  occur  very  frequently  for 
punishment  of  any  kind,  Prov.  10:  10.  17:  2G.  Jer.  37:  15 — 20.  Ps. 
89:  32. 

Scourging  is  very  frequently  practised  at  the  present  day  in  the 
East,  as  it  was  anciently ;  with  this  difference,  however,  that  the 
stripes  were  formerly  inflicted  on  the  back,  but  now  on  tlie  soles  of 
the  feet. 

The  instrument,  commonly  used  to  inflict  the  punishment,  was  a 
rod.  Scorpions,  C^a  'npr ,  i.  e.  thongs  set  with  sharp  iron  points  or 
nails,  called  by  the  Eomans  hokribilia,  Avere  applied,  as  a  means 
of  torturing,  only  by  those,  who  had  no  relentings  of  heart ;  especially 
by  cruel  masters,  in  the  punishment  of  their  slaves,  1  Kings  12:  11. 
The  application  of  such  an  instrument  in  punishing  was  not  sanc- 
tioned by  the  laws  of  Moses. 

The  person,  who  was  convicted  of  a  crime,  and  was  sentenced  to 
scourging,  was  extended  upon  the  ground,  and  the  blows,  not  exceed- 
ing forty,  were  applied  upon  his  back,  in  the  presence  of  the  judge, 
Deut.  25:  2,  3. 

The  more  recent  Jews,  from  their  great  fear,  lest,  from  any 
circumstance,  the  stripes  might  exceed  the  number  prescribed,  fixed 
it  at  thirty-nine  instead  of  forty,  which  were  inflicted  in  their 
synagogues.  Matt.  10:  17.  They  cmi)loyed  for  the  purpose,  ac- 
cording to  the  Talmudists,  (Maccoth,  3.  10,  a  whip,  which  had 
three  lashes,  so  as  to  inflict  a  triple  wound  with  one  blow.  Thir- 
teen blows,  therefore,  made  out  the  thirty-nine  stripes,  2  Cor. 
11:  24.  That  extreme  and  cruel  scourging,  known  among  the 
Romans,  in  which  there  was  no  limitation  of  the  number  of  the 
blows,  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  that  of  Avhich  we  are  speak- 
ing. According  to  the  Porcian  Law,  such  a  scourging  could  not 
be  inflicted  on  a  person,  who  was  a  Roman  citizen.  Consult  Cicero 
pro  Rabirio,  ad  Famil.  X.  32.  in  Yerrem,  V.  53.  and  Acts  16:  22, 
25—30,  37. 


§  2o6.    ox    RETALIATIOX.  315 

Note.  Extinction  of  the  si<//it,  ryv,  was  not  practised  among 
the  Hebrews,  as  a  punishment.  Nor  was  it  in  truth  thus  practised 
among  other  nations,  except  in  cases,  wlicre  the  persons,  wliosc 
eyes  were  put  out,  would  otherwise  have  been  in  a  condition  to 
have  engaged  in  plots  against  the  existing  government.  It  was 
from  the  tear  of  this,  that  the  eyes  of  rebellious  kings  were  put 
out,  Jer.  52:  11.  2  Kings  25:  7.  In  Persia,  so  late  as  the  seventeenth 
centuiy,  a  silver  style  of  that  kind,  which  was  used  in  painting  the 
eyebrows,  was  heated  red-hot,  and  thrust  into  the  eye  of  the  son  of 
a  king,  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  the  sight,  or  at  least  destroy- 
ing it  so  far  as  to  take  away  the  power  of  distinctly  discerning  ob- 
jects. 

§  256.  Ox  Retaliatiox. 

If  a  man,  in  a  personal  conflict  with  another,  smote  him  to  such  a 
degree,  as  to  cause  confinement  to  his  bed,  he  was  bound  to  make 
him  indemnification,  Exod.  21:  18,  19.  When,  in  such  a  contest, 
injury  was  intentionally  done  to  a  particular  member  of  the  body,  or 
life  was  taken  away ;  life  was  rendered  for  life,  eye  for  eye,  tooth  for 
tooth,  burning  for  burning,  wound  for  wound,  stripe  for  stripe,  hand 
for  hand,  foot  for  foot,  Exod.  21:  23—25.  Lev.  24:  19—22.  A  Mse 
witness,  likewise,  according  to  the  laiv  of  retaliation  (jus  talioxis,) 
was  to  be  punished  with  the  same  punishment,  which  was  decreed 
against  the  crime  in  reference  to  which  he  had  falsely  testified,  Deut. 
19:  16—21. 

In  the  time  of  Christ,  the  jus  talioxis  (Matt.  5:  38 — 40,)  was 
confounded  with  moral  principles,  i.  e.  [it  was  taught  that  the  law 
of  Moses,  ■which  was  merely  civil  or  penal,  rendered  it  perfectly 
justifiable,  in  a  moral  point  of  view,  for  a  person  to  inflict  on  another 
the  same  injury,  whatever  it  might  be,  which  he  himself  had  re- 
ceived.] The  persons  who  expounded  the  law  to  this  effect,  do  not 
appear  to  have  recollected  [its  true  character,  as  a  civil  or  penal 
law,  which  originated  from  the  circumstances  of  the  times,]  and 
seem  not  to  have  remembered,  that  the  literal  retaliation  could  not 
take  i)lace,  until  after  the  decision  of  a  judge  on  a  suit,  brought 
by  the  person  injured,  and  then  was  never  to  exceed  the  original 
injury.  Furthermore,  it  was  by  no  means  necessary,  that  this  retal- 
iation should  take  place  at  all,  since    the   aggrieved  party  might, 


316  §    207.    MOSAIC    rUNISII-MKNTS. 

either  before  or  after  the  decision  of  the  judge,  make  an  arrange- 
ment Avith  the  aggressor,  and  reUeve  liim  from  tlie  infliction  of  the 
punislnneiit,  to  which  he  hail  legally  exposed  iiiniself,  on  his  render- 
ing tluit  satisfaction,  ■which  in  tlie  Hebrew  is  tcclmically  called  "rs, 
and  '•"'~3  o  ransom. 

The  law  of  retaliation  was  common  among  all  ancient  nations,  and 
Avas  in  truth  the  most  efficacious  means  of  protecting  a  person  from 
injuries.  But,  in  progress  of  time,  when  feelings  and  manners  had 
assumed  a  milder  tone,  causes,  which  originated  from  one  person's 
receiving  bodily  injuries  from  another,  were  brought  into  the  common 
civil  courts,  on  the  footing  of  otlier  causes,  and  the  punishment  to 
be  inflicted  on  the  aggressor,  or  the  satisfactioii  in  any  other  way  to 
be  rendered  to  the  injured  party,  was  left  entirely  to  the  person,  who 
sat  as  judge. 

The  arguments,  -which  have  been  employed  against  the  expe- 
diency and  propriety  of  the  jus  talioxis,  are  of  no  great  weight. 
For  instance,  it  has  been  said,  that  this  system  of  retaliation 
increased  the  number  of  injured  and  mutilated  persons  in  the 
community  ;  Avhen  on  the  contrary  it  probably  diminished  it,  as  a 
person  would  naturally  be  cautious,  how  he  inflicted  wounds  on 
the  body  of  another,  when  he  was  fully  aware  of  what  might  be 
the  consequences  to  himself.  Another  objection  is,  that  it  would 
be  very  difficult,  or  altogether  impossible,  to  requite  upon  the  origi- 
nal aggressor  just  as  much  and  no  more,  than  had  been  suffered 
by  the  injured  person.  But  the  answer  is,  if,  from  any  circum- 
stance, he  should  suffer  more,  all  he  has  to  do,  is  to  attribute  it  to 
himself,  and  to  consider  it,  as  what  he  might  very  naturally  have 
expected. 

§  257.  Mosaic  Pcxishmexts. 

Criminals,  who  had  committed  homicide,  were  punished,  (as  we 
may  learn,  as  far  back  as  Gen.  9:  G,)  with  death.  But  the  mode  in 
which  this  punishment  was  inflicted,  is  not  there  stated. 

DecaiiitatioH  and  the  Sword. 

Decapitation  or  beheading  was  a  method  of  taking  away  life, 
that  was  known  and  practised  among  the  Egyptians,  Gen.  40:  17 — 
11).     This  mode  of  punishment,  therefore,  must  have  been  known 


§  2.37.  MOSAIC  riMsii.Mr.NTS.  317 

to  the  IKbrcwj.  And  it  may  fiirllicr  be  i-eniaikeil,  that  if"  in 
tniih,  there  oeciir  no  indubitable  instances  of  it  in  the  time  of  the 
early  Hebrew  kings,  it  is  clear  that  something,  which  bears  much 
relationship  to  it,  may  be  found  in  such  passages  as  the  following: 
viz.  2  Sam.  4:  8.  20:  21,  22.  2  Kings  10:  6—8.  It  appears,  in  the 
later  periods  of  the  Jewish  history,  that  Herod  and  his  descendants, 
in  a  number  of  instances,  ordered  decapitation,  Matt.  14:  8 — 12. 
Acts  12:  2.  It  becomes  us  to  observe,  however,  lest  these  remarks 
should  carry  an  erroneous  impression,  that  beheading  was  not  sanc- 
tioned by  the  laws  of  Moses.  The  Mosaic  punishment,  the  most  cor- 
respondent to  it,  was  that  of  the  sword;  with  which  the  criminal  was 
slain  in  any  way,  which  appeared  most  convenient  or  agreeable  to  the 
executioner.  That  this  statement  in  respect  to  the  liberty  exercised 
by  the  executioner  is  correct,  may  indeed  be  inferred  from  the  phrase, 
^^ liitsh  vpon  him"  and '•  lie  rushed  vpon  him"  '.z  ri2,  '"z  -i>2"", 
Judg.  8:  21,  1  Sam.  22:  18.  2  Sam.  1:  15.  1  Kings  2:  25,  29,  31,  34. 
The  probability  is,  however,  that  the  executioner,  generally,  thrust 
the  sword  into  the  bowels  of  the  criminal. 

Lapidation  or  Stoning. 

In  addition  to  the  use  of  the  sword,  stoning  was  another  mode 
of  effecting  the  punishment  of  death,  authorized  by  the  laws  of  Mo- 
ses. Stoning  was  practised  likewise  among  many  other  ancient 
nations. 

Moses  (folloAving,  probably,  some  ancient  custom,)  enacted,  that 
the  witnesses  should  tlnow  the  first  stone  against  the  criminal,  and, 
after  the  witnesses,  the  people,  Deut.  13:  10,  17:  7.  Josh,  7:  25. 
John  8:  7, 

The  assertion  of  the  Talmudists,  (Sanhedrin,  G:  1 — 4,)  that 
the  criminal  was  first  thrown  off  from  an  elevated  scaffolding,  and 
then  stoned,  is  mere  fable.  The  i)unishment  of  stoning  is  to  be 
understood,  wherever  the  mode  of  putting  to  death  is  not  expressly 
mentioned.  This  mode  of  punishment  is  meant,  consequently,  in 
Lev.  20:  10,  where  the  discourse  is  concerning  adulterers.  Accord- 
ingly, this  is  the  construction  put  upon  that  passage  in  Ezek.  16:  38, 
40,  and  in  John  8:  5,  Compare  likewise  Exod.  31:  14,  and  35:  2. 
with  Num.  15:35,36,  Tiic  opinion,  therefore,  of  the  Talmudists, 
who  maintain,  that  strangulation  is  the  jiunislmient,  meant  in  the  pas- 
sage referred  to  in  Leviticus,  is  not  to  be  admitted. 

27* 


318  §258.  excision;   excommunications. 


§  2r)8.  Excision  from  the  people;  Excom.munications. 

"Wlioii  God  is  introduced,  as  saying  in  respect  to  any  person,  as 
follows,  "  /  icill  cut  him  off,  "rtrr; ,  from  the  2^(oj)k'"  the  expression 
means  some  event  in  divine  Providence,  which  shall  eventually  ter- 
minate the  life  of  that  person's  famil}'.  Consult  1  Kings  14:  10.  21: 
21.  2  Kings  9:  8. 

If  the  following  expressions  are  used,  "  lie  shall  be  cut  off  n'^rs , 
T.^'S-',  from  the  2}eo])le,"  the  punishment  of  stoning  is  meant,  Lev.  17: 
4.  20:  10—18.  comp.  Exod,  31:  14.  35:  2.  Heb.  10:  28. 

The  more  recent  Jewish  interpreters  have  nnderstood,  by  excis- 
ion from  the  people,  excommunication  ;  and  have  accordingly  made 
three  species  of  it. 

I.  Excommunication  in  the  slightest  degree,  i^-: ,  was  separa- 
tion from  the  synagogue,  and  the  suspension  of  intercourse  with  all 
Jews  whatever,  even  with  one's  w-ife  and  domestics.  A  person,  who 
had  exposed  liimself  to  excommunication  of  this  sort,  was  not  allow- 
ed to  approach  another,  nearer  than  a  distance  of  four  cubits. 
This  separation  was  continued  for  thirty  days ;  and  in  case  the  ex- 
communicated person  did  not  repent,  the  time  might  be  doubled  or 
tripled,  even  when  the  transgression,  by  means  of  which  it  was  in- 
ctHTed,  was  of  small  consecpience,  Buxtorfii  Lex.  Chald.  Talm.  Eabb. 
col.  1304  et  seq. 

II.  The  second  degiee  of  excommunication  is  denominated 
tru,  the  curse,  and  Avas  more  severe  in  its  effects,  than  that  just 
mentioned.  It  was  pronounced  with  imprecations,  in  the  presence 
of  ten  men,  and  so  thoroughly  excluded  the  guilty  person  from  all 
communion  whatever  with  his  countrymen,  that  they  were  not  al- 
lowed to  sell  him  anything,  even  the  necessaries  of  life,  Buxtorfii 
Lex.  Chald.  Talm.  Rabbin,  col.  827.  comp.  John  IG:  1,  2.  1  Cor.  5: 
2—9. 

III.  The  third  degree  of  excommunication,  whicli  was  more  se- 
vere in  its  consequences,  than  either  of  the  preceding,  was  denomi- 
nated xr"3r .  It  was  a  solemn  and  absolute  exclusion  from  all  in- 
tercourse and  communion  with  any  other  individuals  of  the  nation  j 
and  the  criminal  was  left  in  the  hands,  and  to  the  justice  of  God, 
Buxtorlii  Lex.  Chald.  Talm.  Rabbin,  col.  2463—2470. 

Whether   the    word    Nr:a"r ,   be    the    same    with    xrx    C'^j ,    the 


§  209.  rusTiiu.Mous  insults.  319 

Namk,  (i.  c.  God)  comes,  ami  with  srx  '{rz  our  Lord  comes,  is  a 
qu<.-#tion,  on  whicla  there  is  a  difference  of  opinion.  It  is  most 
probable,  that,  in  the  time  of  Christ,  the  second  degree  of  excom- 
munication was  not  distinguished  from  the  third,  and  that  both 
were  expressed  by  the  phraseology,  which  is  used  in  1  Cor,  5:  5, 
and  1  Tim.  1:  20,  viz.  to  deliver  to  Satan  for  the  destruction  of  the 
flesh. 

§  2r)9.    Of  PuxisriMKNTS,  avhich  consist  of  Posthumous 
Insults. 

It  enters  into  the  design  of  the  Mosaic  Laws  to  inflict  punish- 
ments, but  not  punishments  of  such  a  nature,  as  shall  have  a  ten- 
dency to  communicate  a  perpetual  infamy  to  the  person  who  suffers 
them.  This  remark  applies  to  tlie  living.  It  was  sometimes  the  case, 
that  a  lasting  infamy,  by  means  of  posthumous  insults,  was  heaped 
upon  the  dead. 

Tlie  posthumous  insults,  to  wliich  we  refer,  were  as  follows. 

I.  Tlie  body  of  the  criminal,  who  had  been  stoned,  was  burnt. 
Burning,  as  a  mark  of  infamy,  appears  to  have  been  an  ancient 
custom,  which  was,  consequently,  not  originated,  although  it  was 
retained  by  Moses,  Gen.  38:  24.  Lev.  20:  14.  21:  9.  Josh.  7:  15,  25. 
The  Jewish  Rabbins  suppose,  that  the  burning,  which  is  men- 
tioned in  the  Scriptures,  is  the  operation  of  pouring  melted  lead 
down  the  throat  of  the  living  criminal.  Certainly  such  a  supposition 
is  a  dream. 

II.  Another  mark  of  infimiy  was  the  suspension  of  the  dead 
body  on  a  tree  or  gallows.  This  was  customary  in  Egypt,  Gen.  40: 
17—19.  Num.  25:  4,  5.  Deut.  21:  22,  23.  The  person  suspended 
was  considered  as  a  curse,  an  abomination  in  the  sight  of  God,  and 
as  receiving  this  token  of  infamy  from  his  hand.  The  body,  never- 
theless, was  to  be  taken  down,  and  buried  on  the  same  day.  The 
lianging,  mentioned  in  2  Sam.  21:  G,  was  the  Avork  of  the  Gibeon- 
ites,  and  not  of  the  Israelites.  Posthumous  suspension  of  tliis  kind, 
for  tlie  purpose  of  conferring  ignominy,  is  a  very  different  thing  from 
the  CRUCii-ixiON,  that  was  practised  by  the  Romans,  notwitlistanding 
that  the  .Jews  gave  such  an  extent  to  tlie  law  in  Deut.  21:  22,  23,  as 
to  inchide  the  last  named  punishment,  .John  19:31  et  scq.  Galat.  3: 
13. 


320  §  2G0.  ruNisiiMr.NTS  or  vouvacs  ohigix. 

III.  Ileajis  ol'  j^tones  v.xtc  raised,  cillicr  dirc-etly  upon  the  dead 
body,  or  upon  the  place  where  it  was  buried,  Josh.  7:  25,  2G.  2  Sam. 
18:  17.  The  pile  of  stones,  that  was  gathered  in  this  way,  was  ii> 
creased  by  the  contributions  of  each  passing  traveller,  who  added  one 
to  the  heap  in  testimony  of  his  aversion  to  the  crime. 

Examine  in  connection  with  this  the  two  hundred  and  ninth  Sec- 
tion. 


§  2G0.  Punishments  introduced  fuom  otiikh  Nations. 

There  are  other  punislniients  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  in  addi- 
tion to  those,  of  which  we  have  given  some  account ;  but  which  were 
introduced  among  the  Hebrews  at  a  period  later,  than  the  days  of 
Moses. 

I.  Decapitation.  [Something. has  been  said  in  respect  to  this  mode 
of  punishment,  in  the  two  hundred  and  fifty-seventh  section.]  It  was 
properly  a  foreign  punishment,  and  was  frequently  practised  among 
the  Persians,  Greeks,  Romans,  and  other  nations. 

II.  Strajigulation  ;  to  which  an  allusion  is  made  in  1  Kings  20: 
31.  The  more  recent  Jews  attributed  the  origin  of  this  punishment 
to  Moses,  but  without  cause.  They  suppose  strangulation  is  meant, 
when  the  phrase,  "  He  shall  die  the  death"  is  used.  As  that  phrase, 
in  their  estimation,  is  meant  to  express  the  easiest  death  by  wdiich  a 
person  can  die,  they  suppose  the  mode  of  death  intended  is  no  other 
than  that  of  strangidation.  A  person  will  be  surprised  at  their  notions 
of  an  easy  death,  when  he  understands  the  method,  in  which  it  was 
effected,  to  have  been  as  follows.  The  criminal,  (as  the  punishment, 
according  to  their  account,  was  inflicted)  was  thrust  up  to  his  middle 
ill  mud.  A  handkerchief  was  then  tied  round  his  neck,  which  was 
drawn  by  the  two  ends  in  opposite  directions  by  two  lictors ;  and 
while  the  process  of  strangulation  was  going  on  in  this  way,  melted 
lead  was  poured  down  his  throat,  Sauhedr.  10:  3. 

III.  BannHij.  Persons  were  burnt  ali\-e  in  a  furnace,  which,  as 
lias  been  observed,  resembled  in  its  form  a  well,  Dan.  iii.  comp. 
Chardin's  Voyage,  Vol.  IV.  p.  276.  This  mode  of  punishment  was 
practised  among  the  Chaldeans,  Jer.  29:  22. 

IV.  The  Lion's  Den.  This  mode  of  punishment  is  still  customary 
in  Fez  and  ]Moi-occo.  See  accounts  of  Fez  and  IMorocco  by  Hoest, 
c.  2.  p.  77.   ])aii.  vi. 


§  2G0.    I'UNISIIMKNTS    or    I-QUr.IGN    OIUGIN.  o21 

V,  Dichotoviy  or  cuttiiifj  asunder.  This  method  of  putting  crimi- 
nals to  ik'atli  prevailed  among  the  Chaldeans  and  Persians.  When 
tliis  punishment  was  inflicted,  the  left  hand  and  right  foot,  or  the 
ri'dit  hand  and  left  foot,  or  both  feet  and  hands  were  cut  off  at  the 
joints.  Dan.  2:  5.  Luke  12:  46.  Matt.  24:  51.  A  mutilation,  in  this 
wav,  of  persons,  who  had  been  punished  with  death,  is  mentioned  in 
2  Sara.  4:  12. 

yi.  Beating  to  death,  rvfiTianai^og.  This  was  a  punishment  in 
use  among  the  Greeks,  and  was  designed  for  slaves.  The  criminal 
was  suspended  to  a  stake,  and  beaten  with  rods,  till  he  died,  2  Mac. 
G:  10,19,28,30.  Heb.  11:3d. 

YII.  Sawing  asunder.  The  criminal  was  sometimes  sawn 
asunder  lengthwise.  This  was  more  especially  the  practice  in  Per- 
sia. Isaiah,  according  to  the  Talmudists,  was  put  to  death  in  this 
manner,  by  king  jNIanasseh,  Sanhedrin,  p.  103.  c.  2.  comp.  Justin's 
Dialogue  with  Trypho.  David  inflicted  this  mode  of  punishment 
upon  the  conquered  inhabitants  of  Rabbath  Ammon.  Comp.  1  Chron. 
20:  3. 

YIII.  The  Romans,  for  the  gratification  of  the  people,  com- 
pelled their  criminals,  and  also  their  enemies  taken  captive  in  war, 
to  fight  with  wild  beasts  in  the  amphitheatre.  They  likewise  com- 
pelled them  to  contend  with  one  another  in  the  manner  of  gladiators, 
till  their  life  was  terminated  in  this  way,  2  Tim.  4:  17.  comp.  1  Cor. 
15:32. 

IX.  The  Persians,  in  some  instances,  enclosed  a  place  with  high 
walls,  and  filled  it  with  ashes.  A  piece  of  timber  was  made  to  pro- 
ject over  the  ashes,  and  criminals  of  high  rank  were  placed  upon  it. 
They  were  hberally  supplied  with  meat  and  drink,  till,  being  over- 
come with  sleep,  they  fell  over  into  the  deceitful  heap,  and  died  an 
easy  death.  The  Macedonians  in  Syria  imitated  this  punishment, 
2  Mac.  13:  4. 

X.  It  was  the  practice  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  to  precipi- 
tate some  of  their  criminals,  especially  the  sacrilegious,  into  the  sea 
or  a  river.  The  persons,  who  were  thus  put  to  death,  were  placed  in 
a  sack,  and  were  thrown  in  with  a  stone  about  their  neck.  Comp. 
Matt.  18:  G.  Mark  9:  42. 

XI.  Cmcifxion.  This  was  a  common  mode  of  punishment 
among  the  Persians,  Carthaginians,  and  Romans.  The  mode  of 
crucifixion,  adopted    by    the    Maccabean  princes,  was    that   of  the 


322  §  2G1.  CKUCiFixiox  among  tiik  Romans. 

liomans.  The  Romans,  although  it  was  done  at  the  urgent  and 
riotous  solicitations  of  the  Jews,  were  the  executioners  in  the  cru- 
cifixion of  Jesus  Christ.  We  shall,  therefore,  speak  more  par- 
ticularly of  tills  mode  of  punishment,  as  it  existed  among  that 
peo[)lo. 

§  2G1.    Crucii'ixion  as  i'uactised  a:mong  the  Romans. 

77(6  cross  Avas  the  punishment  that  was  inflicted  by  the  Roman:-, 
on  servants  who  had  perpetrated  crimes,  on  robbers,  assassins,  and 
rebels ;  among  which  last,  Jesus  was  reckoned,  on  the  ground  of  his 
making  himseli'  /ci?}c/  or  messiaii,  Luke  23:  1 — 5,  13 — 15. 

The  words,  in  which  the  sentence  was  given;  were  as  follows ; 
^'Thou  shalt  go  to  tlie  cross"  The  person,  who  was  subjected  to 
this  punishment,  was  deprived  of  all  his  clothes,  excepting  some- 
thing round  the  loins.  In  this  state  of  nudity,  he  was  beaten, 
sometimes  with  rods,  but  raoi-e  generally  with  whips.  Such  was 
the  severity  of  this  flagellation,  that  numbers  died  under  it.  Je- 
sus was  crowned  with  thorns  and  made  the  subject  of  mockery, 
but  nothing  of  this  kind  could  be  legally  done,  or  in  other  Avords, 
insults  of  this  kind  were  not  among  the  ordinary  attendants  of  cru- 
cifixion. They  were  owing,  in  this  case,  merely  to  the  petulant 
spirit  of  the  Roman  soldiers,  Matt.  27:  29.  Mark  15:  17.  John  19: 
2,  5. 

The  criminal,  having  been  beaten,  was  subjected  to  the  further 
suffering  of  being  obliged  to  carry  the  cross  himself  to  the  place  of 
punishment,  which  was  commonly  a  hill,  near  the  public  way,  and  out 
of  the  city.  The  place  of  crucifixion  at  Jerusalem  was  a  hill  to  the 
north-west  of  the  city. 

The  cross,  aruvQog,  a  post,  otherwise  called  the  wipropitious  or 
infamous  tree,  consisted  of  a  piece  of  wood  erected  perpendicularly, 
and  intersected  by  another  at  right  angles  near  the  top,  so  as  to 
resemble  the  letter  T.  The  crime,  for  which  the  person  suflered, 
was  inscribed  on  the  transverse  piece  near  the  top  of  the  per})endicu- 
lar  one. 

There  is  no  mention  made  in  ancient  writers  of  anything,  on 
which  t/ie  feet  of  the  person  crucified  rested.  Near  the  middle, 
however,  of  the  perpendicular  beam,  there  projected  a  piece  of 
wood,  on  which  he  sat,  and  which  answered    as    a  sup^iort  to  the 


§  2G1.  cKUCii-ixiux  A.MOxcr  Tin:  komans.  323 

body,  since  the  weight  of  the  body  might,  otherwise,  have  torn  away 
the  hands  from  the  nails  driven  through  them.  Here  we  see  tlie 
ground  of  certain  phrases,  which  occur,  sucli  as  the  following ;  "  To 
ride  upon  the  cross"  " to  be  borne  upon  the  cross,"  " to  rest  upon  the 
sharp  cross"  etc.  Compare  Irenaeus  against  Heresies  II.  42.  Jus- 
tin's Dialogue  with  Trypho,  and  Tertullian  against  the  Gentiles,  Bk. 
II.  also  against  Marcion,  lik.  III.  c.  18. 

The  cross,  which  was  erected  at  the  place  of  punishment,  beinji: 
there  firmly  fixed  in  the  ground,  rarely  exceeded  ten  feet  in  height. 
The  victim,  perfectly  naked,  was  elevated  to  the  small  projection  in 
the  middle,  the  hands  were  then  bound  by  a  rope  around  the  trans- 
verse beam,  and  nailed  through  the  palm.  We  see  in  this  statement 
the  ground  of  such  expressions,  as  the  following :  "  To  mount  vpon 
the  cross"  " to  leap  upon  the  cross"  '•  to  bring  one  upon  the  cross"  etc. 
Compare  Cicero  against  Yerres,  V.  ^(^,  and  Josephus,  Jewish  "War, 
VII.  6.  4. 

The  position  which  is  taken  by  some,  viz.  that  the  persons,  who 
suffered  crucifixion,  were  not  in  some  instances  fastened  to  the  cross 
by  nails  through  the  hands  and  feet,  but  were  merely  bound  to  it 
by  ropes,  cannot  be  proved  by  the  testimony  of  any  ancient  writer 
whatever.  That  the  feet,  as  well  as  the  hands,  were  fastened  to 
the  cross  by  means  of  nails,  is  expressly  asserted  in  the  play  of 
Plautus,  entitled  ]Mostellakia,  Act.  II.  sc.  I.  12.  comp.  Tertullian 
against  the  Jews,  c.  I,  and  against  Marcion,  Bk.  III.  c.  19.  In 
regard  to  the  nailing  of  the  feet,  it  may  be  furthermore  observed, 
that  Gregory  Nazianzen  has  asserted,  that  one  nail  only  was  driven 
through  both  of  them,  but  Cyprian,  (de  passioxe,)  who  had  been 
a  personal  witness  to  crucifixions,  and  is,  consequently,  in  this  case, 
the  better  authority,  states  on  the  contrary,  that  two  nails  or  spikes 
were  driven,  one  through  each  foot. 

The  crucified  person  remained  suspended  in  this  way,  till  he 
died  and  the  corpse  had  become  putrid.  While  he  exhibited  any 
signs  of  life,  he  was  watched  by  a  guard,  but  they  left  him,  when 
it  appeared  that  he  was  dead.  The  corpse  was  not  buried,  ex- 
cept by  express  permission,  which  was  sometimes  granted  by  the 
emperor  on  his  birth-day,  but  only  to  a  very  few.  An  exception, 
however,  to  this  general  practice  was  made  by  the  Romans  in 
favor  of  the  Jews,  on  account  of  Deut.  21:  22,  23  ;  and  in  Judea, 
accordingly,    crucified    persons    were    buried    on   the    same    day. 


324  §  2C)-2.    TlIK    CKUKLTIKS    OF    CRUCIFIXION. 

When,  tlu'i-eluiv,  tluM-e  was  not  a  prospect,  that  they  wouUl  die 
on  the  (lay  of  the  enicifixion,  the  executioners  hastened  the  extinc- 
tion of  life,  liy  kiii(llin;z  :i  fin»  under  the  cross,  so  as  to  suffocate  them 
witii  the  smoke,  or  by  letting  loose  wild  beasts  upon  them,  or  by 
breaking  their  bones  upon  the  cross  with  a  mallet,  as  upon  an  anvil, 
or  by  i)iercing  them  witli  a  spear,  in  onler  that  they  might  bury  tliem 
on  the  same  day. 

Note.  The  Jews,  in  the  times  of  which  we  are  speaking,  viz. 
while  they  were  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Romans,  were  in  the 
liabit  of  giving  the  criminal,  before  the  commencement  of  his  suffer- 
ings, a  medicated  drink  of  wine  and  myrrh,  Prov.  31:  IG.  The  object 
of  this  was  to  produce  intoxication,  and  thereby  render  the  pains 
of  the  crucifixion  less  sensible  to  the  sufferer,  Sanhedrin  I.  p.  250. 
This  beverage  was  refused  by  the  Saviour  for  the  obvious  i-eason, 
that  he  chose  to  die  witli  the  faculties  of  his  mind  undisturbed  and 
unclouded.  Matt.  27:  34.  Mark  15:  23.  It  should  be  remarked,  that 
this  sort  of  drink,  which  was  probably  offered  out  of  kindness,  was 
different  from  the  vinegar  which  was  subsequently  offered  to  the 
Saviour,  by  the  Roman  soldiers.  [The  latter  was  a  mixture  of  vine- 
gar and  water,  denominated  posca,  and  was  a  common  drink  for  the 
soldiers  in  the  Roman  army,]  Luke  28:  36.  John  19:  29. 

§  262.  TiiK  CRUELTIES  OF  Crucifixiox. 

Crucifixion  was  not  only  the  most  ignominious,  it  was  like- 
wise the  most  cruel  mode  of  punishment.  So  very  much  so,  that 
Cicero,  (in  Verrem,  V.  04,  et  06.)  is  justified  in  saying  in  respect  to 
crucifixion,  "  Ab  oculis,  mirihusque,  et  omni  cogitatione  hominum 
removendvm  esse."  The  suffering's  endured  by  a  person,  on  whom 
this  punishment  is  inflicted,  are  narrated  by  George  Gottlieb 
RiCHTER,  a  German  physician,  in  a  Dissertation  on  the  Saviour's 
Crucijixion,  at  page  36  et  seq. 

I.  The  position  of  the  body  is  unnatural,  the  arms  being  extended 
back  and  almost  immoveable.  In  case  of  the  least  motion  an  ex- 
tremely painful  sensation  is  experienced  in  the  hands  and  feet, 
which  are  pierced  with  nails,  and  in  the  back,  which  is  lacerated 
with  stripes. 

II.  The  nails,  being  driven  through  the  parts  of  the  hands  and 
feet,  which  abound,  in  nerves  and  tendons,  create  the  most  exquisite 
anguish. 


§  2G2.    THE    CRUELTIES    OF    CKlCIl  IXION.  325 

III.  Tlie  exposure  of  so  many  avouihIs  to  the  open  air  brings  on 
an  inflammation,  which  every  moment  increases  the  poignancy  of  the 
snlfering. 

IV.  In  those  parts  of  the  body,  wliich  are  distended  or  pressed, 
more  blood  flows  through  the  arteries,  than  can  be  carried  back  in 
the  veins.  The  consequence  is,  that  a  gi-^ater  quantity  of  blood 
finds  its  way  from  the  aorta  into  the  head  and  stomach,  than  would 
be  carried  there  by  a  natural  and  undisturbed  circulation.  The 
blood  vessels  of  the  head  become  pressed  and  swollen,  which  of 
course  causes  pain,  and  a  redness  of  the  face.  The  circumstance 
of  the  blood  being  impelled  in  more  than  ordinary  quantities  into  the 
stomach  is  an  unfavorable  one  also,  because  it  is  that  part  of  the 
system,  which  not  only  admits  of  the  blood  being  stationary,  but  is 
peculiarly  exposed  to  mortification.  The  aorta,  not  being  at  liberty 
to  empty,  in  the  free  and  undisturbed  way  as  formerlj',  the  blood 
which  it  receives  from  the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart  is  unable  to  re- 
ceive its  usual  quantity.  The  blood  of  the  lungs,  therefore,  is  una- 
ble to  find  a  free  circulation.  This  general  obstruction  extends  its 
effects  likewise  to  the  right  venti"icle,  and  the  consequence  is  an  in- 
ternal excitement,  and  exertion,  and  anxiety,  Avhich  are  more  intole- 
rable, than  the  anguish  of  death  itself.  All  the  large  vessels  about 
the  heart,  and  all  the  veins  and  arteries  in  that  part  of  the  system,  on 
account  of  the  accumulation  and  pressure  of  blood,  are  the  source  of 
inexpressible  misery- 

V.  The  degree  of  anguish  is  gradual  in  its  increase,  and  the 
person  crucified  is  able  to  live  under  it,  commonly  till  the  third, 
and  sometimes  till  the  seventh  day.  Pilate,  therefore,  being  sur- 
prised at  the  speedy  termination  of  the  Saviour's  life,  inquired  in  re- 
spect to  the  truth  of  it  of  the  centurion  himself,  who  commanded  the 
soldiers,  Mark  15:  44.  In  order  to  bring  their  life  to  a  more  speedy 
termination,  so  that  they  might  be  buried  on  the  same  day,  the  bones 
of  the  two  thieves  were  broken  with  mallets,  John  19:  31 — 37; 
and  in  order  to  ascertain  this  point  in  respect  to  Jesus,  viz.  whether 
he  was  really  dead,  or  whether  he  had  merely  fallen  into  a  swoon, 
a  soldier  thrust  his  lance  into  his  side,  (undoubtedly  his  left  side,) 
but  no  signs  of  life  appeared,  John  19:  13 — 37.  If  he  had  not 
been  previously  dead,  a  wound  of  this  kind  in  his  side  would  have 
put  a  period  to  his  life,  as  has  been  shown  both  by  the  ph}sician 
Kschenbacli  and  by  Gruner,  the  former  m  his  Opuscxd.  Medic,  de 

28 


.'32G     §  2G1.    OK  TIIK  lU.OOn-AVFAT.ER,  AND  CITIES  OF  Uia-UCi;. 

Serra(07-e  non  <tppai  •nicr,  sed  vcre  mortno,  and  tlie  latter  in  lii; 
Dissert.  Inovg.  Medic,  de  Jesn  Christi  morte  vera,  non  si/no])ticd, 
1800.  The  part  iMcrccil  uas  the  rKniCAKniUM  ;  hence  lympli  and 
blood  flowed  out. 


§  2G3.   The  Public  Executioners. 

"Wlion  the  sentence  of  death  was  jironounced  by  the  king,  it  was 
execnted  by  his  body-guard.  Compare  §  230.  Sometimes  it  was 
done  by  some  other  person,  who  considered  the  employment  an  hon- 
or, 2  Sam.  1:  15.  4:  12. 

The  kings  of  Persia  formerly,  as  is  the  case  to  this  day,  Avere 
unable  to  recall  the  sentence  of  death,  when  once  passed,  Dan.  G:  15 
—26. 

Criminals  were  everywhere  bound  with  their  own  girdle,  and  hur- 
ried away  to  punishment.  Comp.  Acts  21:  10 — 14.  John  21:  18. 

Homicides  were  put  to  death  by  the  blood-avenger,  bx-,5,  i.  e. 
by  the  nearest  male  relation  of  the  person  slain,  of  whom  we  shall 
speak  more  particularly  in  the  next  section.  Where  stonixg  was 
the  punishment,  the  process  was  commenced  by  the  witnesses  them- 
selves, whose  example  was  followed,  and  the  punishment  rendered 
complete  by  the  people,  Deut.  17:  7.  The  Roman  magistrates  had 
their  lictors,  but  the  soldiers  in  the  time  of  the  Cesars,  executed 
the  sentence  of  the  CROSS.  The  dress  of  the  crucified  person  was 
given  to  the  soldiers,  Matt.  27:  35.  Mark  15:  24.  Luke  23:  34.  John 
19:  23,  24. 

§  2G4.  Of  the  Blood-avenger,  and  cities  op  Refuge. 

The  execution  of  the  punishment,  which  in  Gen.  9:  G,  was  de- 
creed against  homicide,  devolved  on  the  brother  or  other  nearest 
relation  of  tlie  person,  whose  life  had  been  taken  away.  In  case  he 
did  not  slay  the  guilty  person,  he  was  considered  infamons.  Hence 
the  application  of  the  Hebrew  word  bxi^n,  goel,  i.  e.  spotted  or  con- 
taminated, which  he  bore  till  the  murder  was  revenged. 

A  law  of  this  kind,  viz.  which  authorizes  the  blooa-avenger, 
may  indeed  be  necessary,  where  there  is  no  legally  constituted 
tribunal  of  Justice ;  but  as  soon  as  there  is  such  an  one,  it  ought  to 
cease.      To  change  a  law,  however,  or  practice  of  long  standing, 


§  2Gj.  of  thk  unknown-  murderer.  327 

is  a  matter  of  no  little  difRculty.  Closes,  therefore,  left  it,  as  he 
found  it,  but  he  endeavored,  nevertheless,  to  prevent  its  abuses. 

To  this  end,  he  appointed  cities  of  refuse,  -="'2"  '■•2^,  three 
beyond,  and  three  on  this  side  of  the  Jordan.  lie  took  care  also, 
that  roads  leading  to  them  in  straight  lines  should  be  laid  out,  in 
every  direction,  which  were  to  be  distinguished  in  some  way  from 
other  streets.  Any  one,  who  had  slain  a  person  unexpectedly  and 
without  intention  so  to  do,  any  pei"son  who  had  slain  another  in  con- 
sequence of  his  unjustly  attempting  his  life,  or  had  slain  a  thief 
before  the  rising  of  the  sun,  fled  by  one  of  these  roads  to  the  cities, 
which  have  been  mentioned,  lie  was  not  to  depart  from  the  city 
into  which  he  had  fled,  till  the  death  of  the  Higli  Priest ;  after 
which  the  right  of  revenge  might  be  legally  exercised. 

All  persons  who  had  been  the  cause  of  death  to  another,  might 
flee  into  one  of  tiiose  cities,  which  were  the  propex"ty  of  the  priests 
and  Levites,  and  which  are  named  in  Deut.  19:  1 — 13.  4:  41 — 43. 
Num.  35:  9—29.  Josh.  20:  1—9.  21:  11—13,  21.  27:  32,  38;  but 
they  Avere  all  examined,  and  if  found,  according  to  the  laws,  guilty 
of  homicide,  wei'e  delivered  up  to  the  avenger  of  blood.  For  the  law 
of  retaliation,  (jus  talionis.)  was  most  strictly  inflicted  on  those. 
who  were  known  to  have  been  guilty  of  intentional  murder,  even 
the  altar  itself  in  such  a  case  afforded  no  refuge,  and  no  commutatio.i 
whatever  was  admissible,  Exod.  21:  12.  Num.  So:  9 — 35.  Deut.  19: 
1—13.   1  Kings  2:  28—34. 

The  opinion  that  the  place,  where  human  blood  has  been  shed,  is 
watered  neither  with  dew  nor  witli  rain,  till  the  murderer  has  suf- 
fered punishment,  appears  to  have  prevailed  at  a  very  ancient  period, 
2  Sam.  1:  21.  Ezek.  24:  7,  8. 

§  265.  Of  the  unknown  Murderer. 

[The  original  of  this  section  is  but  little  more  than  a  literal  state- 
ment in  the  author's  words  of  the  law,  that  is  found  in  Deut.  21:  1 — 9. 
As  far  as  the  law,  therefore,  is  concerned,  it  will  be  as  satisfactory,  per- 
haps more  so,  to  have  it  stated  in  the  language  of  the  common 
English  version,  which  is  as  follows.] 

1.  "  If  one  be  Ibund  slain  in  tlie  land  which  the  Lord  thy  G-od 
giveth  thee  to  possess  it,  lying  in  the  field,  and  it  be  not  known  who 
hath  slain  him ; 


328  §  2G.5.  OF  Till-:  unknowx  >iLKDr,i;+;n. 

2.  Then  thy  ciders  and  tliy  judges  shall  come  forth,  and  they  shall 
measure  iiiito  the  cities  which  are  round  about  him  that  is  slain. 

3.  And  it  shall  be,  that  the  city  which  is  next  unto  the  slain 
man,  even  the  elders  of  that  city  shall  take  an  heifer  which  hath 
not  been  wrought  with,  and  which  hath  not  been  drawn  in  the 
yoke ; 

4.  And  the  elders  of  that  city  shall  bring  down  the  heifer  unto  a 
rou"-h  valley,  Avhich  is  neither  eared  nor  sown,  and  shall  strike  off  the 
heifer's  neck  there  in  the  valley. 

0.  And  the  priests,  the  sons  of  Levi,  sliall  come  near ;  (ibr  them 
the  Lord  thy  God  hath  chosen  to  minister  unto  him,  and  to  bless  in 
the  name  of  the  Lord:)  and  by  their  word  shall  every  controversy 
and  every  stroke  be  tried. 

G.  And  all  the  elders  of  that  city,  that  are  next  unto  the  slain 
man,  shall  wash  their  hands  over  the  heifer  that  is  beheaded  in  the 
valley. 

7.  And  they  shall  answer  and  say.  Our  hands  have  not  shed  this 
blood,  neither  have  our  eyes  seen  it. 

8.  Be  merciful,  O  Lord,  unto  thy  people  Israel,  whom  thou  hast 
redeemed,  and  lay  not  innocent  blood  unto  thy  people  of  Israel's 
charge.     And  the  blood  shall  be  forgiven  them. 

9.  So  shalt  thou  put  away  the  guilt  of  innocent  blood  from  among 
you,  when  thou  shalt  do  that  which  is  right  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord." 
— Deut.  21:  1—9. 

The  ceremonies,  which  have  now  been  related,  were  nut  only  a 
declaration  of  the  innocence  of  the  judges  and  elders,  and  of  the  hor- 
rid nature  of  the  murder,  but  an  imphcit  declaration  likewise  of  the 
punishment  which  justly  pertained  to  the  person  who  had  commit- 
ted it. 


329 


CHAPTER  IV. 


ON   MILITARY   AFFAIRS. 


§  2GG.  Geneual  vieav  of  Military  Science. 

TnE  dissensions  of  individuals  gave  occasion,  in  the  progress  of 
time,  for  the  strife  of  families,  for  contests  between  tribes,  and  even- 
tually for  the  wars  of  nations.  Those,  Avho  came  off  conquerors  in 
the  wars,  which  had  thus  been  commenced,  enriched  themselves 
with  plunder.  This  presented  an  excitement  to  those  tribes  and  na- 
tions, which  were  conscious  of  their  superiority  in  point  of  power,  to 
en"a"-e  in  war ;  and  prepared  the  way  for  that  ferocity  and  violence, 
to  resist  which  the  patriarchs  after  the  flood  found  it  necessary  to  arm 
their  servants,  and  to  be  always  in  i-eadiness  to  repel  all  attacks  by 
force.  The  patriarchs,  nevertheless,  made  it  a  point  to  act  on  princi- 
ples of  equity ;  they  made  treaties  where  they  could,  and  where  they 
could  not,  their  resort  was,  (clearly  a  very  natural  one,)  to  extort  re- 
spect, by  striking  a  dread. 

Families  had  no  sooner  increased,  in  respect  to  numbers,  into 
tribes,  than  it  was  no  longer  deemed  necessary  to  put  in  requi- 
sition the  aid  of  servants,  and  to  arm  them  for  war ;  since  it 
had  become  customary  for  every  freeborn  member  of  the  commu- 
nity to  accustom  himself  to  arms,  and  to  take  the  field  against  the 
enemy. 

Various  implements  of  war  are  mentioned  in  the  Pentateuch. 
At  a  subsequent  period,  the  Hebrews,  in  their  contests  with  the 
neighboring  nations,  were  sometimes  beaten,  and  sometimes  vic- 
torious ;  till  at  length,  in  the  reign  of  David,  they  acquired  such 
skill  in  the  military  art,  together  with  such  strength,  as  to  give 
them  a  decided  superiority  over  their  competitors  on  the  field  of 
battle.  David  increased  the  standing  army,  which  Saul  had  intro- 
duced. Solomon  introduced  cavalry  into  the  military  force  of  the 
28* 


330  §  2G7.  Gr.NKijAL  military  knrolmkxt. 

nation,  also  diariots.  Both  cavalry  and  chariots  were  retained 
in  the  subsequent  age ;  an  age,  in  which  military  arms  were  im- 
proved in  ll  eir  construction,  the  science  of  fortification  made  ad- 
vances, and  large  armies  were  mustered.  From  this  period,  till 
the  time,  when  the  Hebrews  became  subject  to  the  Assyrians 
and  Chaldeans,  but  little  improvement  was  made  in  the  arts  of 
war. 

The  !Maccabecs,  after  the  return  of  the  Hebrews  from  the  captiv- 
ity, gave  new  life  to  the  miUtary  art  among  tlicm.  But  their  descen- 
dants were  under  the  necessity  of  submitting  to  tlie  superior  power 
of  the  Romans. 

§  2G7.    Gi:xp:kal  Mihtaky  Exroi.mext. 

In  the  second  year  after  the  Exodus  from  Egypt,  there  was  a 
general  enrolment  of  all,  xolio  icere  able  to  hear  arms,  xsas  "^X""!  bs; 
viz.  of  all,  who  were  between  the  ages  of  twenty  and  fifty.  There 
was  an  enrolment  of  the  Levites,  (whose  duty  it  was  to  guard  the 
tabernacle,  which  was  understood  to  be  the  palace  of  God,  as  the 
political  head  of  the  community.)  separately  from  the  rest  of  the  peo- 
ple, Num.  1:  1 — 54. 

There  was  a  second  enrolment,  made  in  the  fortieth  year  after 
the  Exodus  from  Egypt,  Num.  26:  2.  The  enrolment  was  made,  as 
there  can  be  no  doubt,  by  the  genealogists,  under  the  direction  of  the 
princes.  In  case  of  war,  those,  Avho  were  to  be  called  into  actual 
service,  were  taken  from  those,  who  were  thus  enroled,  in  as  much 
as  the  whole  body  were  not  expected  to  take  the  field,  except  on  ex- 
traordinary occasions,  Judg.  xx.  1  Sam.  11:  7.  comp.  Exod.  xvii. 
Num.  xxxi.  Josh.  7:  7.  11:  12. 

In  respect  to  the  enrolment,  which  was  made  in  the  reign  of  Da- 
vid, and  which  was  displeasing  to  Joab  himself,  the  design  of  it  seems 
to  have  been  to  reduce  the  whole  people  to  perpetual  military  servi- 
tude. It  was  accordingly  done,  not  by  the  genealogists, 'cr''^;-^rd ,  hni 
by  viiUtanj  prefects,  ynn  i^b,  and  it  is  further  worthy  of  remark, 
that  instead  of  the  usual  word  n:-o ,  the  word  ^sa  was  employed  in 
this  instance,  2  Sam.  xxiv. 

An  universal  enrolment  oi"  the  people  in  this  way  was  indeed  at 
this  time  prevented,  but  it  seems  to  have  taken  place  under 
the  subse(iuent  kings ;  otherwise,  we  are  unable  to  account  for  the 


§  269.  ON  5HL1TAUY  Division?.  331 

lar"-c  armies,  wliicli  are  mentioned  in  the  Books  of  Iving^,  even  when 
■\ve  lay  out  ol  the  account  the  passages  which  hibor  under  the  suspi- 
cion of  having  been  aUcred  by  copyists. 


§  208.  Of  the  Levy  von   actual  Seuvice. 

"Whenever  there  was  an  immediate  prospect  of  war,  a  levy  of  this 
kind  Avas  made  by  the  genealogists,  Deut.  20:  5 — 9.  In  the  time  of 
the  kings,  there  was  a  head  or  ruler  of  the  pei'sons  that  made  the 
levy,  denominated  ii:'vi'n ,  who  kept  an  account  of  the  number  of 
the  soldiers,  but  who  is  nevertheless  to  be  distinguished  from  the  gen- 
eralissimo, ^£5-,n,  2  Chron.  2G:  11.  comp.  2  Sam.  8:  17.  20;  25. 
1  Chron.  18:  IG. 

After  the  levy  was  fully  made  out,  the  genealogists  gave  public 
notice,  that  the  following  persons  miglit  be  excused  from  military  ser- 
vice, Deut.  20:  5—8. 

(1)  Those  who  had  built  a  house,  and  had  not  yet  inhabi- 
ted it. 

(2)  Those  who  had  planted  a  Ci'^3 ,  i.  e.  an  olive  or  vine  gar- 
den, and  had  not  as  yet  tasted  the  fruit  of  it ;  (an  exemption,  con- 
sequently, which  extended  through  the  first  five  years  after  such 
planting.) 

(3)  Those  who  had  bargained  for  a  spouse,  but  had  not  cele- 
brated the  nuptials ;  also  those  who  had  not  as  yet  lived  with  their 
■wife  for  a  year. 

(4)  The  faint  hearted,  who  would  be  likely  to  discourage  others, 
and  who,  if  they  had  gone  into  battle,  where,  in  those  early 
times,  everything  depended  on  personal  prowess,  wj  ild  only  have 
fallen  victims. 

§  2G9.  Respectikg  the  divisions  etc.  that  weue  intuoduced 

INTO  ARMIES. 

The  division  of  the  army  into  three  hands,  as  mentioned  in  Gen. 
14:  14,  15.  Job  1:  17.  Judg.  7:  IG,  20.  1  Sam.  11:  11.  2  Sam.  18: 
2,  was  probably  no  other  than  the  division  into  the  centre  and  left,  and 
right  wings.  Tlie  commanders  of  these  divisions  appear  to  have  been 
called  z-^-db-::,  Exod.  14:  7.  15:  4.  2  Kings  7:  2,  17,  19.  9:  25.  15: 
25.  Ezek.  23:  13,  23. 


332  §  2G9.  ox  militauy  divisions. 

The  Hebrew?,  when  they  dcparteil  from  Egypt,  niarelied  in 
military  order,  cnxnu  hi'  by  ihcir  armies  or  hosts,  Ivxod.  12:  ol  ; 
expressions,  which,  in  P^xodus  13:  18,  ;\re  interchanged  with  the 
word  -''■^' -n ,  probably  better  pointed  -"'"i'^ri .  We  infer  fi'om 
these  expressions,  that  they  followed  each  other  in  ranks  of  fifty 
deep ;  and  that,  at  the  head  of  each  rank  or  file  of  fifty,  was 
the  captain  of  fifty;  1  Sam.  8:  12.  2  Kings  1:  9 — 14.  eomj).  Joshua 
1:  14.  Judges  7:  11.  The  other  divisions  consisted  of  an  hundred, 
a  thousand,  and  ten  thousand  men,  each  one  of  which  was 
headed  by  its  appropriate  eonmiander,  Num.  31:  48.  Ueut.  1:  15. 
Judges  20:  10.  1  Sam.  8:  12.  18:  13.  29:  2.  1  Mace.  3:  55.  These 
divisions  ranked  in  respect  to  each  other,  according  to  their  fam- 
ilies, and  were  subject  to  the  authority  of  the  heads  of  those  fami- 
lies, 2  Chron.  25:  5.  26:  12,  13.  The  centurions,  and  ciiiLiAUcns 
or  captains  of  thousands,  were  admitted  into  the  councils  of  war,  1 
Chron.  13:  1 — 3.  1  Sam.  18;  13;  and  make  their  appearance,  as  it 
would  seem,  in  Josh.  10:  24,  and  Judges  11:  G,  11,  under  the  name 
of  C"^?"':ip . 

The  leader  of  the  Avhole  army  was  denominated  X^^n  h'J  "ib, 
tlie  captain  of  the  host.  Another  olficer  among  those  of  principal 
standing  was  the  one  called  ^Eisn  [who  is  said  in  the  original  Ger- 
man edition  to  have  had  the  care  of  the  muster-roll,  mn]tcvvcik\U 
mciftcr.J  An  officer  different  from  both  of  these  was  the  one  called 
fb^i'slTrx  "isb ,  the  numherer  of  the  toivers,  who  appears  to  have 
been  a  sort  of  engineer,  Isa.  33:  18.  1  Chron.  18:  15,  16.  27:  33. 
1  Kings  4:  4.  2  Chron.  17:  14.  26:  11. 

The  army  of  David  consisted  of  two  hundred  and  eighty  thou- 
sand men.  Every  twenty-four  thousand  of  them  had  a  separate 
commander.  The  divisions  of  twenty-four  thousand  performed  mil- 
itary duty  alternately,  viz.  a  month  at  a  time  in  succession.  1  Chron. 
27:  1—15. 

The  army  in  the  reign  of  Jehoshaphat,  was  divided  into  five  une- 
qual divisions,  each  of  which  had  its  separate  connnander,  2  Chron. 
17:  14—17. 

The  GENKALOGISTS,  [in  the  English  version  officers,']  according 
to  a  law  in  Deut.  20:  9,  had  the  right  of  appointing  the  persons 
who  were  to  act  as  officers  in  the  army ;  and  they  undoubtedly 
made  it  a  i)oint  in  their  selections,  to  choose  those  who  are  called 
heads    of   families.      The    practice  of  thus    selecting    military    ofli- 


§  2G9.  ox  Mii.iTAin"  DIVISIONS,  v  0.3.3 


cers  ceased  under  the  kings.  Some  of  tliem  were  elioscn  hy  the 
king,  and  in  other  instances  the  office  became  permanent  and  heredi- 
tary in  the  heads  of  families. 

Botli  kings  and  generals  had  arm<  »•  hearers,  r*'":  X4;:.  Thej  were 
chosen  from  the  bravest  of  the  soldieiy,  and  not  only  bore  the  arms 
of  their  masters,  but  were  employed  to  give  his  commands  to  the  sub- 
ordinate captains,  and  were  present  at  his  side  in  the  hour  of  peril, 
1  Sam.  14:  G.  17:  7.  comp.  Polybius  X.  1. 

The  infantry,  the  cavalry,  and  the  chariots  of  war  were  so 
arranged,  as  to  make  separate  divisions  of  an  army,  Exod.  14:  6,  7. 
The  infantry  were  divided  likewise  into  light-armed  troops,  ~"^"i"  n:. , 
and  into  spearmen,  Gen.  49:  19.  1  Sam.  30:  8,  15,  23.  2  Sam.  3:  22. 
4:  2.  22:  30.  Ps.  18:  30.  2  Kings  0:  2.  IIos.  7:  1.  The  light-armed 
infantry  were  furnished  with  a  sling  and  javelin,  with  a  bow,  ar- 
rows, and  quiver,  and  also,  at  least  in  latter  times,  with  a  buck- 
ler. They  fought  the  enemy  at  a  distance.  The  spearmen,  on 
the  contrary,  who  were  armed  with  spears,  swords,  and  shields, 
fought  hand  to  hand,  1  Chron.  12:  24,  34.  "2  Chron.  14:  8.  17:  17. 
The  light-armed  troops  w^re  commonly  taken  from  the  tribes  of 
Ephraim  and  Benjamin,  2  Chron.  14:  8.  17:  17.  comp.  Gen.  49:  27. 
Ps.  78:  9. 

The  Roman  soldiers  were  divided  into  legions ;  each  legion  was 
divided  into  ten  cohorts,  gtthoui,  eacli  cohort  into  three  hands,  and 
each  band  into  two  centuries  or  hundreds.  So  that  a  i.kgiox  con- 
sisted of  thirty  bands  of  six  thousand  men,  and  a  coliort  of  six  hun- 
dred, though  the  number  was  not  always  the  same. 

In  Palestine,  in  the  days  of  Josephus,  (.Jewish  "War,  III.  4.  2.) 
there  were  a  number  of  cohorts,  some  of  which  consisted  of  a  thou- 
sand foot,  and  others  of  only  six  hundred  foot,  and  an  hundred  and 
twenty  horse.  Comp.  Matt.  27:  27,  28.  Mark  15:  IG,  and  Acts  10: 
1.  21:  31.  27:  1.  In  addition  to  the  cavalry,  there  were  certain 
light  troops  in  the  Palestine  cohorts  called  dthohi^ot,  armed  with  a 
javelin  and  spear,  Acts  23:  23.  It  is  necessary  to  distinguish  the 
Roman  soldiers,  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament,  not  only  from 
the  soldiers  of  Herod  Agrippa,  (Acts  12:  4.)  who  kept  guard  after 
the  Roman  manner  by  quaternions,  i.  e.  fuur  at  a  time  ;  but  also 
from  the  bands  of  Levites,  that  watclieil  the  temple,  who  had  a  priest 
of  high  standing  for  their  captain,  Lid<e  22:  4,  52.  Acts  4:  1.  5:  24. 
It  is  no  objection  at  all,  as  I  conceive,  to  this  statement,  that  the 


334  §  271.  OF  SHIELDS. 

word  antina,  (the  Greek  for  a  eoliorf.)  is  api)lied  to  the  Lcvites  here 
mentioned  in  John,  18:  3,  12 

§  270.  MiLiTAiiY  Rkviews  and  Inspections. 

That  the  ceremonies  of  a  military  review  or  muster,  consist- 
ed chiefly  in  the  division  of  a  body  of  soldiers  into  different  corps 
according  to  the  kinds  of  arriis,  with  which  they  were  furnished, 
and  in  a  minute  inspection  of  those  cor[)S,  may  be  inferred  from 
the  verb  'ipB,  -which  is  applied  to  such  review  or  muster,  but 
■which,  nevertheless,  properly  means  to  inspect  or  to  examine  narroic- 

The  arms,  in  which  the  soldiers  presented  themselves  for  inspec- 
tion, were  either  defensive,  c-nr,  1  Sam.  17:  38,  as  the  buckler, 
helmet,  breastplate,  and  greaves  ;  or  offensive,  as  the  sword  and  spear, 
with  which  they  fought  the  enemy  hand  to  hand,  and  the  sling,  ar- 
rows, javelins,  catapults,  and  ballistae,  with  which  they  fouglit  them 
at  a  distance. 

Of  these,  we  shall  treat  separately,  and  say  something  also  of  for- 
tifications, trenches,  circumvallation,  machines  used  in  war,  cavalry, 
and  chariots. 

§  271.  Of  Shields. 

A  shield,  V'^'  i^  ^''^^^  mentioned  in  Gen.  15:  1.  The  word 
frequently  occurs  afterwards,  by  a  figure  of  speech,  for  defence  or 
protection,  2  Sam.  22:  31,  3G.  Prov.  30:  5.  Ps.  47:  9.  144:  2.  There 
is  another  sort  of  shield,  called  r\y^\  and  a  third  called  rnrb. 
This  last  occurs  for  the  first  time  in  Ps.  91:  4,  in  connection  with 

The  difference  of  the  shields  f^i  and  ",5-a  consisted  in  this; 
the  latter  was  smaller  in  size  than  the  former,  Avhich  was  so 
large  as  to  cover  the  whole  body,  1  Kings  10:  IG,  17.  comp.  2  Chron. 
9:  16;  hence  n-i:  is  always  joined  with  a  speai",  but  'r:  with 
sword  and  arrows,  1  Chron.  12:  8,  24,  34.  5:  18.  2  Chron.  14:  7. 
20:14.  The  word  irinb,  if  we  may  form  an  opinion  from  its 
etymology,  signifies  a  round  shield,  or  buckler.  [Gesenius  has 
collated  the  corresponding  Syriac  word,  and  is  of  opinion,  that 
the  form  of  this  shield  cannot  satisfactorily  be  inferred  from  the   ety- 


§  271.    OF    SHIELDS.  33") 

mology  of  its  name.]  The  form  of  a  fourth  sort  of  shield,  called 
C"-"5r  and  •'ubr  is  not  Avell  known ;  but  that  these  words  are 
rightly  rendered  shields  will  be  sufficiently  clear  by  comparing 
2  Kings  11:  10,  with  2  Chron.  23:  9.  2  Sara.  8:  7.  1  Chron.  18:  7, 
8.  Shields  were  manufactured,  sometimes  of  a  light  sort  of 
wood,  sometimes  of  osiers  woven  together,  and  covered  with  bull's 
hide,  and  sometimes  of  a  bull's  hide  merely,  twice  or  three  times 
folded  over.  The  hide  was  anointed  to  render  it  smooth  and 
slippery,  and  to  prevent  its  being  injured  by  the  wet,  2  Sam.  1: 
21,  22.  Isa.  21:  o.  Shields  made  wholly  of  brass  were  very  uncom- 
mon :  it  was  sometimes  the  case,  nevertheless,  that  they  were  cov- 
ered with  thin  plates  of  brass,  and  even  of  silver  and  gold,  1  Kings 
10:  IG,  17.  14:  2o — 28.  2  Chron.  13:  13—16.  There  was  a  boss 
in  the  centre  of  the  shield ;  and  the  margin,  in  order  to  prevent  its 
being  injured  by  the  moisture  when  placed  upon  the  earth,  was  sur- 
rounded by  a  thin  plate  of  iron.  The  handle  with  which  the  shield 
was  furnished,  was  made  in  various  ways.  In  time  of  peace,  shields 
were  hung  up  in  armories,  2  Chron.  26:  14,  and  were  sometimes 
suspended  on  the  walls  of  towers,  as  an  ornament,  1  Ivings  10:  16, 
17.  Cant.  4:  4.  Ezek.  27:  10,11.  Shields  were  borne  by  soldiers, 
when  they  went  to  war,  and  were  confined  to  them  by  a  thong,  which 
went  round  the  left  arm,  and  the  neck,  1  Chron.  5:  18.  12:  8,  24.  2 
Chron.  9:  15.  14:  8. 

When  about  to  attack  an  enemy,  they  held  the  shield  by  the 
handle  in  the  left  hand,  and  where  there  was  a  body  of  them 
together,  they  were  able,  by  merely  joining  shield  to  shield,  to  oppose, 
as  it  were,  a  wall  against  the  assaults  of  their  foes.  When  about  to 
scale  the  walls  of  a  city,  they  placed  them  one  against  another  over 
their  heads,  and  in  this  way  formed  for  themselves  an  impenetrable 
defence  against  missile  weapons,  2  Chron.  25:  5.  Job  41:  7.  The 
phrases,  "  to  seize  the  shield,  etc."  are  used  metaphorically  to  denote 
preparation  for  war,  2  Chron.  25:  5.  Ezek.  38:  4,  5.  Jer.  46:  9.  51: 
11.  To  lose  a  shield  in  battle  was  ignominious;  to  take  one  from 
the  enemy,  on  the  contrary,  was  attended  with  honor,  1  Kings  14: 
26.  2  Sam.  1:21.  comp.  Caryophilus  de  veterum  clypeis. 


33G  §  273.  COAT  of  mail. 


§272.  Tin:  Helmet,  rn'^s ,  rn'"p ,  nfQr/.infu)Mwr. 

The  Ilr.i.MET  was  a  piece  of  armor,  which  covered  tlie  ibre- 
head,  and  the  top,  and  the  hind  part  of  the  head,  and  was  sur- 
mounted for  ornament  with  a  horsetail  and  a  phiiiie.  Anricntbj, 
the  spearmen  alone  appear  to  have  worn  the  helmet.  To  this 
remark,  however,  the  Chaldeans  should  be  made  an  exception,  in 
as  much  as  all  the  soldiers  of  that  people  seem  to  have  been  fur- 
nished with  this  piece  of  armor,  Ezek.  23:  24.  Jer.  4G:  4.  compare 
the  large  German  Edition  of  this  Work,  P.  11.  Vol.  II.  Tab.  XI.  no. 
5  and  7. 

It  appears  from  2  Chron.  2G:  14,  that  king  Uzziah  had  furnished 
an  armory  with  helmets  for  the  use  of  his  soldiers. 

The  materials  from  which  the  helmet  was  made,  was  an  ox- 
hide ;  but  it  was  usually,  especially  in  the  more  recent  ages,  cov- 
ered with  bi-ass.  This  piece  of  armor,  in  allusion  to  the  purposes 
which  it  answered  in  war,  is  used  tropically  for  defence  and  protec- 
tion, Eph.  G:  16. 


§  273.  The  Cuikass,  Breastplate,  or  Coat  of  Mail. 

The  breast-plate,  n;)id,  i;-;':::,  "yr^q,  '0''1^'  [sometimes  ren- 
dered in  the  English  version  a  coat  of  mail,  and  sometimes  hahcr- 
geon,']  and  which  was  known  to  the  Grecians  under  the  word  t>co()«.^, 
consisted  of  two  parts,  the  one  of  which  covered  the  fore  part  of  the 
body,  the  other  tlie  back  ;  both  pieces  being  united  at  the  sides  by 
clasps  or  buttons.  The  breast  plate  or  coat  of  mail,  that  was  worn 
by  Goliatl),  (1  Sam.  17:  5,  38,)  was  made  of  brass.  And  indeed  it 
Avas  not  unfrcquently  the  case,  that  other  warriors  likewise  wore  a 
breast-plate,  made  of  that  metal. 

This  piece  of  armor  was  very  common  among  the  Hebrews 
after  the  reign  of  David,  and  we  find,  that  it  had  a  place  among 
other  implements  of  war  and  pieces  of  armor  in  the  armory  of  king 
Uzziah,  2  CIn-on.  2G:  14.  As  it  was  an  efficient  means  of  protection 
to  the  body,  it  occurs  tropically  for  defence,  Isa.  59:  17.  Eph.  6:  14. 
1  Thess.  5:  8.  Rev.  9:  17. 


§  275.    ox    FOUTIFICATIONS.  337 


§  274.  Greaves  and  Military  Frock. 

Although  there  is  no  mention  in  the  Bible  of  the  piece  of  ar- 
ixjor,  which  was  used  for  the  defence  of  the  right  arm,  {ctrmilla 
militarise)  it  will  be  remembered  that  the  right  foot  of  Goliath  was 
defended  with  greaves  of  brass,  nn*4"2,  1  Sam.  17:  6.  In  other  in- 
stances, a  sort  of  half  greaves  or  boots,  denominated  "iXC ,  Isa.  9:  4, 
was  worn.  The  practice  of  defending  the  feet  and  legs  in  this 
way,  however,  does  not  seem  to  have  been  very  common  among  the 
Hebrews. 

As  the  long  robe,  which  was  usually  worn,  was  a  hindrance  to 
that  celerity  of  movement,  expected  from  men  engaged  in  military 
life,  the  soldiers,  accordingly,  laid  it  aside,  and  wore  in  its  stead  a 

SHORT    FROCK. 

The  girdle,  "lirx ,  from  which  the  sword  was  suspended,  is  fre- 
quently mentioned  among  the  articles  of  military  dress,  Isa.  5:  27. 
Eph.  G:  14. 

§  275.  Ox  Fortifications. 

Military  fortifications  were  at  first  nothing  more  than  a 
trench  or  ditch,  dug  around  a  few  cottages  on  a  hill  or  mountain, 
together  with  the  mound,  which  was  formed  by  the  sand  dug  out  of 
it ;  except  perhaps  that  there  might  have  sometimes  been  elevated 
scaffolding  for  the  purpose  of  throwing  stones  M'ith  the  greater  effect 
against  the  enemy.  A  city  of  this  kind  was  built  and  fortified  by 
Cain  ;  for  to  hiild  a  city  and  to  fortify  it,  in  the  oriental  idiom,  are 
the  same  thing. 

In  the  age  of  Moses  and  Joshua,  the  walls,  which  surrounded 
cities,  were  elevated  to  no  inconsiderable  height,  and  were  furnished 
with  towers ;  and  yet,  since  the  Hebrews,  who  were  unacquainted 
with  tlie  art  of  besieging  cities,  took  so  many  of  them  on  both  sides 
of  the  Jordan  in  so  few  years,  the  inference  is,  that  the  fortifications, 
which  were  iU  the  first  so  terrible  to  them,  (Num.  13:  28.)  were  of  no 
great  strength. 

The  art  of  fortification  was  encouraged  and  patronized  by  the 
Hebrew   kings,   and  Jerusalem  was  always   well   defended,  espe- 

29 


838  §  275.    ON    FORTIFICATIONS. 

cially  mount  Zion.     In  later  times  the  temple  itself  was  used  as  a 
castle. 

The  appropriate  names  for  fortifications  in  Hebrew  are  as 
follows,  viz.  r-r.r^,  r'-.'.v  -.-li-:,  r,-^'-^^,  and  -^-z-z  ^'v.  The 
words,  nevertheless,  which  usually  nican  cities,  viz.  "rv ,  -ir ,  cnr , 
in  some  instances  mean  fortifications.  In  the  time  of  the  Hebrew 
monarchy,  armories,  n^bsn  r-3 ,  and  gnards  of  soldiers,  made  a  part 
of  the  military  establishment,  2  Chron.  17:  2,  19.  2G:  14,  15,  32:  5. 
33:  14. 

TJie  jmncipal  parts  of  a  fortification  xcere,  as  follows. 

I.  TiiK  -WALL,  r!i"n.  In  some  instances  the  wall,  erected  around 
cities,  was  triple  and  double,  2  Chron.  32:  5.  Walls  were  commonly 
made  lofty  and  broad,  so  as  to  be  neither  readily  passed  over,  nor 
broken  through,  Jer.  51:  58.  The  main  wall  terminated  at  the  top 
in  a  parapet  for  the  accommodation  of  the  soldiers,  Avhich  opened  at 
intervals  in  a  sort  of  embrasures,  so  as  to  give  tlicm  an  opportunity 
of  fighting  with  missile  weapons. 

II.  Towers,  c-^pns",  r";'^:-; ,  V'n:,-:.  Towers,  which  were 
erected  at  certain  distances  from  each  other  on  the  top  of  walls, 
and  ascended  to  a  great  height,  terminated  at  the  top  in  a  fiat  roof, 
and  were  surrounded  with  a  parapet,  which  exhibited  openings 
similar  to  those,  which  have  been  just  mentioned  as  making  their 
appearance  in  the  parapet  of  the  walls.  Towers  of  this  kind 
were  erected  likewise  over  the  gates  of  cities.  In  these  towers 
guards  were  kept  constantly  stationed.  At  least  this  was  the 
case  in  the  time  of  the  kings.  It  was  their  business  to  make 
known  any  thing,  that  they  discovered  at  a  distance,  and  when- 
ever they  noticed  an  eruption  from  an  enemy,  they  blew  the 
trumpet,  2  Sam.  13:  34.  18:  26,  27.  2  Kings  9:  17—19.  Nahum  2: 
1.  2  Chron.  17:  2.  Towers  likewise,  which  were  somewhat  larger 
in  size,  were  erected  in  difierent  parts  of  the  country,  par- 
ticularly on  places,  which  were  elevated;  and  were  guarded  by 
a  military  force,  Judg.  8:  9,  17.  9:  46,  49,  51.  Isa.  21:  6.  Habak. 
2:  1.  Hos.  5:  8.  Jer.  31:  6.  The  Hebrew^  word  for  structures  of 
this  kind,  is  n-^i;.i ;  and  we  find  even  to  this  day,  that  the  circu- 
lar edifices  of  this  sort,  which  are  still  erected  in  the  solitudes  of 
Arabia  Felix,  bear  their  ancient  name  of  castles  or  towers.  The 
watch  towers  of  the  shepherds,  r'r^^'J,  n-.-^;,  f'^^'^,  are  to  be 
distintruished    from    those,   Avhich   have   now   been   mentioned,   al- 


§  270.  ox  KOiMiriCATioNS.  339 

though  it  was  not  unfreqiRntly  tlie  ca-^c,  tliat  they  were  converted  into 
mihtary  towers,  and  eventually  into  fortilied  cities,  2  Chron.  2G:  10. 
27:  4.  This  accounts  for  the  fact  that  cities,  in  many  instances,  occur 
under  the  words  bns"?  and  nsri-:  ;  and  also  for  the  following  pro- 
verbial expressions,  which  are  sometimes  found,  viz.  "  From  a  watch- 
ioiccr  even  to  a  fortified  city."  Prophets  are  frequently  compared  to 
the  f^uards  that  were  stationed  in  towers,  Ezek.  3:  17.  27:  11.  33:  1 
— 9."hos.  12:  13. 

III.  Bastioxs.  [We  render  the  Hebrew  word  n'ra  by  the 
modern  military  term  bastions,  not  because  it  conveys  precisely  its 
meaning,  but  because  it  appears  to  approach  more  nearly  to  it,  than 
any  other  technical  term.  The  statement  following  will  give  an 
idea  of  what  is  meant.]  The  walls  were  erected  in  such  a  way  as 
to  curve  inward;  the  extremities  of  them,  consequently,  projected 
out.  The  object  of  forming  the  walls,  so  as  to  present  such  pro- 
jections, was  to  enable  the  inhabitants  of  the  besieged  city  to 
attack  the  assailants  in  flank.  We  learn  from  the  History  of 
Tacitus,  (V.  11.)  that  the  walls  of  Jerusalem,  at  the  time  of  its 
being  attacked  by  the  Romans,  were  built  in  this  way.  The  pro- 
jections above  mentioned,  are  meant  to  be  designated  by  the  Hebrew 
word  r-i2.  They  were  introduced  by  king  Uzziah,  810  years 
before  Christ,  and  are  subsequently  mentioned  in  the  prophet  Zepha- 
niah  1:  16. 

IV.  The  Fosse,  "?-^n ,  in  .  The  digging  of  a  fosse  put  it  in  the 
power  of  the  inhabitants  of  a  city  to  increase  the  elevation  of  the 
walls,  and  of  itself  threw  a  serious  difficulty  in  the  way  of  an  enemy's 
approach,  2  Sam.  20:  15.  Isa.  26:  1.  Neh.  3:  8.  Ps.  48:  13.  The 
fosse,  if  the  situation  of  the  place  admitted  it,  was  filled  with  water. 
This  was  the  case  at  Babylon. 

V.  The  Gates,  t.-'^v- ,  "r'^".  They  were  at  first  made  of  wood, 
and  were  small  in  size.  They  were  constructed  in  the  manner  of 
valve  doors,  n^rbn,  and  were  secured  by  means  of  wooden  bars. 
Subsequently  they  were  made  larger  and  stronger ;  and  in  order  to 
prevent  their  being  burnt,  were  covered  with  plates  of  brass  or  iron  ; 
r-rn:  ■r';- .  The  bars  were  covered  in  the  same  manner,  in  order 
to  prevent  their  being  cut  asunder ;  but  it  was  sometimes  the  case, 
that  they  were  made  wholly  of  iron,  ppa  '^""'12.  The  bars  were 
secured  by  a  sort  of  lock,  Ps.  107:  16.  Isa.  45:  2. 


840  '  §  270.    AKMS    FOR    FIGHTING    HAND    TO    HAXD. 


§  27G.  Arms,  ■WITH  aviiicii  tiik  Soldiers  fought  hand  to  hand. 

Tlie  arniP,  used  in  ligliting  hand  to  hand,  were  originally  a  dah 
and  a  haltle  hammer ;  but  (licse  weapons  -were  but  very  rarely  made 
use  of  by  the  Hebrews.  AVhether  the  expressions,  bna  aad,  mean 
an  iron  chih,  Ps.  2:  9.  110:  2,  and  ]"^£^,  Prov.  25:  18,  means  the 
hattJe-maUct  or  hammer,  that  was  used  in  fighting,  is  a  question,  which 
has  not  yet  been  determined. 

Other  sorts  of  weapons,  used  in  dose  combat,  icere  (isfoJIoics: 

I.  The  Sword,  a-n .  Among  the  Hebrews  it  was  fastened 
around  the  body  by  a  girdle,  2  Sam.  20:  8.  1  Sam.  17:  39.  Hence 
the  phrase  '■'■to  gird  one's  self"  with  a  sword  means  to  commence  war, 
and  "to  loose  the  srrord,"  to  finish  it,  1  Kings  20:  11.  The  swords  in 
use  among  the  Hebrews  appear  to  have  been  short;  some  of  them, 
however,  were  longer  than  others,  Judg.  3:  16,  and  some  were  made 
with  tivo  edges,  ri^a,  n*£"'Q.  Ps.  149:  6.  Isa.  41:  15.  Judg.  3:  IG. 
The  sword  was  kept  in  a  sheath ;  which  accounts  for  such  expres- 
sions as  "zrri  p'^y^  to  draio  the  sicord,  Ps.  35:  3.  It  was  polished  to 
such  a  degree,  as  to  render  it  exceedingly  splendid,  and  in  reference 
to  this  circumstance  is  used  tropically  for  lightning.  Gen.  3:  24.  Ps. 
7:  12.  By  a  figure  of  speech,  also  a  sword  is  attributed  to  God,  wliich 
the  strong  imagination  of  the  Hebrew  poets  represents,  as  if  drunk 
with  blood.  This  representation  is  carried  still  further,  and  every 
misfortune  and  calamity,  and  indeed  wicked  persons  are  represented 
as  the  sword  of  God,  which  he  wields  for  the  punishment  of  others, 
Ps.  17:  13.  Jer.  12:  12.  47:  6.  Furthermore,  the  word  n-in  signi- 
fies, in  some  instances,  war  itself  instead  of  the  weapon,  to  which  it  is 
calculated  to  give  employment;  the  same  as  it  does  among  the  Ara- 
bians, Lev.  26:  G.  Jer.  14;  12 — 16.     Compare  ^ucj^uina,  Matt.  10:34. 

II.  The  Spear,  n-i'i,  Num.  25:  7.  It  was  a  Avooden  staff,  sur- 
mounted with  an  iron  point.  Its  length  differed  at  different  times 
and  among  different  people.  It  was  never  shorter  than  eleven  cu- 
bits, nor  longer  than  twenty-four. 


§  278.  THE  BOW,  Aicnow,  and  quivkh.  341 


§  277.  Javklins. 

Javelins  appear  to  have  been  of  two  kinds.  In  explanation  of 
this  remark,  it  may  be  observed, 

I.  That  ihe  Javelin,  which  bears  in  Hebrew  the  name  of  r"':n, 
is  ahnost  always  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  weapons  of  light- 
armed  troops,  Ps.  57:  4.  1  Sam.  13:  22.  18:  10.  21:  8.  22:  6.  2 
Sam.  23:  18.  In  1  Chron.  12:  34,  it  is  indeed  joined  with  -y^, 
tlie  larger  soH  of  luckier,  but  it  is  evident  from  1  Sam.  18:  11.  19: 
10.  20:  33,  that  this  weapon,  whatever  might  have  been  its  shape, 
and  although  it  may  have  sometimes  been  used  as  a  spear,  Avas, 
nevertheless,  ilirown,  and  is,  accordingly,  to  be  ranked  in  the  class 
of  missile  weapons.  That  riijn  was  a  weapon  of  this  kind  ac- 
counts for  the  fact,  that  the  epithet  "5-?   is  joined  to  it  as  follows, 

II.  That  the  word  "1'"""^  likewise  means  a  javelin  may  be  learnt 
from  Job  39:  23,  where  it  is  joined  with  r.-^rn.  Comp.  Job  41:  29. 
Josh.  8:  18,  2G.  1  Sam.  17:  G.  The  difference  between  these  two 
sorts  of  javelins  cannot  now  be  known  any  further  than  this,  viz. 
that  'I'-.-.-s ,  as  may  be  inferred  with  some  probability  from  Joshua 
8:  18,  20,  and  1  Sam.  17:  0,  was  the  largest  in  size  of  the  two. 


§  278.  Of  the  Bow,  Arrow,  and  Quiver. 

The  bow,  r'-r.--;?,  r'r;^,  and  arrows,  c^ijri,  "- ,  are  weapons 
of  a  very  ancient  origin,  Gen.  48:  22.  49:  24.  comp.  Gen.  9:  14, 
15.  Archers,  rr;^  -:h,  rr;?  ''Ht-??  ""'ei'e  very  numerous  among 
the  Hebrews,  especially  in  the  tribes  of  Benjamin  and  Ephraim,  Ps. 
78:  9.  1  Chron.  8:  40.  2  Chron.  14:  8.  17:  17.  Weapons  of  this 
description  belonged  properly  to  the  light-armed  troops,  who  are 
represented,  as  having  been  furnished  with  the  sword,  the  buck- 
ler, and  the  bow,  2  Chron.  17:  17.  The  Persian  archers,  who  in 
other  passages,  are  mentioned  with  applause,  are  spoken  of  likewise 
with  commendation  in  profane  history,  Isa.  13:  18.  Jer.  49:  35.  50: 
9,  14,  29,  42. 

The  bows  were  generally  made  of  wood  ;  in  a  very  few  instances, 
they  were  made  of  brass.  Psalms  18:  34.  Job  20:  24.  Those 
29* 


342  §  279.  THE  SUNG. 

of  wood,  however,  were  so  strong,  that  the  soldiers  sometimes 
challenged  one  another  to  bend  their  bow.  In  bending  the  bow, 
one  end  of  it  was  pres.s(;d  upon  the  ground  by  the  foot,  the  other 
end  was  pressed  down  by  the  left  hand  and  the  weight  of  the 
body,  and  the  string  was  adjusted  by  the  right.  This  accounts  for 
the  use  of  the  Avord  rp'n ,  (which  literally  means  to  tread  vpon,) 
in  reference  to  the  bending  of  the  bow,  1  Chron.  5:  18.  8:  40.  2 
Chron.  14:  8.  Isa.  5:  28.  21:  15.  Jer.  4G:  9.  A  bow,  which  was 
too  slack,  and  which,  in  consequence  of  it,  injured  the  person,  who 
aimed  it,  was  denominated  a  deceitful  how  in^':"]  rr;? ,  Ps.  78:  57. 
IIos.  7:  16. 

The  bow,  in  order  to  prevent  its  being  injured,  was  carried 
in  a  case,  made  for  that  purpose.  The  strings  for  bows  were  made 
of  thongs  of  leather,  of  horse  hair,  and  of  the  sinews  of  oxen, 
Iliad  IV.  IIG,  124.  The  soldiers  carried  the  bow  on  the  left  arm  or 
shoulder. 

Arrows,  C^an,  were  at  first  made  of  a  reed;  subsequently 
they  were  made  from  a  light  sort  of  wood,  and  were  surmounted 
with  an  iron  point.  Whether  they  were  sometimes  dipt  in  poison  or 
not,  cannot,  at  any  rate,  be  determined  with  much  certainty  from 
Job  6:  4,  and  Deut.  32:  24.  They  were  more  commonly,  by  means 
of  the  shrub  called  the  hroom,  Qri'i ,  discharged  from  the  bow,  while 
on  fire,  Ps.  120:  4.  Job  30:  4.  It  is  in  reference  to  this  foct,  that 
arrows  are  sometimes  used  tropically  for  lightnings,  Deut.  32:  23,  42. 
Ps.  7:  13.   Zech.  9:  14. 

Quivers,  "^^n,  were  pyramidal  in  point  of  form.  They  were 
suspended  upon  the  back ;  so  that  the  soldier,  by  extending  his  right 
hand  over  his  shoulders,  could  draw  out  the  arrows,  the  small  part 
of  the  quiver  being  downward. 

§  279.  Of  the  Sling,  5^)5. 

The  Slixg,  as  there  is  ample  reason  for  believing,  may  be  justly 
reckoned  among  the  most  ancient  instruments  of  warfare,  Job 
41:  28.  The  persons,  who  used  slings,  ti"^?^;^?  't^>  ^"^^^'^  en- 
rolled among  the  light-armed  troops.  Those  slingers  were  ac- 
counted worthy  of  special  credit,  who  like  the  Benjamites,  were 
capable  in  slinging  of  using  equally  the  right  hand  or  the  left, 
Jud<Tes  20:  G.     1   Chronicles  12:  2.     There  was  need  of  almost  con- 


§  281.    BATTERING    HAMS.  343 

Slant  practice,  in  ordei-  to  secure  to  one,  any  tolerable  degree  of  suc- 
cess, in  hitting  the  mark,  1  Sam.  17:  49.  Sh'ngers  were  of  great  ad- 
vanta'^e  in  an  army,  Diodorus  Sic.  Lib.  XY.  85. 

§  280.  Of  Engines  used  in  War. 

Engines  of  war,  rrr-;,  r-'zrn.  Engines  for  warlike  opera- 
tions, which  were  the  "  inventions  of  cunning  men,"  were  erected  by 
kinT  Uzziah  upon  the  towers  and  the  angles  of  the  walls.  They 
were,  consequently,  quite  ancient  in  their  origin.  Of  these  engines, 
there  Avere  two  kinds,  viz.  catapults  and  ballistae. 

The  catapults  were  immense  bows,  which  were  bent  by  means  of  a 
machine,  and  which  threw  witli  great  force  large  arrows,  javelins,  and 
even  beams  of  wood.  The  halUstae,  on  the  other  hand,  may  be  de- 
nominated large  slings,  which  Avere  discharged  likewise  by  machines, 
and  threw  stones  and  balls  of  lead. 


§  281.  Battering  Rams,  s—a,  -3=;^  "^n-:. 

Battering  rams  are  first  mentioned  by  Ezekiel,  as  being  an  in- 
strument of  war,  in  use  among  the  Chaldeans,  Ezek.  4:  1,  2.  21:  22. 
26:  9.  But  as  they  were  certainly  not  invented  by  them,  they  were 
of  a  still  earlier  date.  They  were  long  and  stout  beams,  commonly 
of  oak,  the  ends  of  which  were  brass,  shaped  like  the  head  of  a  ram. 
They  were  at  first  carried  on  the  arms  of  the  soldiers,  and  impelled 
against  the  wall.  But  subsequently,  they  were  suspended  by  means 
of  chains  in  equilibrium,  and  in  that  way,  by  the  aid  of  the  soldiers, 
were  driven  against  it.  While  this  operation  was  going  on,  for  the 
purpose  of  breaking  through  the  wall,  the  soldiers,  who  were  imme- 
diately interested  in  it,  were  protected  from  the  missiles  of  the  enemy 
by  a  roof  erected  over  tliem,  which  was  covered  with  raw  skins. 


84'J  §  283.    CHARIOTS    OF    WAK. 


§  282.  Kksi'kcting  tiik  Cavalry. 

"We  have  spoken  of  the  ciivahy  elsewhere,  but  we  have  a  few 
remarks  more  to  make  here.  The  Maecabean  princes  saw,  that 
cavah-y  were  not  profitable  in  mountainous  places,  and  bestowed 
their  chief"  attention  upon  the  infantry,  by  means  of  which  they 
achieved  their  victories.  The  Caramanians  used  asses  in  war, 
which  gained  some  notoriety  by  terrifying  the  horses  in  the  army  of 
Cyrus,  and  putting  them  to  flight,  Isa.  21:  7.  conip.  Xenophon's  Cy- 
ropaedia,  YII.  1.  22. 

Elei'IIANTS  are  first  mentioned,  as  being  used  in  war,  in  the  his- 
tory of  Alexander's  expeditions,  but  afterwards  they  were  so  frecpient- 
ly  and  efficiently  employed,  as  to  give  them  nuich  celebrity.  Ma- 
chines, constructed  like  a  tower,  were  placed  upon  the  backs  of  these 
animals,  from  which  sometimes  no  less  than  thirty-two  soldiers  fought. 
The  foot  soldiers  were  stationed  round,  and  defended  the  elephant. 
The  one,  who  guided  liim,  was  called  the  Indian,  as  at  this  day, 

1  Mace.  G:  37.  The  elephants  themselves  also  fought,  at  the  same 
time,  against  the  enemy.  To  excite  them  to  use  their  proboscis  the 
more  efficiently,  the  soldiers  gave  them  an  intoxicating  drink  of  wine 
and  Myrrh,  1  Mace.  6:  34. 

§  283.  Of  Chariots  of  War,  a=-i    fi^2":^- 

The  annoyance,  which  the  Hebrews  most  dreaded,  when  they  met 
an  enemy  in  war,  was  that  of  chariots.  Mention  is  made  of  chariots, 
as  far  back  as  anything  is  said  of  cavalry,  Exod.  14:  G.  14:  23 — 28; 
but  they  could  not  be  used,  except  on  the  plain  country,  Dent.  20:  1. 
Josh.  17:  IG— 18.  Judg.  1:  19.  2:  7.  4:  3,  7.  After  the  time  of  Solo- 
mon, the  Hebrews  always  kept  such  chariots,  and  placed  great  re- 
liance upon  them,  2  Chron.  1:  14.  1  Kings  10:  20.  22:  32,  35.  2 
Kings  2:  12.  Chariots,  owing  to  their  efficiency  as  instruments  of 
war,  are  usi^d  i)-opical!y  for  j)rotectiun  and  defence  of  the  highest  kind, 

2  Kings  2:  12.  13:  14. 

Chariots  of  war,  like  all  others  in  the  ancient  times,  of  which 
we  are  speaking,  were  su{)ported  on  two  wheels  only,  and  were 
generally  drawn  by  two  horses,  though  sometimes  by  three  or 
four    abreast.      The    combatant    stood   upright,   upon   the   chariot. 


§  285.    GYMNASTIC    SPORTS.  345 

Xenophon  mentions  chariots,  invented  by  Cyrus,  from  each  one 
of  wliich,  twenty  men  could  tight.  Tliey  resembled  towers,  Cy- 
ropaed.  IV.  1.  16,  17.  The  end  of  the  pole  of  the  chariot,  and 
the  end  of  the  axles  were  armed  witJi  iron  scythes,  which  were 
driven  with  vast  force  among  the  enemy,  and  made  great  slaugh- 
ter. 


§  284.  Spokts  and  Exercises  preparatory  to  "War. 

In  the  earliest  periods  of  the  history  of  our  race,  every  soldier  was 
indebted  to  himself,  to  his  own  exertions,  as  a  separate  and  indepen- 
dent individual,  for  whatever  skill  he  might  possess  in  the  manage- 
ment of  weapons  of  war.  For  the  acquisition  of  skill,  nevertheless, 
even  in  those  early  days,  in  the  use  of  weapons,  the  hunting  of  wild 
beasts,  which  was  then  practised,  afforded  a  favorable  opportunity. 
But  as  hunting  itself  implied  some  previous  skill  in  the  use  of  arms, 
it  was  necessary,  that  there  should  be  some  preparatory  practice. 
Consult  Gen.  14:  14.  32:  6.  Job  IG:  12,  14.  Judg.  20:  16.  1  Chron. 
12:  1.  2  Sam.  2:  19.  1  Sam.  17:  50. 

That  such  a  preparatory  exercise  obtained  among  the  Hebrews 
is  evident  from  a  vast  number  of  passages.  It  is  no  other,  than  this 
exercise,  which  is  expressed  by  the  phrase  irj"^?  1^^  to  learn  war. 
Those  who  had  been  trained  up  in  this  way  to  the  exercise  of  arms, 
were  denominated  'n'znh'z  '''31^^  instructed  in  tear,  1  Sam.  20:  20,  35 
—40.  2  Sam.  1:  22.  ¥2':  35.  Isa.  2:  4.  Mic,  4:  3. 

§  285.    Gymnastic  Sports. 

The  gymnastic  sports  were  not  properly  military  exercises, 
but  since  they  had  a  tendency  to  prepare  youth  for  skill  in  arms  and 
war,  and  were  of  a  military  nature  in  their  commencement,  we  shall 
treat  of  them  in  this  place. 

The  sports  and  exercises  of  the  gymnasia  had  their  origin  among 
the  Greeks,  but  were  afterwards  introduced  among  other  nations. 
In  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  they  became  favorites  with 
many  of  the  Jews,  1  INIacc.  1:  14,  15.  2  Mace.  4:  12 — 14.  and  were 
finally  introduced  into  Judea  by  Herod. 

The  Gymnasia,  yvjivdoiu,  were  large  edifices,  exhibiting  in 
their  construction    an    oblong    square,  and    surrounded    externally 


346  §  285.  GYMXASTic  srouTs. 

with  a  portico.  The  cosfem  part  of  one  of  these  piles  of  biiiklingg 
was  separated  by  a  wall  from  the  rest,  and  occupied  more  than 
iialf  of  the  area,  allotted  for  the  erection  of  the  Avhole.  A  range 
of  porticoes  extended  around  three  sides  of  the  interior  of  this  part 
of  the  Gymnasium;  but  the  fourth  side  was  lined  with  a  flight  of 
chambers,  some  for  bathing,  some  for  anointing  the  body,  and  some 
to  si-rve  as  wardrobes.  The  middle  of  these  chambers  was  de- 
nominated tqi^^tioi;  EriiicDiuM,  [the  place  where  the  ep/tebi  or 
youth  exercised,]  by  which  name  the  whole  edifice  was  sometimes 
called. 

The  AREA  under  the  open  air  or  the  open  court,  including  the 
porticos  just  mentioned,  (one  range  of  which,  viz.  that  on  the  north 
side,  was  double,)  was  denominated  the  palaestra,  nuhuoTQu,  in 
which  Avere  witnessed  games  and  exercises,  dancing  and  wrestling, 
throwing  the  quoit,  and  the  combat  with  the  caestus.  The  whole  edi- 
fice was  sometimes  called  the  palaestra. 

The  tcesteim  part  of  the  Gymnasium  was  an  oblong,  and  was  sur- 
rounded by  a  portico,  in  which  the  athletae  exercised  in  unpleasant 
weather.  The  porticos  for  this  purpose  are  called  "^varo),  Xysti, 
from  which  the  other  parts  of  the  building  denominated  'S.voiu,  Xys- 
TA,  differed  in  these  particulars,  viz.  they  were  surrounded  with  rows 
of  trees,  were  not  covered  with  a  roof  at  the  top,  and  were  used,  as 
places  for  promenading. 

At  the  end  of  the  western  part  of  the  Gymnasiu.-^f,  was  the  sta- 
dhim.  It  was  a  large  semicircle,  an  hundred  and  twenty-five  geo- 
metrical paces  long,  and  was  furnished  with  seats,  which  I'an  around 
it  in  a  circuitous  manner,  and  ascended  gradually  one  above  another 
for  the  accommodation  of  the  spectators.  The  games,  which  were 
more  particularly  witnessed  in  the  stadium,  were  races  on  foot,  on 
horseback,  and  with  chariots. 

The  athletae,  after  the  fourth  century  before  Christ,  went 
wholly  naked,  as  they  found  the  clothes,  which  they  wore,  were  an 
impediment  to  celerity  of  motion.  There  was  this  exception 
merely,  that  those,  who  threw  the  quoit,  or  rode  the  chariot, 
wore  a  sort  of  very  light  garment,  1  Mace.  1:  16.  Heb.  12:  1. 
The  caestus,  to  which  an  allusion  is  made  in  1  Cor.  9:  26,  was 
a  leather  strap,  bound  by  the  athletae  around  the  right  hand 
and  fingers.  This  strap  was  wide  enough  to  receive  a  piece  of 
iron    or    lead,  Avhich  was  rolled  upon  it,  and  was  discharged,  jiv/- 


§  285.    GYMNASTIC    SPORTS.  347 

fifi'ety,  with  all  the  strength  of  the  combatant  against  his  adversary. 
It  became  the  one  against  whom  it  was  discharged,  to  be  on  the  look- 
out, and  to  avoid,  if  possible,  the  intended  blow. 

The  ciiariot-race,  which  was  run  in  the  stadium,  and  from 
which  Paul  (in  1  Cor.  9:  24—27.  2  Tim.  4:  7,  8,  and  Phil.  3:  11— 
14)  borrows  certain  illustrations,  was  as  follows.  Four  chariots  started 
at  the  same  time  for  the  goal,  which  was  at  the  further  extremity 
of  the  stadium.  The  one  who  reached  it  first  was  the  conqueror. 
Other  competitors  presented  themselves,  and  the  course  was  run 
again  by  four  at  a  time,  as  in  the  first  instance.  The  one  who  suc- 
cessively gained  the  victory  over  all  that  presented  themselves,  won 
the  crown ;  which  was  woven  of  branches  of  various  trees,  and, 
though  of  small  value  in  itself,  was  esteemed  in  the  highest  degree 
honorable.  A  crown  of  this  kind,  ^na^eior,  was  given  not  only 
to  those  who  came  off  victors  in  the  chariot-race,  but  to  those  also 
•who  succeeded  in  contests,  whatever  they  might  be,  of  a  different 
kind,  1  Cor.  9:  54.  Phil.  3:  14.  Col.  3:  15.  2  Tim.  4:  8.  Wherever 
the  victor  went,  he  received  a  branch  of  palm,  Rev.  7:  9  ;  he  was 
robed  in  a  splendid  dress,  and  escorted  with  the  highest  honors  to  his 
city  and  his  home. 

The  exercises  in  which  the  athletae  engaged,  were  by  no 
means  trivial,  or  such  as  could  be  easily  gone  through.  It  was 
necessary,  in  order  to  secure  to  themselves  an  adequate  degree 
of  strength,  that  they  should  take  a  considerable  quantity  of  nour- 
ishment ;  but  their  principal  meal  was  in  the  evening.  Their 
dinner  was  small,  and  they  were  not  at  liberty  to  eat  of  vari- 
ous kinds  of  food,  according  to  their  own  choice.  In  addition 
to  some  coarse  bread,  they  were  allowed  ten  dried  figs,  nuts, 
soft  cheese,  and  herbs.  Indeed  it  appears,  that,  in  progress  of 
time,  they  were  furnished  Avith  meat  of  the  most  nourishing  sort, 
which  was  roasted  and  eaten  with  coarse,  unleavened  bread ; 
but  they  abstained  altogether  from  wine,  and  Avere  not  permitted  to 
have  the  slightest  intercourse  with  the  other  sex,  not  even  to  look 
upon  them. 

Certain  regulations  in  regard  to  the  mode  of  conducting  the 
contest,  were  entered  into  by  them ;  and  hC  who  violated  them, 
though  he  was  in  fact  the  victor,  could  not  receive  the  crown. 
Accordingly,   as  was  indeed  very   necessary,  there  were  judges  of 


348  §  28^.    GYMNASTIC    SrOKT^. 

the  games,  who  saw  that  those  reguhitions  whioli  were  made  in 
respect  to  them  were  observed,  and  determined  who  came  oil"  con- 
queror, 2  Tim.  2:  5.    4:  8. 

As  the  games,  in  which  the  atiilktae  exerted  their  t-kiil  and 
physical  abiUty,  were  extremely  popular  among  tlie  Greeks  and 
Komans,  it  is  not  at  all  surprising,  that  they  were  objects  of  ha- 
tred in  tlie  sight  of  the  greater  part  of  the  Jews.  It  was  the  fact, 
nevertheless,  that  there  existed  among  tlie  Jews  themselves  a  sort 
of  game,  (different,  it  is  true,  from  those  of  the  Gy.mnasium,)  which 
was  practised  in  Palestine  so  late  as  the  time  of  Jerome,  and 
uf  which    a   vestige  may    still    be  discovered    in    the   Arabic  word 

G  ^  ^ 

gju^  .  This  game  consisted  in  lifting  a  stone  ;  the  one  who 
could  lift  it  higher  than  all  the  rest,  was  the  victor,  Zech.  12:  3. 

Note.  The  theatke,  which  was  introduced  by  Herod  and  his 
sons  into  Palestine,  was  an  edifice  constructed  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  describe  the  larger  half  of  a  circle.  The  games  were  exhibited 
in  that  part  of  it,  where  a  line  would  have  passed  to  enclose  precisely 
a  semicircle. 

Amphi-theatres  may  be  described  by  saying  that  they  were 
two  theatres  united ;  they  were,  of  course,  oblong  in  point  of  form, 
and  the  games  were  exhibited  in  the  centre  of  them.  The  seats, 
which  extended  around  the  interior  of  both  theatre  and  amphi- 
theatre, ascending  gradually,  one  above  another.  These  edifices 
were  left  open  at  the  top,  except  in  the  later  periods  of  the  Ro- 
man empire,  when  there  was  some  change  in  the  style  of  their 
architecture.  In  case  of  great  heat  or  of  rain,  the  opening  above 
was  enclosed  by  means  of  a  piece  of  cloth  of  a  close  texture,  ex- 
tended over  it. 

In  theatres  of  this  kind,  comedies  and  tragedies  were  acted; 
assemblies  of  the  people  were  held,  and  ambassadors  were  re- 
ceived, Acts  12:  20.  19:  29.  Among  the  Romans,  sports  also  of 
various  kinds  were  exhibited.  Tiiey  were  mostly  gymnastic  exer- 
cises ;  but  some  of  them,  in  truth,  were  of  a  very  bloody  charac- 
ter. Since  criminals,  who  had  been  condemned  by  the  laws  of 
the  country,  and  enemies  who  had  been  captured  in  war,  were  com- 
pelled to  fight  till  they  lost  their  life,  either  with  wild  beasts, 
or,  fin   order  to  gratify  the  spectators  with  the  mimic  representa- 


'  §  286.    OF    EXCAMPMF.XTS.  849 

tion  of  a  battle.)  with  one  anotlier.     Compare  1  Cor.  4:  9,  and  Ileb. 
10:  33. 


§  286.   Op  ENCAMr.AiEXTS. 

The  art  of  hiying  out  an  encampment,  cirn^ ,  r'":n': ,  Mrn-a ,  appears 
to  have  been  well  understood  in  Egypt,  long  before  the  departure 
of  the  Hebrews  from  that  country.  It  was  there,  that  Moses  became 
acquainted  with  that  mode  of  encamping,  which,  in  the  second  chap- 
ter of  Numbers,  is  prescribed  to  the  Hebrews. 

In  the  encampment  of  the  Israelites,  to  which  we  have  alluded, 
it  appears,  that  the  holy  tabernacle  occupied  the  centre.  In  reference 
to  this  circumstance,  it  may  be  remarked,  that  it  is  the  common  prac- 
tice in  the  East  for  the  prince  or  leader  of  a  tribe  to  have  his  tent 
pitched  in  the  centre  of  the  others,  and  it  ought  not  to  be  forgotten, 
that  God,  whose  tent  or  palace  was  the  holy  tahemade,  was  the  prince, 
the  leader  of  the  Hebrews.  The  tents,  nearest  to  the  tabernacle, 
were  those  of  the  Levites,  whose  business  it  was  to  watch  it,  in  the 
manner  of  a  pretorian  guard.  The  family  of  Gershom  pitched  to 
the  "West,  that  of  Kohath  to  the  South,  that  of  Merari  to  the  North. 
The  priests  occupied  a  position  to  the  East,  opposite  to  the  entrance 
of  the  tabernacle,  Num.  1:  53.  3:  21 — 38.  At  some  distance  to  the 
East,  were  the  tribes  of  Judah,  Issachar,  and  Zebulun ;  on  the  South 
were  those  of  Reuben,  Simeon,  and  Gad ;  to  the  West  were 
Ephraim,  Manasseh,  and  Benjamin  ;  to  the  North,  Dan,  Asher,  and 
Naphtali.  The  people  were  thus  divided  into  four  divisions, 
three  tribes  to  a  division ;  each  of  which  divisions  bad  its  sepa- 
rate standard,  ^sn .  Each  of  the  large  family  associations  likewise 
of  which  the  different  tribes  were  composed,  had  a  separate  stan- 
dard, termed,  in  contradistinction  from  the  other,  rix ;  and  ever}' 
Hebrew  Avas  obliged  to  number  himself  with  his  particular  division, 
and  follow  his  appropriate  standard.  The  Israelites  probably  in 
forming  their  encampment  at  this  time,  imitated  the  method 
of  the  Nomadcs,  and  formed  it  in  such  a  way,  as  to  exhibit  a  cir- 
cular appearance.  There  does  not  appear  to  be  any  proof,  that  this 
mode  of  encampment  was  especially  followed,  at  any  subsequent  pe- 
riod. 

We  learn  from  2  Sam.  10:  5  et  seq.  that  there  were  no  senti- 
nels stationed  during  the  night  in  the  encampment  of  Saul ;  which 

30 


350  §287.    ox    MILITAUY    MARCIIKS. 

was  (lone,  as  we  learn,  in  other  instances,  in  case  there  was  any  dan- 
ger, the  sentinels  relieving  each  other  at  stated  intervals,  Judg.  7:  19. 
1  Sara.  14:  IG.  2G:  14 — 17.  In  respect  to  this  point,  we  may  infer, 
moreover,  from  the  foct  of  sentinels  being  kept  perpetually  upon  the 
walls  of  the  city  in  subsequent  periods  of  the  monarchy,  that  they 
certainly  were  not  wanting  in  the  camps. 

Fires  also  were  kept  burning  before  encampments  during  tlie  night. 
Fires  of  this  kind  were  not  the  same  thing,  as  some  undertake  to  say, 
with  the  pillar  of  fire,  which  went  before  the  Israelites  in  Arabia  Pe- 
trea.     See  Num.  9:  15 — 23. 

Moses  gives  the  following  regulations  in  respect  to  the  encampment 
in  the  wilderness,  Num.  5:  1 — 4.  Deut.  23:  10 — 15. 

I.  That  every  unclean  person  shall  live  out  of  it. 

II.  [The  second  regulation,  to  which  reference  is  here  made, 
stands  in  the  English  version,  as  follows.]  "Thou  shall  have  a 
paddle  upon  thy  weapon;  and  it  shall  be,  when  thou  wilt  ease 
thyself  abroad,  thou  shalt  dig  therewith  and  turn  back,  and  cover 
that,  which  cometli  from  thee.  For  the  Lord,  thy  God,  walketh 
in  the  midst  of  thy  camp  to  deliver  thee  and  to  give  up  thine  ene- 
mies before  thee,"  etc.  A  practice  of  this  kind  is  observed  to  this 
day  among  the  Ottomans.  See  the  third  Epistle  of  Busbeque,  p. 
250. 


§  287.  Ox  Military  Marches. 

The  same  order  was  observed  by  the  Hebrews,  in  the  wilderness, 
when  on  their  march,  which  was  practised  by  them,  when  forming 
their  encampment.  As  soon  as  the  cloud  ascended  over  the  taber- 
nacle, the  priests  sounded  with  the  silver  trumpets,  ri--J":ir, ,  Num. 
9:  15 — 23,  a  warning  which  is  expressed  in  Hebrew  by  the  phrases 
n"!nn  ^"^"f^  and  nrnn  r|^n . 

'immediately  Judah,  Issachar,  and  Zebulun  on  the  East  set  for- 
ward. At  the  second  sound  of  the  trumpets,  Reuben,  Simeon,  and 
Gad  on  the  South  followed.  The  march  was  next  commenced  by 
the  Levites,  who  bore  the  parts  of  the  tabernacle,  and  the  ark  of 
the  covenant.  They  were  followed,  at  the  tldrd  sound  of  the  trum- 
pets, by  Ephraim,  Manasseh,  and  Benjamin  from  the  West,  and,  at 
the  fourth,  by  Dan,  Asher,   and   Naphtali   from   the   North,  who 


§  2S8.    ON    MILITARY    STANDARDS.  3ol 

brought  up  the  rear,  r:7 .     Eacli  one  followed  the  standard  of  his  par- 
ticular corps  and  family. 

AVhen  Ihe  cloud  descended  again,  the  encampment  was  formed  in 
the  order  mentioned  in  the  preceding  section,  Num.  2:  1,  3,  10,  17, 
18,  25,  31.  10:  5 — 8,  23—28.  That  the  Hebrews  could  not,  at  a 
subsequent  period,  after  they  had  settled  in  Palestine,  observe  the 
same  order  in  their  military  expeditions,  which  was  observed  by  them, 
while  marching  in  the  wilderness,  is  a  matter  so  evident,  that  it  hard- 
ly needs  to  be  mentioned. 

§  288.  On  Military  Standards. 

Of  military  standards,  there  were, 

I.  The  Standard,  denominated  r;'?:  degel ;  one  of  which  pertain- 
ed to  each  of  the  four  general  divisions.  The  four  standards  of 
this  name  were  large,  and  ornamented  with  colors  in  white, 
purple,  crimson,  and  dark  blue.  The  Jewish  Rabbins  assert, 
(founding  their  statement  on  Gen.  49:  3,  9,  17,  22,  which  in  this 
case  is  very  doubtful  authority,)  that  the  first  of  these  standards, 
viz.  that  of  Judah,  bore  a  lion  ;  the  second,  or  that  of  Reuben,  bore 
a  man  ;  that  of  Ephraim,  which  was  the  third,  displayed  the  figure 
of  a  hdl ;  while  that  of  Dan,  which  was  the  fourth,  exhibited  the 
representation  of  cherubim.  They  wrought  into  the  standards  with 
embroidered  work. 

II.  The  Standard,  called  r'-x  oth.  The  ensign  of  this  name 
belonged  to  the  separate  classes  of  families.  Perhaps  it  was,  ori- 
ginally, merely  a  pole  or  spear,  to  the  end  of  which  a  bunch  of 
leaves  was  fastened,  or  something  of  the  kind.  Subsequently,  it 
may  have  been  a  shield,  suspended  on  the  elevated  point  of  such 
pole  or  spear,  as  was  sometimes  done  among  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans. 

III.  Tlie  Standard,  called  c:  nes.  This  standard  was  not, 
like  the  others,  borne  from  place  to  place.  It  appears  from  Num. 
21:  8,  9,  that  it  was  a  long  pole,  fixed  into  the  earth.  A  fiag  was 
fastened  to  its  top,  which  was  agitated  by  the  wind,  and  seen  at  a 
great  distance,  Jer.  4:  G,  21.  ol:  2,  12,  27.  Ezek.  27:  7.  In  order 
to  render  it  visible,  as  far  as  possible,  it  was  erected  on  lofty  moun- 
tains, and  was  in  this  way  used  as  a  signal,  to  assemble  soldiers 
It  no  sooner  made  its  appearance  on   such  an  elevated    p(  sitlon, 


352  §  289.    RF.SPECTIXG  WAR. 

than  the  war-cry  was  uttered,  ami  the  trumpets  were  blown,  Tsa.  5: 
2G.  13:  2.  18:  3.  30:  17.  49:  22.  G2:  10—13. 

ISToTE. — It  has  been  already  remarked,  that  the  priests  blew 
alarms  and  warnings  Avith  silver  tntmpets.  It  may  further  be  obser- 
ved, that,  in  very  many  instances,  such  notices  were  given  by  means 
of  horns,  which  were  used  in  war  likewise  by  many  otlier  nations, 
Josh.  G:  4,  5.  Judg.  3:  27.  G:  34.  7:  18.  1  Sam.  13:  3.  2  Sam.  2: 
28.  18:  IG.  20:  1,  22.  Isa.  18:  3.  Jer.  4:  5,  15,  21.  G:  1,  17.  42:  14. 
51:  27.  IIos.  5:  8.  8:  1. 

§  289.   Respecting  War. 

Previously  to  commencing  Avar,  the  heathen  nations  consulted  ora- 
cles, soothsayers,  necromancers,  and  also  the  lot,  which  Avas  ascer- 
tained by  shooting  arrows  of  different  colors,  1  Sam.  28:  1 — 10.  Isa. 

41:  21 24.  Ezek.  25:  11.     The  Hebrews,  to  Avhom  things  of  this 

kind  were  interdicted,,  were  in  the  habit,  in  the  early  part  of  their 
history,  of  inquiring  of  God  by  means  of  Urim  and  TImmmim,  Judg. 
1:  1.  20:  27,  28.  1  Sam.  23:  2.  28:  G.  30:  8. 

After  the  time  of  David,  the  kings  Avho  reigned  in  Palestine, 
consulted  according  to  the  different  characters,  which  they  sustained, 
and  the  feelings,  which  they  exercised,  sometimes  true  prophets,  and 
sometimes  false,  in  respect  to  the  issue  of  war,  1  Kings  22:  6 — 13. 
2  Kings  19:  2  et  seq.,  20  et  seq.  Sacrifices  were  also  offered,  in  re- 
ference to  which  the  soldiers  were  said  "  to  consecrate  t/temsclves  to 
the  war;'  Isa.  13:  3.  Jer.  6:  4.  51:  27.  Joel  3:  9.  Obad.  1.  There 
are  instances  of  formal  declarations  of  u-ar,  and,  sometimes  of  pre- 
vious negotiations,  2  Kings  M:  8.  2  Chron.  25:  17.  Judg.  11: 12—28; 
but  ceremonies  of  this  kind  Avere  by  no  means  always  observed, 
2  Sam.  10:  1 — 12.  When  the  enemy  made  a  sudden  incursion, 
or  Avhen  the  Avar  Avas  unexpectedly  commenced,  the  alarm  Avas 
given  to  the  people  by  messengers  rapidly  sent  fbrtl),  by  the  sound 
of  Avarlike  trumpets,  by  standards  floating  on  the  loftiest  places, 
by  tlie  clamor  of  many  voices  on  the  mountains,  that  echoed 
from  summit  to  summit,  Judg.  3:  27.  G:  34.  7:  22.  19:  29,  30. 
1  Sam.  11:  7,  8.  Isa.  5:  2G.  13:  2.  18:  3.  30: 17.  49:  2.  62: 10.  Mil- 
itary expeditions  commonly  commenced  in  the  spring,  2  Sam.  11:  1, 
and  Avere  continued  in  the  summer,  but  in  tlie  Avinter,  the  soldiers 


§  200.  rRKVAUATIONS  FOR  KATTLE.  353 

Xvent  into  quarters.  Tliere  is  no  mention  made  in  Scripture  of  a  war 
being  settled  by  a  combat  between  two  individuals.  In  the  case  of 
David  and  Goliath,  it  is  true  there  was  a  challenge  and  a  combat,  but 
there  was  no  previous  agreement  between  the  two  armies,  which  pre- 
vented the  further  effusion  of  blood. 

War  is  considered  by  the  Orientals,  as  a  judgment  sent  from 
heaven.  It  is  God,  who  grants  victory  to  those  who  are  in  the 
right,  but  sends  defeat  upon  those,  who  are  in  the  wrong,  2  Chron. 
20:  12.  Isa.  66:  15,  16.  This  idea,  viz.  that  God  fights  for  the  good 
against  the  wicked,  very  frequently  discovers  itself  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, and  accounts  for  the  fact,  that,  not  only  in  the  Hebrew, 
but  also  in  the  Arabic,  Syriac,  and  Chaldaic,  words,  which  origi- 
nally signify  justice,  innocence,  or  uprightness,  signify  likewise  vic- 
tory;  and  that  words,  whose  usual  meaning  is  injustice  or  wicked- 
ness, also  mean  defeat  or  overthrow.  The  same  may  be  said  in 
respect  to  words,  which  signify  help  or  aid,  [for  instance  n""'i'-;  ,J  in 
as  much  as  the  nation,  which  conquered,  received  aid  from  God  and 
God  was  its  helper,  Ps.  7:  9.  9:  9.  26:  1.  35:  24.  43:  1.  75:  3.  76: 
13.  78:  9.  82:  8.  1  Sam.  14:  45.  2  Kings  5:  1.  Isa.  59:  17.  Habak. 
3:  8.  Ps.  20:  6.  44:  5. 


§  290.  Preparations  for  Battle. 

Before  battle  the  various  kinds  of  arras  were  put  in  the  best 
order :  the  shields  were  anointed,  and  the  soldiers  refreshed  them- 
selves by  taking  food,  lest  they  should  become  weary  and  faint 
under  the  pressure  of  their  labors,  Jer.  46:  3,  4.  Isa.  21:  5.  The 
soldiers,  more  especially  the  generals  and  kings,  except  when  they 
wished  to  remain  unknown,  (1  Kings  22:  30 — 34.)  were  clothed  in 
splendid  habiliments,  which  are  denominated,  (Ps.  110;  3,)  -■~7"'"i"!n 
the  sacred  dress.  The  Hebrew  words  for  an  army  in  battle  ar- 
ray are  p-i? ,  Tj "•: ,  n^-sr-? ,  r='^r"? .  The  phrase,  which  is  used 
to  express  the  action  of  thus  setting  an  army  in  array  is  "■"l^n 
""tV?  r ;  it  occurs  in  Genesis  14:  8,  and  very  frequently  after- 
wards, but  we  are  left  in  some  uncertainty  in  respect  to  its  pre- 
cise import.  There  is  evidence,  however,  for  stating  as  far  as 
this,  viz.  that  the  army  was  probably  divided  into  the  general 
divisions  of  centre,  and  left,  and  riglit  wing,  in  as  much,  as  there  is 
frequent  mention  made  of  cd-ib-i,  i.  e.  leaders  of  a  third  part,  Gen. 
30*    ' 


3j4  §  291.  CONCKRNING  THK  BATTLE. 

1-1:  14,  15.  Judg.  7:  10—19.  Exod.  14:  7.  1.3:  4.  2  Kings  7:  12.  17: 
19.  10:  25.  That  the  army  was  so  arranged,  as  to  form  a  phalanx 
of  some  sort,  there  can  liardly  be  room  for  a  doubt.  Bodies  of  men 
drawn  up  in  military  order,  in  some  instances,  especially  if  danger 
pressed  hard  upon  them,  performed  very  long  marches.  This  was 
the  case  with  the  Hebrews,  when  they  departed  from  Egypt,  Exodus 
13:  18.  comp.  Josh.  1:  14.  4:  12.  Judg.  7:  11.  AVhile  the  approach- 
ing army  was  at  a  distance,  there  was  nothing  discernible  but  a 
cloud  of  dust ;  as  they  came  nearer  the  glittering  of  their  arms  could 
be  discovered,  and  at  length  the  manner,  in  which  they  were  drawn 
up,  might  be  distinctly  seen,  Ezek.  2G:  10.  Isa.  14:  31.  Xenophon  in 
Expedit.  Cyri  I.  8,  5. 

It  was  the  duty  of  the  priests,  before  the  commencement  of  the 
battle,  to  exhort  the  Hebrews  to  exhibit  that  courage,  which  was 
required  by  the  exigency  of  the  occasion.  [The  words,  which  they 
used,  were  as  follows:  ''Hear,  0  Israel;  ye  approach  this  day 
unto  battle  against  your  enemies  ;  let  not  your  hearts  faint  ;  fear  not, 
and  do  not  tremble  ;  neither  be  ye  terrified  because  of  them.  For  the 
Lord,  your  God,  is  he,  that  goeth  xcith  you,  to  fight  for  you  against 
your  enemies,  to  save  you,"']  Deut.  20:  2  et  seq.  In  more  recent 
times,  exhortations  to  the  soldiers  of  this  kind  were  given  by  generals, 
and  kings,  2  Chron.  13:  4.  20:  20.  In  some  cases,  sacrifices  were 
offered,  either  by  some  prophet,  or  b}'  some  other  person,  while  he 
was  present,  1  Sara.  13:  8 — 13. 

Tiie  last  ceremony,  previous  to  an  engagement,  was  the  sounding, 
r-^-in  ,  of  the  sacred  trumpets  by  the  priests,  Num.  10:  9,  10.  2  Chron. 
13:  12—14.    1  :Macc.  3:  54. 


§  291.  Concerning  the  Battle. 

The  Greeks,  while  they  were  yet  three  or  four  furlongs  dis- 
tant from  the  enemy,  commenced  the  song  of  Avar,  something 
resembling  which,  occurs  in  2  Chron.  20:  21.  They  then  raised 
a  shout,  dlia.a'ZHr,  which  was  also  done  among  the  Hebrews, 
rr\-i,  rin,  n -"!?■;  r^'"-in  1  Sam.  17:  52.  Josh.  6:  6.  Isa.  5:  29, 
30.'  17:  V2.  Jer.  4:  19.  25:  30.  The  war-shout  in  Judges  7:  20, 
was  as  follows ;  "  The  sword  of  the  Lord,  and  of  Gideon" 
•,i."i;^i  r:Vni5  S"in.  At  other  times  perhaps,  at  least  in  some 
instances,  it  was  a  mere  yell  or  inarticulate  cry.     The  mere  march 


§  291.    COXCKUXING    TIIK    HATTLK.  355 

of  armies  witli  tlicir  weapons,  cliariots,  and  trampling  coursers,  occa- 
sioned a  great  and  confused  noise,  which  is  comj)ared  by  the  prophets 
to  the  roaring  of  the  ocean,  and  the  dashing  of  the  mountain  torrents, 
Isa.  17:  12,  13.  28:  2.  Tlie  descriptions  of  battles  in  the  Bible  are 
very  brief;  but  although  there  is  nothing  especially  said  in  respect 
to  the  order  in  which  the  battle  conunenccd  and  was  conducted,  there 
is  hardly  a  doubt  that  the  light-armed  troops,  as  was  the  case  in 
other  nations,  were  the  first  in  the  engagement.  The  main  body 
followed  them  ;  and,  with  their  spears  extended,  made  a  rapid  and 
impetuous  movement  upon  the  enemy.  Hence  swiftness  of  foot 
in  a  soldier  is  mentioned,  as  a  ground  of  great  commendation,  not 
only  in  Homer,  but  in  the  Bible.  2  Sam.  2:  10—24.  1  Chron.  12:  8. 
Ps.  18:  33. 

It  was  often  the  case  in  battle,  that  soldier  contended  personally 
with  soldier.  As,  in  contests  of  such  a  nature,  the  victory  depended 
on  personal  strength  and  prowess,  the  animosity  of  the  combatants 
became  very  much  excited,  and  the  slaughter,  in  proportion  to  the 
whole  number,  was  immense.  A  common  stratagem  of  war  among 
the  Hebrews  was  that  of  dividing  the  army  and  placing  one  part  of  it 
in  ambush,  Gen.  14:  14— IG.  Josh.  8:  12.  Judg.  20:  39.  Notwith- 
standing it  was  the  sentiment  of  the  early  times  of  which  we  are 
speaking,  that  deception  and  art  of  any  kind  whatever,  however  unjust, 
might  be  lawfully  employed  against  an  enemj-,  thei'e  is,  nevertheless, 
no  instance  of  such  deception  recorded  in  the  Bible,  except  the  one 
in  Gen.  34:  25 — 31,  and  which  is  there  far  from  being  appi'oved  of. 
If,  in  reference  to  this  statement,  we  should  be  referred  to  the  con- 
duct of  Jael,  (Judg.  4:  17 — 22)  we  should  feel  at  liberty  to  say, 
that  her  daring  deed  could  hardly  be  considered  a  stratagem,  and  at 
the  worst  was  only  pursuing  a  wrong  course  amid  the  collision  of 
opposite  duties. 

The  Hebrews,  when  about  to  attack  an  enemy,  deemed  it  a  good 
reason  for  rcjf)icing  if  they  saw  a  storm  arising,  from  the  hope 
which  they  ifidulged  in,  that  God  was  coming  in  the  clouds  to  their 
assistance,  1  Sam.  7:  10.  Judg.  5:  20,  21.  Josh.  10:  12—15.  Ilabak. 
3:  11. 

The  attack  which  is  made  by  the  Orientals  in  battle,  always 
has  been,  and  is  to  this  day,  characterized  for  vehemence  and 
impetuosity.  In  case  the  enemy  sustain  an  unaltered  front,  they 
retreat;  but  it  is  not  long  before  they  return  again,  with  renewed 


356  §  293.    CinCUMVALLATION. 

ardor.  It  was  the  practice  of  the  Roman  armic.«,  to  stand  still  in 
the  order  of  battle,  and  to  receive  the  shock  of  their  ojiposers.  To 
this  practice  there  are  allusions  in  the  following  {)assages,  viz.  1  Cor. 
IG:  13.  Gah  o:  1.  Eph.  G:  14.  Phil.  1:  27.  1  Thcss.  3:  8.  2  Thess. 
2:  15. 


§  292.  Ox  Sieges. 

In  case  an  enemy  threatened  to  attack  a  city,  guards  of  vigilant 
and  sedulous  watchmen  were  stationed  in  towers,  and  on  tlie  tops  of 
mountains,  who  made  known,  by  signs  or  by  messengers,  whatever 
they  had  observed.  At  Jerusalem,  in  an  extremity  of  this  kind,  the 
fountains  beyond  the  walls  of  the  city  were  filled  up,  Isa.  22:  9 — 11. 
Cities  were  sometimes  taken  by  sudden  and  violent  onsets,  sometimes 
by  sti-atagem,  sometimes  by  treason,  and  at  others  were  reduced  less 
expeditiously,  by  means  of  famine.  AVhen  there  were  no  machines 
to  assist  in  the  siege  and  to  break  down  the  walls,  it  Avas  much 
protracted,  and,  under  such  circumstances,  Avas  never  undertaken, 
except  as  a  last  resort.  When  a  city  was  threatened,  it  was  in  the 
first  place  invited  to  surrender,  c'lbrb  n"^'5X  x^;? ,  Deut.  20:  10.  Isa. 
3G:  1 — 20.  37:  8 — 20.  If  the  besieged  had  concluded  to  capitulate, 
the  principal  men  of  the  city  went  out  to  the  enemy's  camp,  in  order 
to  effect  the  object.  Hence  "^o  go  forth"  or  '■'■  come  out"  in  cer- 
tain connections,  mean  the  same  as  to  surrender  by  capitulation,  1 
Sam.  11:  3,  10,  11.  2  Kings  18:  31.  24:  12.  Jer.  21:  9.  38:  17,  IS.  1 
Mace.  G:  49. 

In  the  most  ancient  ages,  the  enemy  surrounded  the  city  with  a 
band  of  men,  sometimes  only  one,  at  most  only  two  or  three  deep, 
and  effected  their  object  by  assault ;  hence  the  very  common 
phrases,  "  to  eiicamp  against  a  citt/"  or  "  to  pitch  against "  and 
«  to  straiten  it,"  Josh.  10:  5.  Judg.  9:  50.  1  Sam.  11:  1.  2  Kings  25: 
1.  Isa.  29:  3. 


§  293.    ClUCU.MVALLATION,    7l£Ql7£l)^og,    p^"^ ' 

Circumvallation  was  known  in  the  time  of  Moses,  also  the  mound 
called  nhhb,  Deut.  20:  19,  20,  although  it  is  not  mentioned  again 
afterwards  till  2  Sam.  20:  15. 

The   besiegers,   when   the   siege   promised   to  be   of   long   con- 


§  294.  THE  besieger's  mound.  357 

tinuance.  dug  a  ditch  between  themselves  and  the  city,  for  tlieir  own 
security,  and  anutlier  parallel  to  it  outside,  so  as  to  enclose  their  camp 
on  both  sides,  and  to  prevent  being  attacked  in  rear,  as  well  as  in 
front.  The  earth  thrown  out  of  the  diteh,  formed  a  wall,  on  which 
towers  were  erected.  The  inhabitants  of  the  city  shut  up  in  this 
way  perished  by  degrees,  by  famine,  pestilence,  and  missile  weapons, 
2  Kings  -lb:  1.  Jer.  52:  4.  Ezek.  4:  2.  17:  17.  2  Kings  G:  28—31. 
Ezek.  4:  10—15.  5:  10—15.  Jer.  32:  24.  34:  17. 


§  294.  The  Besieger's  Mouxd,  riVsb. 

The  besiegei-s,  in  order  to  succeed  against  the  walls  of  the  city, 
when  they  were  elevated  and  strong,  cast  up  a  mound  of  earth 
and  strengthened  it  on  both  sides  with  beams  of  timber.  It  ran  in  an 
oblique  direction  from  the  lines  of  circimivallation  towards  the 
less  strongly  fortified  pai'ts  of  the  city,  and  sometimes  equal- 
led in  altitude  the  city  wall  itself.  The  erection  of  this  mound  or 
wall  is  expressed  by  the  Hebrew  phrase,  T^rri  i^  rtbVo  "2-, 
literally  to  cast  vp  a  bank  against  the  city,  2  Sam.  20:  15.  2  Kings 
19:  32.  Jer.  6:  6.  32:  24.  33:  4.  Ezek.  4:  2.  17:  17—23.  26:  8. 
The  inhabitants  of  the  city  fought  against  the  mound  with  missile 
weapons ;  the  besiegers,  on  the  contrary,  posting  themselves  upon 
it,  threw  their  weapons  into  the  city.  In  the  meanwhile  the  batter- 
ing rams  were  erected  and  made  to  move  forward,  in  order  to  break 
down  the  city  wall,  in  which  case,  the  besiegers  frequently  erected 
another  wall  inside  of  the  first,  in  doing  which  they  tore  down  the 
contiguous  houses,  and  employed  their  timbers  in  its  erection,  Isa- 
22:  10.  Sometimes  the  besieged,  when  they  had  captivated  any 
of  the  more  distinguished  of  the  assailants,  scourged  them  or  slew 
them  on  the  walls,  or  sacrificed  them,  that  they  might  intimidate  their 
enemies,  and  influence  them  to  depart,  2  Kings  3:  27.  AVhen  the 
wall  was  broken  through  n"J";s  !i3,  Ezek.  21:  27,  and  the  besiegers 
had  entered,  the  remainder  of  it,  at  least  in  a  great  degree,  was 
thrown  down,  as  was  the  case,  when  the  city  capitulated,  2  Kings  14: 
13.  2  Chron.  25:  23,  24.  The  expressions,  to  draio  a  city  with  ropes 
vUo  a  valley  or  7-ii-er,  (2  Sam,  17:  13,)  is  a  proverbial  boast. 


358  §  295.  ON  TiiK  coxsi:quexck3  of  victory. 


§  295.  On  TiiK  coNSKQuicNCF.s  OF  Victory. 

Anciently,  iillliougli  liiinianity  was  considered  pniisewortiiy, 
the  power  of  the  conquerors  owned  no  limitation  ;  liocks  and  cat- 
tle, the  fruits  of  the  earth,  fields,  gardens,  and  houses,  together 
with  ihc  idol  gods  of  the  conquered,  fell  into  their  possession. 
They  sold  the  wives  and  children  also,  of  those,  whom  they  had 
subdued,  for  slaves,  and  razed  their  cities  to  the  ground,  2  Sam. 
5:  21.  2  Chron.  25:  14.  Hos.  10:  5,  G.  Jer.  46:  25.  48:  7.  The 
principal  men  among  the  conquered,  the  soldiers,  and  the  artificers, 
who  were  employed  in  the  construction  of  arms,  and  the  erection 
of  fortifications,  were  sent  away  into  distant  provinces.  The 
conquerors,  however,  were  not  always  destitute  of  humanity.  In 
many  instances  they  permitted  the  concjuered  kings  to  retain  their 
authority,  only  requiring  of  them  the  promise  of  good,  faith,  and 
the  payment  of  tribute.  In  case  the  kings,  who  were  thus  used, 
rebelled,  they  were  treated  with  the  greatest  severity.  Gen.  14:  4. 
2  Kings  23:  34.  24:  1,  14.  Isa.  24:  2.  Jer.  20:  5,  6.  The  soldiers, 
who  were  taken,  were  deprived  of  all  their  property  and  sold  naked 
into  servitude.  When  the  city  was  taken  by  assault,  all  the  men 
■were  slain ;  the  women  and  children  were  carried  awaj  prisoners, 
and  sold  at  a  very  low  price,  Mic.  1: 11.  Isa.  47:  3.  20:  3,  4.  2  Chron. 
28:  9—15.  Ps.  44:  12. 

We  might,  therefore,  well  expect  the  great  lamentation  and 
wailing,  which  were  customary  among  those,  who  were  conquer- 
ed. Those,  who  were  able  to,  made  their  escape,  Isa.  IG:  1 — G. 
Jer.  41:  5.  43:  G.  Those,  who  could  not  escape,  threw  away  their 
gold  and  silver,  that  they  might  be  the  more  safe  from  the  cruel- 
ty of  the  soldiers,  Ezek.  7:  19.  The  fugitives  sought  for  safety  in 
the  tops  of  mountains,  in  caves,  and  amid  rocks;  hence  God  on 
account  of  the  protection  he  affords  is  called  a  roch  ^,r^ ,  Judg.  20: 
47,  48.  Jer.  4:  29.  IG:  IG.  22:  20.  Ezek.  7:  7,  17.  Isa.  26:  4.  The 
proi)hets  sometimes  represent  the  calamity  of  subjection  by  a 
foreign  power,  as  a  great  drunkenness,  which  is  an  evil  every 
where,  but  peculiarly  so  in  the  East.  Further,  as  the  fortune  or 
destiny  of  man  is  somelimcs  called  a  cup,  so  tins,  (one  of  the  mu.-t 
afflictive  events,  that  could  fall  lo  the  lot  of  man,)  was  denominated 


§  295.    ON    TIIK    CONSEQUEXCF.S    OF    VICTORY.  359 

the  Clip  of  reeling  or  staggering,  ~=^'";r!  c't,  Jer.  25:  15 — 31.  Nali. 
3:  11.  Zech.  12:  2.  Ps.  75:8. 

If  the  conqueror  came  in  tlie  capacity  of  a  revenger  of  former 
injuries,  he  frequently  cut  down  trees,  obstructed  the  fountains, 
filled  the  cultivated  fields  with  stones,  and  reduced  the  ground  to 
a  state  of  barrenness  for  many  years.  This  mode  of  procedure 
was  forbidden  to  the  Hebrews  by  the  law  in  Deut.  20:  19,  20; 
but  the  prohibition  was  not  always  regarded,  as  appears  from  1 
Chron.  20:  1.  2  Kings  3:  18 — 25.  The  captivated  kings  and  nobles 
were  bound,  their  eyes  were  put  out,  and  their  bodies  mutilated, 
they  were  thrown  upon  the  ground,  and  trodden  under  feet,  till 
they  died,  Judg.  1:  6,  7.  2  Kings,  25:  7.  Josh.  10:  24.  The  captives 
were  sometimes  thrown  down  upon  thorns,  sawn  asunder,  or  beaten 
to  pieces  with  threshing  instruments,  2  Sam.  12:  31.  1  Chron.  20:  3. 
Judg,  8:  7. 

Frequently  old  men,  women,  and  children,  were  slaughtered, 
and  thrown  into  heaps,  2  Kings  8:  12.  IIos.  10:  14.  Isa.  13:  17,  18. 
Even  '•  the  women  with  child  were  ripped  up,"  Isa.  13:  16 — 18. 
2  Kings  8:  12.  Amos  1:  13.  In  defence  of  these  cruehies,  the  aven- 
gers were  unable  to  plead  the  precepts  or  the  example  of  Moses, 
since  the  excision  of  the  Canaanites,  of  which  we  shall  hereafter 
speak,  was  a  case  of  peculiar  kind,  as  was  also  the  -'•n  or  irrevo- 
cable curse,  by  which,  in  certain  cases,  every  living  thing  in  the 
conquered  country  was  devoted  to  death,  and  property  of  all  kinds 
was  consigned  to  the  flames,  or  preserved  merely  for  the  sanctu- 
ary ;  by  which  it  was  required,  also,  that  the  city  should  be  level- 
led with  the  ground,  that  the  site  should  be  sowed  with  salt,  and 
a  curse  pronounced  upon  every  one,  who  should  afterwards  re- 
build it.  Lev.  27:  21,  28,  29.  Num.  18:  14.  Deut.  13:  17.  The 
object  of  this  curse,  or  vow,  was  to  make  an  example  of  certain 
idolatrous  nations,  and  thereby  to  deter  others  from  involving 
themselves  in  the  same  guilt,  and  revolting  in  like  manner  against 
God. 

In  some  cases  the  conquered  nations  were  merely  made  tributaries, 
2  Sam.  8:  G.  2  Kings  14:  4.  To  be  a  tributary,  however,  was  con- 
sidered a  great  ignominy,  and  was  a  source  of  reproach  to  the  itlol 
deities  of  the  countries  who  were  thus  subjected,  2  Sam.  8:  G.  2  Kings 
19:  8—13.   Isa.  7:  20.  Ps.  9:  20. 

The   conquerors  were   intoxicated   with  joy ;   the   shout   of  vio- 


3G0         §    20G.    ox    TIIK    SKVI.IUTIF.S    OF   AXCIKNT    AVAUIVKE. 

(ory  resounded  on  their  tops  from  mountain  to  mountain,  T.^a.  42:  11. 
o2:  7,8.  ,Ter.  .00:  2.  Ezek.  7:  7.  Xali.  1:  lo.  The  whoh^  of  the 
people,  not  excejjting  the  \V(im(n.  went  out  to  meet  the  returning 
conquei'ors  with  singing  and  willi  dancing,  Judg.  11:  34 — .37.  1 
Sam.  IH:  G,  7.  Triumphal  songs  were  uttered  for  the  Hving, 
and  elegies  ior  the  dead,  2  Sam.  1:  17,  18.  2  Chron.  3.'>:  2').  Judg. 
5:  1 — 31.  I^xod.  15:  1 — 21.  ^Monuments  in  honor  of  the  victory 
were  erected,  2  Sam.  8:  13.  Ts.  GO:  1.  and  the  arms  of  the  enemy 
were  hung  up,  as  trophies,  in  the  temples,  1  Sam.  31:  10.  2  Kings 
11:  10.  The  soldiers,  who  conducted  meritoriously,  were  honored 
with  presents,  and  had  the  opportunity  of  entering  into  honorable 
matrimonial  connections,  Josh.  xiv.  1  Sam.  17:  25.  18:  17.  2  Sam. 
18:  11. 

David  instituted  a  separate  corps  or  order  of  military  men,  viz. 
those  who  were  most  renowned  for  their  warlike  deeds,  2  Sam.  23: 
8—39.  1  Chron.  11:  10—50. 

Many  nations  were  in  the  habit  of  leaving  the  bodies  of  their 
enemies,  as  a  prey  to  the  wild  beasts  and  birds,  (1  Sam.  17:  44.  Jer. 
25:  33,)  and  the  feast,  which  was  given  to  these  destroyers,  is  repre- 
sented, as  ha'ving  been  prepared  by  God  himself,  the  judge  of  nations. 
Frequently  the  lifeless  bodies  of  men,  who  had  been  distinguished, 
were  given  up  to  their  relations,  2  Sam.  2:  32.  21:  14.  Ezek.  39:  11 
— 14;  sometimes  they  were  made  the  subjects  of  insults,  1  Sam.  31: 
8.  The  Hebrews,  whether  citizens  at  home  or  soldiers  in  war,  when- 
ever they  came  in  contact  with  a  dead  body,  were  rendered  unclean, 
and  were  obliged  by  the  Mosaic  law  to  purify  themselves,  Num.  31: 
19—24. 

§  29 G.  On  the  Severities  of  ancient  Warfake. 

Anciently  war  was  characterized  by  deeds  of  ferocity  and  cru- 
elty. The  Hebrews,  therefore,  have  a  claim  on  our  forgiveness, 
if,  in  some  instances,  they  resorted  to  those  cruel  measures,  which 
were  universally  prevalent  in  their  day,  in  order  to  strike  terror 
u[)on  other  nations,  to  deter  them  from  committing  injuries  upon 
themselves,  and  to  secure  their  own  tranquillity.  There  are  some 
things,  however,  in  their  history,  which  cannot  be  approved,  2 
Kings  15:  IG.  2  Chron.  25:  12.  Judg.  8:  4—21.  20:  1—30.  Still,  as 
hinted  above,  their  severity  in  all  instances  cannot  be  condemned, 


§  207.   JUSTICE  OF  THE  AVAR  AGAINST  THE  CANAANITES.      3G1 

for  it  is  jH-niiittt'il,  by  the  natural  law  of  nation?,  to  a  people,  to 
inflict  as  many,  and  as  great  evils,  upon  an  enemy,  as  shall  be  ne- 
cessary to  deter  others  from  committing  the  like  ofllnce.  The 
prevalent  state  of  feeling  among  nations,  whether  it  tend  to  kindness 
or  to  cruelty,  will  determine,  how  much  is  necessary  to  secure  such 
an  object.  Nations  anciently  could  not  exhibit  that  humanity  and 
forbearance  in  war,  which  are  common  among  modern  European  na- 
tions, without  running  the  risk  of  exposing  themselves  to  every  sort 
of  injury,  Num.  31:  14,  15.  2  Sam.  12:  31.  comp.  2  Sam.  10:  1—5. 
11:  1.  Amos  1:  13.  2  Sam.  8:  2.  comp.  2  Kings  3:  27.  Amos  2:  1. 
For  the  most  part,  however,  the  Hebrews  were  comparatively  mild 
and  humane,  2  Sam.  8:  2.  1  Kings  20:  30—43.  2  Kings  6:  21—23. 
2  Chron.  28:  8. 

§  297.  Justice  of  the  War  against  the  Canaanites. 

The  cause  of  the  expulsion  of  the  Canaanites  is  stated  in  Gen. 
15:  16,  to  have  been  the  corruption  of  morals,  -which  prevailed 
among  them.  God  took  it  upon  himself,  in  his  providence,  to 
punish  this  corruption,  and,  in  the  estimation  of  many  persons, 
employed  the  Hebrews,  as  the  instruments  of  his  justice,  and  gave 
to  them  (jus  belli.)  the  right  of  carrying  on  the  war  in  question. 
But  while  this  is  conceded,  viz.  that  God  designed  to  punish  the 
moral  delinquencies  of  the  Canaanites  and  gave  to  the  Hebrews 
JUS  BELLI,  it  is  still  inquired,  why  God  did  not  send  the  Hebrews 
against  some  other  nations  not  less  corrupt,  as  well  as  against  the 
Canaanites,  and  why  he  chose  to  select  the  Hebrews  in  prefer- 
ence to  any  other  people.  Something  further,  therefore,  remains  to 
be  said. 

Those,  who  maintain,  that  the  Hebrews  attacked  the  Canaan- 
ites with  no  other  right  or  justice,  than  is  common  to  other  emi- 
grating nations,  who,  in  pursuit  of  new  habitations,  have  expel- 
led the  people  from  the  land,  where  their  ancestors  had  anciently 
dwelt,  say  in  effect,  that  they  had  no  right  or  justice  on  their  side 
at  all.  What  they  state  in  further  defence  of  their  opinions,  viz. 
that  the  sentiment  prevailed  during  the  early  period  in  question, 
that  the  nation,  which,  with  the  divine  favor,  and  approbation, 
conquered  another,  did  it  justly,  proves  nothing,  because  the  very 
chapter.  (Judg.  11:  24.)  to  which  they  appeal,  actually  announces, 
31 


802     §  •2',>7.  .usTici:  of  tiiic  avar  against  the  canaanitks. 

on  the  [lait  of  the  Israelite?,  a  riglit  of  possession,  in  respect  to  the 
land  of  Canaan,  altogether  different,  Judg.  11:  12 — 28.  So  that, 
tliongh  it  l)e  true,  that  tliey  were  in  the  habit  of  identifying  success 
with  justice,  and  of  saying,  that  the  nation,  which  conquered,  was 
favored  of  God  and  in  the  right,  it  is  evident,  in  this  ease,  they  had 
other  and  more  legitimate  grounds  for  the  war. 

Further,  if  the  Hebrews  had  attacked  the  Canaaniles  with  the 
same  right  that  other  emigrating  nations  have  attacked  those,  who 
came  in  their  way,  i.  c.  with  no  right  at  all,  they  would  not  have 
spared  the  Edomites,  Moabites  and  Ammonites,  nor  have  asked  of  the 
Amorites  a  peaceable  passage  over  the  Jordan,  Num.  20: 14 — 22.  21: 
4,  10—31.  22:  1—35.  31:  3—54.  Dent.  2:  4—12,  IG— 37. 

The  truth  is,  that  Abraham  with  his  servants  and  his  flocks  had 
originally  occupied  the  jtastures  of  Canaan,  and  had  virtually  de- 
clared by  the  wells,  which  he  dug,  and  the  altars  he  erected,  his  right 
to  the  land,  and  his  determination  to  hold  it,  Gen.  12:  5,  6,  8,  9.  21: 
25—30.  comp.  13:  4, 14, 18.  15:  7,  13—21.  17:  8.  This  rATRiARCii 
left  the  soil,  to  be  occupied  after  his  death,  not  to  Ishmael,  but  to 
Isaac  ;  who  in  turn  transmitted  it  to  Jacoh.  to  the  exclusion  of  Esau. 
The  Canaanites,  it  is  true,  were  at  that  time  in  the  land,  (Gen.  12:  6,) 
but  they  were  few  in  number,  and  occupied  only  a  small  part  of  it. 
The  Patriarchs,  therefore,  had  come  into  a  fair  and  undeniable  pos- 
session of  this  territory,  and  furthermore  had  occupied  it,  in  their  own 
persons,  for  two  hundred  and  fifteen  years  ;  and  Jacob  and  his  sons, 
when  they  emigrated  into  Egypt,  were  so  far  from  abdicating  the 
country,  or  giving  up  their  right  to  it,  that  they  evidently  went  away, 
with  a  determination  to  return.  Gen.  48:  4,^21,  22.  49:  1 — 20.  comp. 
1  Chron.  7:  21,  24.  During  the  abode  of  the  Hebrews  in  Egypt,  the 
Canaanites,  who  had  increased  in  numbers,  occupied  the  whole  of  the 
territory,  and  the  Hebrews  who  were  thus  excluded  from  their  own 
soil,  soon  had  evidence,  that  there  was  not  the  least  prospect  of  their 
recovering  it,  except  by  an  appeal  to  arms.  It  belonged  to  the  Ca- 
naanites to  make  the  first  advances  toward  an  amicable  adjustment, 
but,  as  they  declined  it,  they  owed  the  consequences  of  the  war,  disas- 
trous as  they  were,  to  the  course  which  they  themselves  had  pursued, 
Josh.  11:  19.  9:  3-20. 


§  297.  RIGHT  OF  THE  iskakliti:s  to  i'ai.kstixe.         3G3 

Note.  General  View  of  (he  Arfjnmott  that  Palestine  had,  from 
time  immemorial,  been  the  proper!//  of  Hebrew  Herdsmen  ;  and  that  the 
Israelites  had  a  right  to  claim  it  again  from  the  Canaanites,  on  the 
ground  that  they  were  unlawful  possessors. 

[As  the  propriety  of  Dr.  Jahn's  conclusions  in  the  above  section 
depends  essentially  on  the  proof  which  can  be  exhibited,  that  the 
Hebrews  in  fact  originally  possessed  Palestine,  and  had  not  done 
anything  by  way  of  relinquishing  such  possession,  but  on  the  con- 
trary had,  in  various  ways,  asserted  the  continuance  of  their  claim 
to  said  territory,  it  will  be  proper  to  give  in  this  place  a  general 
view  of  the  argument,  which  is  gone  into,  to  show  that  such  was 
the  case.  The  opinions  of  our  author  coincide  in  the  main  on 
this  subject,  with  those  of  the  ingenious  writer  of  Commentaries  on 
the  Laws  of  Moses ;  and  it  will  probably  answer  all  the  purpose  for 
those  by  whom  this  translation'  will  be  read,  if  the  statement  of 
that  writer,  which  forms  the  31st  Article  of  his  Work,  should  be  here 
inserted.] 

["From  time  immemorial,  Palestine  had  been  a  land  accupied 
by  wandering  Hebrew  herdsmen,  in  which  even  Abraham,  Isaac, 
and  Jacob,  had  exercised  the  right  of  proprietorship,  traversing  it 
with  herds,  without  being  in  subjection  to  any  one,  or  acknowledg- 
ing the  Canaanites  as  their  masters.  The  Phenicians  or  Canaan- 
ites, were  certainly  not  the  original  possessors  of  this  land,  but  had 
at  first  dwelt  on  the  Red  Sea,  as  Herodotus  relates;  with  whom 
Justin  and  Abulfeda  in  so  far  coincide,  as  that  the  former  says, 
that  they  had  another  country  before  they  came  to  dwell  on  the 
Lake  of  Gennesareth,  or  Dead  Sea ;  and  the  latter,  that  they  first 
dwelt  in  Arabia.  Moses  is  so  far  from  contradicting  Herodotus 
here,  as  has  been  commonly  believed,  that  he  rather  expressly 
confirms  his  account,  by  twice  saying  in  the  history  of  Abraham, 
Tlie  Canaanites  xcere  then  in  the  land,  Gen.  12:  G,  and  13:  7.  The 
word  then,  cannot  imply  that  the  contrary  was  the  case  in  his  own 
time;  for  then  the  Canaanites  still  dwelt  in  Palestine,  and  their 
expulsion  only  began  under  his  successor,  Joshua  ;  so  that  he 
gives  us  clearly  to  understand,  that  there  had  formerly  been  a 
time  when  they  dwelt  not  in  that  land,  but  somewhere  else.  But 
another  relation  which  he  gives  in  Gen.  30:  20 — 30,  compared  with 
Deut.  2:  12,  22,  is  still  more  decisive.  He  there  describes  an  ancient 
people  that,  before  the  time  of  Edom,  had  dwelt  in  Seir,  or  as  we 


3G4  §  297.  iMGiiT  OF  TiiK  israi:liti:s 

now  call  it,  Iilumca,  and  whom,  from  their  living  in  subterraneous 
cavern-s  he  denominates  Ilorltes,  or  Troglodites.  Of  this  nation, 
was  that  one  of  Esau's  wives  mentioned  Gen.  3G:  2,  24 ;  and  as 
Moses  elsewhere  relates  that  Esau  had  tliree  wives,  two  of  Canaan- 
itish  descent,  and  the  third  a  grand-daughter  of  Abraham,  (Gen.  2G: 
04,  3."),  and  28:  8,  9,)  it  evidently  follows,  that  the  Horites  who  of 
old  iiduibited  Idumea,  must  have  been  Canaanites.  Consequently, 
tiie  Canaanites  originally  dwelt  in  the  region  afterwards  called 
Lhnnea,  and  on  the  Red  Sea ;  but  when  they  began  to  carry  on  the 
commerce  of  the  world,  for  which  they  became  so  renowned  in  his- 
torv.  they  migrated  into  Palestine,  the  situation  of  which  was  pecu- 
liarly advantageous  for  that  purpose.  It  would  ai)pear,  that  at  first 
they  only  established  trading-marts  and  factories,  which  could  not 
but  be  very  acceptable  to  the  v/andering  hordes,  because  they  gave 
them  an  opportunity  of  converting  their  sui)eriluous  produce  into 
money,  and  of  purchasing  foreign  commodities.  By  degrees  they 
spread  themselves  further  into  the  country,  improved  the  lands, 
planted  vineyards,  and  at  last  dispossessed  the  ancient  inhabitants ; 
just  exactly  as  their  descendants  did  at  Carthage,  who  first  asked 
for  a  hide-breadth  of  ground  whereon  to  sit,  and  then  by  an  artful 
explanation,  got  a  bargain  of  as  much  room  as  was  sufficient  to 
build  a  city  on,  and  in  the  end  made  themselves  masters  of  the 
whole  country.  As  early  as  Abraham's  time,  coniplaints  were 
made  of  the  herds  not  having  sufficient  room,  from  the  Canaan- 
ites being  then  in  the  land,  and  crowding  it.  But  this  always 
went  on  further  and  further;  and  when  the  Israelites  had  for  a 
time  gone  down  to  Egpyt,  the  Canaanites  at  last  approi)riated 
to  themselves  the  whole  country.  This  land  of  their  forefathers, 
and  their  nation,  the  Israelites  had  never  given  up  to  the  Canaan- 
ites ;  and  therefore  they  had  a  right  to  reclaim  it,  and  to  re-conquer 
it,  by  force.  If  they  solicited  from  other  nations  a  passage  into 
Palestine,  it  was  merely  to  come  at  their  own  property  again ; 
and  when  they  passed  the  Jordan,  and  ibund  the  Canaanites  in  arms 
against  them,  the  latter  had  no  longer  a  legitimate  cause  to  maintain, 
for  they  wanted  to  keep  possession  of  the  property  of  another  people 
by  force. 

"It  cannot  even  be  here  objected,  that  the  Israelites,  by  their 
descent  into  Eg}'pt,  had  abandoned  their  right,  or  that  they  lost  it 
by  prescription.     They  went  down   to  Egypt  only  for  a  time,  on 


TO    PALKSTINE.  3G.J 

account  of  a.  famine ;  and  it  was  with  the  hope  and  determination 
of  retnrning  again,  as  the  divine  promise  given  to  Jacob,  Genesis  46: 
4,  conlirnis.  I  do  not  here  inquire  into,  or  draw  any  conclusion 
from  the  divinity  of  the  promise  :  it  is  sufficient  for  me  that, 
whether  true  or  false,  Jacob  gave  out,  that  he  had  in  a  vision  such 
a  promise  made  him ;  because  it  proves  the  certainty  of  his  hav- 
ing it  in  view,  and  making  no  secret  of  it,  that  his  posterity  should 
one  day  go  back  to  Palestine.  Whether  prescription  holds  among 
nations,  the  single  case  excepted,  where  possession  goes  back  to 
times  of  which  history  gives  no  certain  account,  and  where  of 
course,  in  default  of  other  deductions,  prescription  does  inter- 
fere ;  and  again,  how  long  a  period  may  be  requisite  to  prescrip- 
tion in  the  law  of  nature  and  nations,  (longer,  no  doubt,  than  in 
civil  law)  I  will  not  here  stop  to  inquire ;  for  prescription  cannot 
operate  at  all  where  a  people  avow  and  maintain  their  rights 
with  sufficient  publicity  ;  and  this  was  done  by  the  Israelites.  Jacob 
went  down  into  Egypt  with  a  conviction  that  his  descendants 
should,  under  the  divine  guidance,  return  to  Palestine ;  nor  would 
he  allow  himself  to  be  buried  any  where  else  than  in  his  own 
hereditary  sepulchre  in  Palestine,  exacting  from  his  son  Joseph  an 
oath  for  that  pur^iose,  (Genesis  47:  29 — 31).  And  his  burial  was 
conducted  with  such  solemnity,  (Gen.  50:  7 — 13.)  that  the  people 
in  Palestine  could  not  possibly  entertain  a  doubt  of  the  intention 
of  the  Israelites  to  return  thither  at  some  future  period.  But 
were  the  matter  considered  still  as  somewhat  doubtful,  because 
Moses  does  not  expressly  mention  this  as  the  reason  of  Jacob's 
desire  to  be  carried  thither ;  on  the  occasion  of  the  death  of  Joseph, 
it  is  placed  in  the  clearest  light.  For  he  testifies  to  his  brethren, 
his  certain  hope  that  God  would  re-conduct  their  posterity  into 
Palestine;  and  therefore  he  desired  not  to  be  buried  in  Egypt, 
but  begged  that  his  body  might,  after  the  ancient  Egyptian  man- 
ner, remain  uninterred,  while  they  continued  there,  and  be  car- 
ried with  the  people  at  their  general  return  into  the  promised 
land,  and  laid  in  the  sepulchre  of  his  fathers.  Such  was  his  anx- 
iety on  these  points,  that  he  made  his  brethren  swear  that  they 
would  carefully  attend  to  them ;  and  accordingly  we  find,  that 
when  he  died,  they  did  not  bury  him,  but,  as  was  not  unusual  among 
the  Egyptians,  let  him  remain  embalmed  in  his  coffin,  until  their 
descendants,  at  their  departure  for  Palestine,  carried  his  remains 
31* 


3GG  §  297.  nioiiT  of  tiik  Israelites 

along  with  tliem,  Gen.  50:  21 — 30.  Exod.  13:  19.  Could  a  jjcople 
have  given  a  stronger  proof  of  their  cmi»uis  reverteiidi,  and  that 
.they  had  not  forever  abandoned  their  ancient  country  ?  Was  it 
necessary  (I  think  not)  that  they  should  liave  sent  a  notary  every 
thirty-three  years,  to  protest  against  the  forfeiture  of  their  rights  ? 
Even  the  Egyptians  well  knew  the  expectations  of  the  Israelites 
on  this  Iiead ;  and  that  was  the  principal  reason  of  their  oppres- 
sions towards  a  people  that  were  not  to  remain  forever  within 
their  country,  and  in  subjection  to  thein.  For  although  from  the 
first  they  did  not  intend  to  let  them  go,  yet  they  were  afraid, 
from  the  ra[)id  increase  of  their  numbers,  that  if  a  war  took  place, 
they  might  side  with  the  enemy,  and  not  perliaps  conquer  the 
country,  but  depart  from  it ;  *  or,  as  the  proper  expression  is,  go 
vp:  for  we  must  recollect,  that  to  go  from  Egypt  to  Palestine, 
was,  in  the  idiom  of  the  Hebrews,  to  ascend;  and,  race  versa,  from 
Palestine  to  Egypt,  was  to  descend.  From  the  representation  we 
have  now  given  of  the  origin  of  the  war,  it  will  be  easy  to  per- 
ceive (what  to  a  reader  of  the  IMosaic  liistory  must  otherwise  appear 
at  first  veiy  strange)  why  Moses  did  not  attack  the  Canaan- 
ites  beyond  Jordan ;  but  from  Og,  king  of  Bashan,  and  Sihon, 
king  of  the  Amorites,  requested  nothing  more  than  an  unmolested 
passage,  and  only  had  recourse  to  arms  when,  instead  of  granting  it, 
they  marched  hastily  into  the  wilderness  to  meet  him,  and  offered 
him  battle.  Tlie  reason  was  manifestly  this,  that  the  Israelites  laid 
no  claim  to  the  country  beyond  Jordan,  but  only  to  the  pasture- 
grounds  that  from  time  immemorial  had  belonged  to  the  Hebrew 
herdsmen,  and  which  their  ancestors,  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob, 
had  actually  occupied  with  their  cattle. 

" '  But  might  they  not  at  least  have  left  to  the  Canaanites  those 
trading-cities  which  had  been  built,  without  opposition  from  their 
ancestors?'  This  question  is  easily  answered.  If  a  foreign  peo- 
ple, whom  we  permit  to  establish  factories  and  trading-cities  in 
our  land,  shall  so  abuse  our  generosity,  as  to  dispossess  us,  and 
gradually  appropriate  to  themselves  our  whole  country ;  and  when 
we  wish  to  return  to  our  ancient  abode,  shall  meet  us  with  arms 
in  their  hands,  in  order  to  prevent  it ;  and  shall,  finally,  have  be- 
come so  extremely  wicked  as  to  render  it  impossible  for  us  to 
live  with  them,  without  having  our  morals  corrupted — we  cer- 
tainly are  under  no  obligation  to  leave  to  them  these  factories  and 
*  Sec  Exodus  1:  9,  10. 


TO    PALESTINE.  3C7 

trading  cities,  and  thereby  expose  ourselves  anew  to  tlie  risk  of  such 
corruption. 

" '  But  were  not  the  Israelites  in  duty  bound  first  to  send  the  her- 
alds, and  formally  demand  their  lands  again  from  the  Canaanites  ?' 
This  question  I  must  leave  completely  unanswered,  partly  because  it 
belongs  to  the  yet  controverted  point  whether  certain  solemnities  are 
or  are  not  necessary  at  the  commencement  of  a  war,  by  wa}'  of  de- 
claration, ami  particularly,  because  we  do  not  know  whether  Moses 
and  Joshua  did  so  or  not. 

'■  By  way  of  conclusion,  I  must  still  take  notice  of  tico  objections, 
which  Mr.  Oepke  has  made  to  my  opinion,  and  on  which  I  have  not 
yet  touched.  But  because  they  are  of  more  weight  than  those  before 
noticed,  I  ought,  perhaps,  rather  to  ascribe  them  to  Professor  Stie- 
britz  himself. 

"  In  the  Jirst  place,  he  is  of  opinion,  '  that  the  Israelites 
ought  not  to  have  re-appropriated  a  land  possessed  by  wandering 
herdsmen,  unless  all  the  posterity  of  such  herdsmen  ha<l  transfer- 
red their  rights  to  them.'  But  let  it  be  remembered,  that  the 
question  here  is  not  concerning  wandering  herdsmen  quite  uncon- 
nected with  each  other,  but  oidy  concerning  those  of  Hebrew 
origin,  and  of  these  more  })articularly,  the  ancestors  of  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  Jacob:  and  I  do  not  see  wherefore  such  a  transfer 
could  have  been  necessary,  since  we  must  here  judge  not  by  civil, 
but  by  natural  law  only.  If  several  persons  have  an  equal  title 
to  a  certain  possession,  and  some  of  them,  either  from  weak- 
ness or  cowardice,  do  not  make  it  good,  and  relinquish  it;  an- 
other, who  has  the  courage  to  act  otherwise,  does  not  from  their 
pusillanimity  lose  a  particle  of  his  right :  and  if  he  conquers  the  land 
which  they  have  abandoned,  he  holds,  Jirst,  his  own  quota,  by  the 
right  of  former  proprietorship ;  and  the^i,  the  remaining  part  by 
the  right  of  conquest ;  which  in  the  case  of  a  legitimate  war,  is 
equally  legitimate.  The  other  claimants  who  did  not  support  him, 
and  had  relinquished  their  rights,  can  make  no  pretensions  to  the 
fruit  of  his  victories ;  and  tlie  unlawfid  possessors,  who  had  carried 
on  an  unjust  war,  have  it  to  thank  for  subjecting  them  to  greater 
loss  than  they  would  probably  have  experienced,  if  they  had  yielded 
with  a  good  grace. 

"  In  the  second  place,  he  objects,  '  that  I  ascribe  the  war  to  a 
cause,  to  which   Moses  himself  has  not  referred    it ;    and   tliat,  as 


3G8  §  297.  RIGHT  OF  the  isuaklites 

any  pcojile  that  begin  a  war,  are  anxious  to  convince  the  world 
of  the  justice  of  their  cause,  a  reason  never  once  urged  by  Moses, 
can  hardly  be  held  as  the  true  ground  of  the  war.'  But  here,  I 
may  very  confidently  reply,  that  Moses  only  gives  knvs  for  the 
war  a<^ainst  the  Canaanites,  without  anywhere  mentioning  the  le- 
gal cause  of  the  war :  for  Mr.  O.  himself  does  not  account  the  di- 
vine commandment  and  promise,  as  its  cause.  Moses  writes  his- 
tories, and  records  laws;  but  the  war-manifesto  against  the  Ca- 
naanites, from  whence  we  might  deduce  its  justice,  has  not  been 
furnished  us  by  him.  And  as  he  mentions  no  reasons  for  the  war, 
we  are  not  entitled  from  his  silence  to  form  conclusions  against  any 
particular  cause  to  whicli  it  may  be  ascribed.  And  of  all  causes, 
that  to  which  I  ascribe  it,  has  the  best  foundation  in  the  history  re- 
corded by  INIoscs,  through  which  history  he  generally  paves  the  way 
for  his  laws. 

"  I  must  yet  add,  that  this  further  objection  has  been  made  to  my 
opinion,  'that  a  wandering  people  could  hardly  be  considered  as 
proprietors  of  a  country,  in  which  no  individual  could  specify  any 
particular  ground  as  his  own,  from  his  always  shifting  his  abode  from 
one  place  to  another.'  I  had  not,  indeed,  considered  it  necessary  to 
notice  this  objection,  because  the  fact  that  a  community  may  possess 
undivided  property,  is  so  very  notorious ;  but  as  a  learned  person, 
who  in  his  writings,  often  refers  to  my  Mosaic  law,  has  lately  re- 
peated it,  it  becomes  my  duty  to  explain  myself  more  fully  on  this 
point ;  and  my  answer  is  this  : 

•'A  community  and  even  a  whole  nation  may  possess  property 
undivided,  and  in  common.  What,  indeed,  is  more  frequent 
among  ourselves,  than  such  common  properties?  Many  a  village 
has  a  common  wood;  of  which  not  a  tree,  nor  an  inch  of  the 
ground,  belongs  to  any  individual  villager,  and  yet  the  whole  is 
their  joint  property;  and  whoever,  without  full  right  and  leave, 
carries  off  wood,  or  even  fells  a  tree,  is  guilty  of  theft.  Or  again  ; 
a  villaae  or  a  town  has  a  common  meadow,  which  can  never  be 
conveniently  portioned  out  into  individual  properties  ;  at  least  no 
part  of  it  belongs  to  any  private  person  exclusively ;  and  yet  the 
whole  to  the  community  at  large.  Did  those  to  whom  property 
in  common  appears  such  a  strange  matter,  never  hear,  that  in 
Germanv  theie  are  many  such  commonages,  which  our  modern 
improvers    would    fain    abolish  and  reclaim,  if   they  durst:    where 


TO    PALESTINE.  369 

green  pasture-lard,  for  instance,  Avhich  might  be  used  to  much  bet- 
ter purpose  under  tillage,  belongs  merely  as  a  common  to  one  or 
more  villages.  The  disadvantage  of  the  present  system,  is  uni- 
versally understood ;  and  the  allotment  of  such  lands  to  par- 
ticular tenants  is  much  to  be  desired :  but  then  the  cry  is,  that 
communities  are  not  to  be  deprived  of  their  ancient  rights.  Even 
the  corn-fields  are  in  the  same  situation,  in  so  far  as  they  may  not 
be  fenced,  and  must  lie  fallow  at  certain  times,  and  after  harvest 
be  subjected  to  the  servitude  of  having  the  herds  driven  to  pasture 
upon  them,  from  perhaps  a  community  of  many  villages,  where  even 
those  who  have  not  a  loot  of  ground  of  their  own,  can  assert  a  right 
to  this  privilege,  from  the  mere  circumstance  of  occupying  a  house. 
This  too  is  justly  considered  as  extremely  prejudicial  to  the  pubhc 
good,  not  merely  by  individual  economists,  but,  in  some  countries, 
even  by  the  legislative  authorities,  and  the  wish  to  alter  it  is  very 
general ;  but  it  cannot  be  done,  for,  it  is  said  as  before,  No  man  is  to 
be  deprived  of  his  right. 

"  But  even  a  whole  nation  may,  in  like  manner,  have  a  common 
undivided  property.  Thus  whole  nations,  by  particular  treaties, 
enjoy  the  right  of  certain  fisheries,  such  as  that  of  JS'ewfoundland, 
without  this  property  being  actually  divided,  or  even  possibly  divi- 
sible among  individual  fishermen.  Thus  also  the  Indians  in 
North  America,  possess  their  immense  forests  undivided,  as  wan- 
dering hunters ;  and  have  justly  made  great  complaints,  when  at 
any  time  the  English  or  French  colonists  have  attempted  to  clear 
and  cultivate  those  forests,  without  previously  purchasing  them, 
which  is  generally  done  for  a  mere  trifle.  I  remember  to  have 
read  a  gi-eat  many  years  ago,  in  an  English  journal,  (either  the 
London  or  Gentlemen's  Magazine,)  the  speech  of  an  Indian  chief, 
which  he  made  in  a  congress  of  the  Indians  with  the  English,  and 
in  which  he  represented  the  injustice  of  this,  in  a  very  rational  and 
affecting  manner;  observing,  that  those  forests  which  the  Great 
Spirit  had  of  old  given  to  the  Indians,  and  in  whicli  they  had 
always  lived,  were  now  by  some  of  the  English  daily  more  and  more 
circumscribed,  so  that  in  the  end  they  Avould  have  no  dwelling 
place  left  them.  I  cannot  recollect  the  particular  place  where  I 
found  that  speech;  but  allowing  it  had  been  entirely  fictitious, 
(which  it  by  no  means  seemed  to  be,  as  it  bore  all  the  marks  of 
truth.)  it  is  very  certain  that  the   English  governments  in  America 


370  §  208.    ox    THE    DIVISION    OF    THE    SPOILS. 

do  recognize  the  rights  of  the  Indians.  Indeed  the  first  colonists, 
who,  for  conscience-sake  and  religion,  emigrated  from  England, 
took  no  land  without  leave  of  the  Indians,  and  if  afterwards,  people 
less  conscientious,  such  as  transported  criminals,  whom  the  Ameri- 
cans will  now  no  longer  receive,  were  sent  out,  and,  taking  forcible 
possession  of  the  woods,  began  to  clear  and  improve  them,  (which 
actually  gave  rise  to  wars,)  this  was  absolutely  forbidden  by  the  Brit- 
ish government ;  and  those  settlers,  who  wished  to  penetrate  into 
the  woods  and  form  plantations,  Avere,  and  are  obliged  either  to  {pur- 
chase the  ground  from  the  Indians,  or  come  to  terms  with  them  in 
some  other  way. 

"  By  the  same  common  right,  have  many  great  people  always 
possessed  their  lands,  and  still  possess  them ;  as  for  instance,  the 
present  Mongul  tribes,  who  live  by  breeding  horses.  Their  soil  is 
extremely  rich,  and  susceptible  of  the  highest  cultivation  :  the  grass 
grows  to  an  uncommon  height  in  the  fields  ;  but  the  Avhole  country 
belongs  to  the  people  at  large  as  a  common  pasturage :  and  against 
strangers  who  should  attempt  to  seize  or  pasture  it,  or  circumscribe 
it  by  cultivation,  they  would  unite  to  defend  their  right  to  it  with  all 
their  might ;  just  as  our  Teutonic  ancestors  defended  their  forests  as 
public  property,  against  the  Romans.  I  should,  therefore,  think, 
that  until  a  new  code  of  natural  and  civil  law  shall  be  devised,  and 
as  long  as  we  must,  on  account  of  common  possessions,  abide  by  the 
old,  objections  like  the  present  can  have  no  force.  Commentaries  on 
the  laws  of  3Toses,  Art.  31.] 

§  298.  Ox  THE  Division  of  the  Spoils. 

77ie  sjjoils  of  the  enemy's  army,  ^Vr,  "ja,  were  divided  among 
the  victorious  soldiers.  They  were  the  reward  of  the  toils,  which 
they  had  endured,  and  were,  consequenth',  the  caiise,  wherever 
they  were  won,  of  the  most  marked  indications  of  joy.  Gen.  49:  27. 
Exod.  15:  9.  Judges  5:  30.  Isa.  9:  2,  3.  Ezek.  29:  18—20.  Ps.  119: 
162.  There  seems  to  have  been  a  propriety  in  making  such  a 
division  of  the  property  taken,  for  the  soldiers  anciently,  with 
the  exception  of  the  officers,  and  the  life-guard  of  the  commander 
did  not  receive  wages.  They  either  paid  their  own  expenses  them- 
selves, or  were  supported  by  their  parents,  Judges  20:  10.  2  Sam- 
uel 17:  17 — 20.     The   Hebrew   kings,   however,    in    a   subsequent 


§    298.     ox    THE    DIVISION    OT   THE    SPOILS.  371 

age  laid  up  provisions  for  the  use  of  tlie  soldiers  against  a  time  of 
■n-ar,  in  the  cities  called  store  cities  r'::"-:  i-r,  2  Chron.  17:  12. 
32:  28. 

Hired  soldiers  (probably  in  imitation  of  the  Phenicians,  Ezek.  27: 
11,)  are  mentioned  in  2  Sam.  10:  G,  and  also  in  2  Chron.  25:  6 — 9; 
but  such  participated  in  the  spoils,  as  well  as  others,  for  the  money 
paid  appears  not  to  have  been  paid  to  the  soldiers  themselves,  but  to 
the  king  or  prince,  of  Avhom  they  were  hired. 

The  soldiers  under  the  Persian  monarchy  received  a  regular  sti- 
pend, but  they  had  a  portion  also  in  the  spoils,  which  was  an  addi- 
tional reward. 

The  Maccabees,  in  imitation  of  the  Greeks,  allowed  Avages  to  their 
soldiers,  1  3Iacc.  14:  32.  Hence,  it  is  not  at  all  surprising,  that  we 
find  the  wages  of  a  soldier  frequently  mentioned  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and  sometimes  tropically,  Luke  3:  14.  Rom.  G:  23.  1  Cor.  9:  7. 
2  Cor.  11:  8.  2  Tim.  2:  4. 

The  spoils  consisted  not  only  of  property  in  goods,  but  of  men. 
women,  and  children  ;  all  of  whom,  if  they  had  been  the  inhabitants 
of  cities,  that  Avere  taken  by  assatdf,  were  sold  into  slavery.  Gen.  14 
11,  12.  The  Hebrew  soldiers  were  at  liberty,  (Num.  31:  48 — 54,) 
to  appropriate  to  themselves  whatever  spoils  they  might  win,  with 
the  exception  of  flocks  and  men.  Articles  of  great  value  were 
sometimes  claimed  by  the  leader  of  the  expedition,  Judg.  8:  24,  25  ; 
a  practice  which  David  himself  imitated,  and  by  means  of  which, 
he  was  enabled  to  collect  the  treasures  which  were  subsequently 
employed  in  the  erection  of  the  temple,  2  Sam.  8:  11,  12.  12:  30. 
2  Chron.  28:  14 — 19.  When  the  spoil  was  divided,  the  flocks  and 
the  captives  were  assembled  together,  and  wlien  they  had  been 
numbered,  were  divided  into  two  parts,  one  of  which  was  given 
to  the  soldiers,  who  had  remained  at  home,  and  who  Avere  obliged 
to  give  the  fiftieth  part  of  it  to  the  Levites ;  the  other  half  AA-as 
given  to  the  soldiers  AAho  had  been  actually  engaged,  and  who,  on 
their  part,  were  obliged  to  give  only  the  five  hundredth  part  to  the 
2)ricsts.  Compare  Gen.  14:  20.  The  division  of  the  property  taken 
among  the  soldiers  Avas  equal,  whether  they  had  Veen  in  battle,  or 
merely  guarded  the  encampment  and  baggage,  1  oam.  30:  20 — 25. 
In  order  to  render  the  distribution  equal,  the  flocks,  cattle,  and  pris- 
oners appear  to  have  been  publicly  sold,  and  a  distribution  made  of 
the  money. 


372  §  200.  sron.s  takkx  fkom  tiik  icGYrxiAXS. 

In  ca^e,  however,  the  city  was  so  uiifortiinate  as  fo  be  subjoctetl  to 
the  Z'l'n  or  the  ciose,  the  soldiers  wen^  not  at  liberty  to  take  possession 
of  the  spoils  which  it  ofrcn'il,an(l  evi'i-ything,  generally  speaking,  was 
destroyed,  Deut.  2  34.  3:  7.  Xiini.  .'51:  0.  Lev.  27:  28.  Josh.  G:  24— 
2G.  8:  20—28.  10:  28—30.  11:  11. 


§  209.  l\i;sri:c'nNG  the  Spoils,  which  tiik  IIebukavs  took 

AWAY    FROM    THE    EgYI'TIAXS. 

It  was  a  principle  among  nations  anciently,  that  a  people,  after  the 
commencement  of  a  war,  conld  fairly  make  plnnder  of  the  property, 
which  had  been  deposited  or  left  among  them  in  any  way  whatever, 
previously  to  the  war's  breaking  out.  In  accordance  with  tliis  right, 
the  precious  vases  and  garments,  etc.  which  were  borrowed  by  the 
Hebrews  from  the  Egyptians,  as  mentioned  in  Exod.  3:  22.  11:  2, 
became,  when  Pharaoh  commenced  war  upon  them  by  pursuing  with 
his  army,  legal  spoil. 

An  objection  to  this  view  of  the  subject  arises  from  the  fact, 
that  God  himself  commanded  the  Hebrews,  through  Moses,  to 
borrow  the  articles,  and  that  the  Egyptians  evidently  lent  them 
with  the  expectation  of  their  being  returned,  and  would  not;  other- 
wise have  done  it.  But  it  is  nevertheless,  the  fact  likewise,  that  the 
Hebrews  had  as  much  expectation  of  returning  said  articles,  as  the 
Egyptians  had,  that  they  would ;  for  it  is  altogether  out  of  the 
question  to  suppose,  that  they  had  any  knowledge  of  the  commu- 
nications, which,  in  Exod.  3:  22,  passed  between  God  and  Moses  en 
the  subject.  The  transaction  was  clearly  an  event  in  divine  Prov- 
idence, for  the  propriety  of  which  infinite  wisdom  is  a  sufficient 
guaranty,  which  was  designed  to  place  those  articles  in  the  hands 
of  the  Hebrews,  as  a  compensation,  (and  certainly  not  too  large  a 
one,)  for  the  houses  which  they  left.  Supposing  it,  then,  to  be  the 
case,  that  they  were  borrowed  with  the  expectation  of  being  re- 
turned, no  blame  certainly  can  be  attached  to  the  Hebrews  for  the 
detention  of  them,  since  they  were  driven  away  by  such  a  decided 
and  sudden  act  of  hostility,  that  it  was  not  in  their  power  to  do  other- 
wise. 

Tiie  word  Til ,  literally  to  plunder  or  roh,  which  in  Exod.  3:  22,  is 
used  in  reference  to  this  subject,  appears  to  be  employed  tropically^ 
and  out  of  its  usual  signification. 


§  300.    OF    CKSSATIOX    FUOM    ARMS.  373 

j^QTF.. [Tlie    above    section    is    rather    uiiskilfiilly    abridged    in 

the  ori"-inal,  so  nnich  so,  that  it  would  be  dill'ieiilt  for  a  person,  from 
a  literal  translation  of  it,  as  it  there  stands,  to  obtain  any  thing 
like  an  adequate  idea  of  our  author's  opinions  on  the  subjeet  in 
question.  Something,  therefore,  has  been  added  to  it,  from  the 
ori'^inal  German,  and  from  IMiohaelis,  who  is  there  referred  to  by 
Dr.  Jahn,  as  his  authority  on  the  subject.  For  a  full  and  ingenious 
discussion  of  it,  the  reader  would  do  well  to  consult  Smith's  trans- 
lation of  the  CoMMEXTAiUES  OX  Till:  Laavs  of  Moses,  Vol.  III. 
Art.  179.] 

§  300.    Pekiods,   when    there   was    a    Cessation   from 
Hostilities. 

It  was  anciently  the  practice  among  the  Arabs,  wlio,  it  may  be  ob- 
served, inherited  a  near  relationship  to  the  Hebrews,  to  consider  four 
months  of  the  year  sacred ;  during  which  they  made  it  a  point  of 
duty  to  abstain  from  the  exercise  of  arms.  A  practice  of  a  similar 
nature  appears  to  have  prevailed  amoftg  the  Moabites,  Ammonites, 
and  Edomites,  and  likewise  among  nations. 

Perhaps  this  practice  will  enable  us  to  explain,  how  it  happened, 
that  the  Hebrew  territories  remained  free  from  invasions,  while 
all  the  adult  males  three  times  every  year  went  to  the  tabernacle 
or  the  temple,  without  leaving  in  their  cities  and  villages  any  guard 
to  protect  them  from  foreign  incursions,  and  that  there  appears  in  no 
instances  to  have  been  any  hostile  attack  made  upon  them  at  such 
times.  It  is  true,  that  we  find  in  Exod.  34:  24,  that  security  from 
hostile  invasions  was  promised  to  the  Hebrews,  when  they  had  occa- 
sion, on  the  return  of  their  solemn  festivals,  to  ai)pcar  in  the  presence 
of  the  Lord;  but  it  is  nevertheless,  clear,  that  a  promise  of  this  kind 
could  not  have  been  fulfilled  to  a  people,  who  thus  lived  in  the  heart 
of  unfriendly  nations,  except  by  the  intervention  of  constant  mira- 
cles ;  unless  there  had  been  a  practice  of  the  kind  here  mentioned, 
M'hich  caused  among  them  during  certain  periods  a  suspension  of  the 
arts  of  war. 

The  same  i-emark  might  have  been  made  in  respect  to  the  sab- 
bath, if  it  had  been  the  fact,  that  the  ancient  Hebrews  reckoned 
the  use  of  arms,  among  those  labors,  which  were  interdicted  on 
that    day ;    but    their    extreme    scrupulosity    in    this    respect,   and 

32 


374  §  300.    OF    CKSSATION    TROyi    AUMS. 

theix'  deterniiiiatioii  to  adhere  to  tlie  Idler  of  the  hwv  do  not  appear 
to  have  existed,  till  after  the  Captivity.  Indeed  even  at  this 
period  they  soon  had  occasion  to  perceive,  that  to  defend  themselves 
against  the  insults  of  their  enemies  might  be  justly  done,  even  on 
the  sabbath,  1  Mace.  2-  39 — 42 ;  but  the  restrictions,  notwithstand- 
ing this,  which  they  continued  to  impose  upon  themselves,  occasioned 
inconveniences,  of  which  we  have  no  examples  in  the  earlier  periods 
of  their  histoiy. 


PART  THIRD 


SACRED     ANTIQUITIES. 


377 


CHAPTER  I. 


HISTORICAL  VIEW   OF   THE    RELIGION   OF 
THE    BIBLE. 


§  SOL  Religion'  doavx  to  the  Deluge. 

OcK  iirst  parents,  who  were  infants  in  point  of  knowledge,  al- 
though they  were  introduced  into  the  world,  without  being  such  in 
respect  to  form,  were  instructed  by  God  himself.  Tiiey  were 
taught  in  the  knowledge  of  the  Creator  and  Governor  of  all  things, 
and  were  likewise  subjected  to  a  course  of  moral  discipline  by 
the  interdiction,  which  was  made  in  respect  to  the  tree  of  good 
and  evil.  The  object  of  this  interdiction  was  to  introduce  the  hu- 
man mind  to  an  acquaintance  with  what  was  right,  and  what  was 
wron<T,  what  was  good,  and  what  was  evil.  Hence  the  name  of  the 
tree,  r-i  ::'■:::  rr" ,  viz.  of  good  and  evil,  i.  e.  according  to  the 
spirit  of  the  Hebrew  idiom,  of  moral  distinctions.  Gen.  2:  8 — 20. 
Isa.  7:  15.  Hence  two  points  were  established  in  the  religion  of  our 
first  parents,  the  one,  that  God  is  supreme,  and  that  all  things  arose 
from,  and  are  dependent  upon  him ;  the  other,  that  some  things  are 
right,  and  others  wrong,  and  that  those  things  are  to  be  done,  which 
are  agreeable  to  God,  and  those  to  be  avoided  which  are  displeasing 
to  him. 

The  punishment,  which  followed  the  eating  of  the  interdicted 
fruit,  remained  a  perpetual  monitor,  that  misery  is  the  conse- 
quence of  the  commission  of  those  things,  which  are  not  accepta- 
ble in  the  divine  sight,  and  that  such  things,  consequently,  are  not 
to  be  done.  Comp.  Gen.  5:  29.  The  example  of  Cain  also,  who 
slew  his  brother,  his  banishment  and  his  misery,  were  a  standing 
testimony  in  the  eyes  of  the  whole  world,  that  wickedness  is  hate- 
ful to   God,  and  ought  to  be  and  will  be  punished.     In  the  progress 

32* 


378         §  302.  FROM  THE  DELUGE  TO  AKUAHAM. 

of  time,  when  many  crimes  received  no  visible  punislmient,  the 
divine  commands  became  neglected,  the  powerful  oppressed  the 
weak  and  tlie  poor,  and  there  was  a  general  prevalence  of  levity 
and  sensuality.  The  earth  was  filled  with  violence  and  slaughter. 
About  the  year  235  'after  the  creation,  wickedness  was  carried 
to  such  an  extent,  that  the  religious  thought  it  necessary  to  attach 
to  themselves,  the  title  of  so7is  or  icorshipjicrs  of  God,  in  contradis- 
tinction from  the  sons  of  men,  or  those,  who  had  forgotten  God, 
and  were  hurried  by  the  impulse  of  corrupt  passions  to  every  sort 
of  wickedness.  The  prevalent  evils  were  increased  from  the  circum- 
stance, that  the  sons  or  worshippers  of  God,  married  the  daugh- 
ters of  me7i,  or  the  irreligious.  Wives  of  this  description  neglected 
the  right  instruction  of  their  children,  and,  as  this  devolved  on 
them,  rather  than  on  the  fathers,  the  offspring  followed  the  former, 
rather  than  the  latter.  Gen.  4:  26.  G:  1.  In  this  way  corruption 
increased  and  prevailed  to  such  a  degree,  that  the  warnings  of  God, 
which  were  uttered  by  the  spirit  of  prophecy,  were  without  any 
avail  Gen.  G:  3.  The  Deluge  followed,  in  consequence  of  this  state 
of  things. 

§302.  From  the  Deluge  to  Abraham. 

This  terrible  destruction  of  every  living  thing  was  predicted  120 
years  before  its  consummation.  Gen.  G:  3.  So  that  the  family 
of  Noah  might  know,  that  it  was  sent  from  God,  and  that  the  object 
of  it  was,  to  leave  by  such  a  signal  event,  a  long  to  be  remembered 
impression,  that  God  is  the  governor  of  all  things,  to  whom  the 
vices  of  men  are  abhorrent,  and  that,  however  long  suffering,  he  will 
at  length  punish  the  wicked.  A  command  was  given  by  God, 
after  the  Deluge,  that  every  homicide  should  be  punished  with 
death,  and  a  promise  also,  that  the  deluge  should  no  more  return, 
lie  made  the  rainbow  a  visible  sign  of  his  promise,  and  a  confirma- 
tion of  it. 

The  posterity  of  Xoali  laid  up  in  their  minds  the  principles 
and  instructions,  which  have  been  mentioned ;  and  when  they  af- 
terwards attempted  to  build  a  tower,  and  were  baffled  and  scatter- 
ed from  each  other,  they  easily  gathered  from  the  event,  that  the 
proceeding  was  displeasing  to  God.  They  appear  to  have  re- 
proved Nimrod  for  making   a    similar  attempt,  and,  in  allusion  to 


§  303.  ABRAHAM,  ISAAC,  AND  JACOB.  379 

his  conduct,  called  him  n'-.":; ,  or  the  rebel,  and  made  his  memory  a 
proverb,  sa3ing,  "  Even  as  I^^iinrod,  the  cxcecdint/li/  mighty  hunter." 

At  a  later  period  still,  men,  being  still  uncultivated,  unable  to 
direct  themselves,  and  governed  by  the  promptings  of  imagination, 
attributed  a  superior  and  sublimer  energf-  to  various  objects,  and 
bc^an  to  expect  assistance  from  them.  Thus  rocks,  trees,  animals, 
winds,  rivers,  the  sun,  moon,  stars,  dead  men,  etc.  were  converted 
into  divinities.  Then  came  sculptured  images,  altars,  and  temples. 
At  first  they  worshipped  God,  as  the  ruler  of  all  things,  at  the  same 
time  that  they  worshipped  idols  ;  but  soon  God  was  forgotten,  and 
they  adored  the  latter  alone.  These  false  divinities  demanded  no 
morality  in  their  conduct,  and  both  principles  and  conduct  grew 
worse  and  worse.  The  greatest  crimes  were  committed,  as  if  of  little 
moment,  and  were  even  made  apart  of  the  worship  of  their  gods. 

§  303.  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob. 

The  corruption,  which  has  been  described  in  the  preceding  sec- 
tion, continued  to  spread  itself  wider  and  wider,  till  God  gave  a  pecu- 
liar calling  to  Abraham,  whose  ancestors  had  from  the  beginning 
sustained,  during  a  long  period,  a  character  for  moral  integrity  and 
religion,  Gen.  5:  1 — 32.  11:  10 — 32;  but  had  at  length  become 
idolatrous.  Josh.  24:  3. 

It  was  designed  in  the  Providence  of  God,  that  Abraham, 
the  Chaldean,  and  his  posterity  should  preser\-e  and  transmit 
his  religion,  till  that  period,  when  it  sho'^id  be  communicated 
to  other  nations.  In  order  to  secure  these  objects,  God  promised 
to  Abraham,  who  was  a  descendant  from  Shem  of  the  tenth 
generation,  his  protection,  an  ample  progeny,  possession  of  the 
land  of  Canaan ;  and  that  all  nations  should  at  last  be  blessed 
through  his  seed,  i.  e.  should  receive  the  true  religion,  Gen.  12:  13. 
18:  18.  22:  18.  He  coupled  these  promises  with  the  names  of 
Abraham  and  Sarah,  which  were  altered  with  a  reference  to  them, 
and  connected,  with  the  rite  of  circumcision,  the  obligation  to  protect 
religion,  Gen.  18:  19 ;  so  that  the  names  and  the  rite  might  be  per- 
petual testimonies  both  of  the  promises  in  its  favor,  and  the  obliga- 
tions to  defend  it. 

God  afterwards  repeated  the  same  promises  to  Isaac  and  Jacob, 
Gen.  20:  4.    28:  14,  who  faithfully  performed  their  various  duties, 


380  §  304.  RKi.iGiox  or  Tin:  PATniAnciis. 

laught  tlie  true  worship  of  God  to  their  domestics,  and  left  it  to 
their  posterity,  Genesis  28:  20—22.  35:  2—7.  9—13.  39:  9.  50= 
17—20. 

These  promises  to  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  and  the  fulfihnent 
of  the  corresponding  duties  on  their  part,  form  the  prominent  and 
fundamental  jjnnciple,  the  hinge,  as  it  were,  of  the  ancikxt  covk- 
NAXT  ;  and  to  them,  accordingly,  everything  which  follows  after,  is  to 
be  referred,  and  with  them  also  the  new  covenant  itself  is  very  inti- 
mately connected. 


§  30-1.  Respecting  the  Religion  of  the  Patriarchs. 

It  appears  from  what  has  been  hitherto  stated,  that  the  hioivledge 
of  the  one  true  God,  Avhicli  is  coeval  with  the  existence  of  the  human 
race,  was  originally  conmiunicated  by  revelation.  The  patriarchs 
tliemselves  knew  God  to  be  the  creator,  governor,  and  judge  of 
the  whole  earth,  not  by  reasoning  i'rom  philosophical  principles, 
which  were  then  wholly  unknown  ;  but  because  God  had  revealed 
himself,  as  such,  to  them.  The  ideas  of  men  in  respect  to  God, 
whicli  were  at  first  very  limited,  became  extended,  in  the  pro- 
gress of  time,  by  events  both  ordinary  and  extraordinary.  It  is 
worthy  of  remark,  that  the  figure  anthropoimthy  was  very  prevalent 
at  the  early  period  of  which  we  are  speaking,  and  that  men  used 
the  same  language  in  respect  to  God,  which  they  employed  when 
speaking  of  one  another ;  but  there  was  truth,  nevertheless,  hidden 
under  the  garb  of  such  expressions,  Gen.  G:  G,  7.  8:  21.  11:  5 — 7. 
18:  10—21. 

The  worship  of  God  was  very  unconstrained,  such  as  was 
prompted  by  conscience  and  approved  by  reason,  and  consisted 
chiefly  in  tythes  and  vows  and  prayers,  in  the  erection  of  altars  and 
in  sacrifices.  Genesis  4:  3,  4.  8:  20.  12:  7,  8.  13:  4,  18.  14:  20.  15. 
18—20,  etc. 

With  respect  to  the  consecration  of  the  sahhath,  it  may  be  ob- 
served, there  is  no  trace  of  it,  any  further  than  this,  viz.  that  a  period 
of  seven  days  occurs  a  number  of  times,  Gen.  7:  4,  10.  S:  10,  12; 
likewise  the  word  r^inr ,  the  Hebrew  for  iceek.  Gen.  29:  27. 

It  may  be  inferred  from  these  circumstances,  that  the  seventh 
day  was  distinguished  in  some  way  or  other  from  other  days,  as  is 


§  305.    RESPECTING    MOSES.  381 

repre.-cnfed  lo  be  the  c:ise  in  Gen.  2:  2.  Many  traces  of  moral  dis- 
cipline occur,  Gen.  4:  G— IG.  G:  3—8.  11:  4— G.  13:  8.  1-i:  14—24 
18:  10.  "VVe  niu^t  not  suppose,  however,  tliat  nothing  more  of  God, 
and  of  moral  discipline,  was  known  by  these  pious  patriarchs,  than  is 
"iven  in  the  historical  iragments  of  Genesis.  For  those  things  only 
appear  to  have  been  selected  for  insertion,  •which,  more  than  any 
others,  had  a  tendency  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  introduction  of  the 
Mosaic  dispensation. 


§  305.  Respecting  Moses. 

Very  many  of  the  Hebrews  were  addicted  to  the  worship  of  the 
Egyptian  gods,  at  the  time  that  Moses  was  sent  in  the  character  of  a 
divine  messenger,  to  break  the  chains  of  their  servitude,  Exod.  3: 
13.  To  rescue  the  Hebrews  from  their  bondage,  who  were  destined 
to  be  the  defenders  of  the  true  religion,  and  to  bring  them  bjwk  lo 
that  worship,  which  they  had  lost,  while  in  Egypt,  gave  occasion  lor 
the  most  surprising  miracles ;  miracles,  which  not  only  compelled 
Pharaoh  to  dismiss  the  Hebrews,  and  brought  destruction  upon  his 
armv,  Avhen  he  pursued  them ;  but  were  also  a  new  and  overwhelm- 
ing proof  to  the  Hebrews  themselves,  that  there  is  indeed  a  God,  all 
poicerfal  and  omniscient,  and  that  Moses,  by  whom  these  wonderful 
works  had  been  predicted  and  performed,  was  in  truth  his  messenger, 
Exod.  G:  7.  7:  5.  9:  14—16,  29.  10:  2.  14:  4,  17—28,  31.  IG:  12. 
19:  4,  9.  Deut.  4:  35,  39.  It  was  at  the  same  time  shown  by  the 
miracles,  of  which  we  are  speaking,  that  the  Egyptian  gods,  being 
altogether  unable  to  protect  their  votaries,  were  destitute  of  power, 
and,  in  a  word,  were  nothing,  Exod.  12:  12.  But  tiie  Hebrews,  after 
all,  if  they  had  not  afterwards,  when  in  Arabia,  been  confirmed  by 
new  miracles  in  the  belief  of  the  divine  omniscience  and  omnipo- 
tence, would  not  have  persevered  in  the  worship  of  the  true  God, 
and  Avould  not  have  consented  to  receive  those  ceix'monies  and  Laws, 
without  which,  surrounded  as  they  were  by  nations,  who  regarded 
idolatry,  as  conformable  to  right  reason,  they  could  not  have  suc- 
ceeded in  maintaining  their  religious  integrity.  This  is  clear  from 
the  fact,  that,  after  all  the  instructions  they  had  received,  and  after 
all  the  laws,  which  were  enacted,  they  went  so  often  back  to  various 
superstitions. 


382  §  300.  orrNioNS  of  mosks  i\  kespect 

XoTK.  Those  who  attril)utf  the  miracles  of  Moses  to  legonlernahi, 
ami  unclcrtake  to  rank  them  in  tiic  same  class  with  the  tricks  of  jug- 
glers, also  those,  who  contend  that  the  accounts  of  them  are  fabulous, 
and  arc  to  be  placed  on  the  same  footing  with  the  wonders  of  profane 
mythology,  can  neither  reconcile  the  ground,  which  they  take,  with 
the  departure  of  the  Hebrews  from  Egypt,  nor  with  their  subsequent 
history,  nor  with  the  origin  of  the  notion  of  a  God,  as  it  appears  in 
their  early  writings.  The  exodus,  the  subsequent  history,  and  their 
ideas  in  respect  to  God,  all  bear  testimony,  that  the  miracles  were 
actually  performed.  Compare  the  large  German  Edition  of  this  work, 
P.  III.  §  12.  Note  and  §  13. 

§    30G.     Ox    THE    QUESTION,    "  "WHETHER   MoSES    TAUGHT    THE    EX- 
ISTENCE   OF   A    MERELY   NATIONAL  GOD  ?  " 

That  the  God  of  Moses  was  something  more  than  the  tutelary 
or  national  God  of  the  Hebrews,  is  clear  from  so  many  passages 
of  Scripture,  it  is  wonderful  any  should  have  adopted  a  contrary 
opinion.  For  he  calls  him  by  the  name  Jehovah,  who  created 
heaven  and  earth.  Gen.  i.  Exod.  20:  8—12.  31:  17.  Dent.  4:  23, 
and  who  sent  the  deluge,  Gen.  G:  17.  He  is  addressed  by  Abra- 
ham and  INIelchisedek  as  the  most  high,  the  Lord  of  heaven  and 
earth.  Gen.  14:  18—20.  17:  1.  18:  16-25.  He  is  acknowledged 
by  Joseph  to  be  the  all-wise  governor  of  the  universe,  Gen.  39:  9. 
15:  5,  8.  50:  20.  He  calls  himself  Jehovah,  who  is  always  the 
same,  Exod.  G:  3 ;  who  both  predicted,  and  performed  those  won- 
derful works  in  Egypt  and  Arabia,  which  proved  him  to  be  omni- 
scient and  omnipotent,  Deut.  4:  32 — 36.  10:  21.  Exod.  6:  7.  7:  5. 
10:  1,  2.  16:  12.  29:  46;  who  is  the  author  of  every  living  thing, 
Num.  16:  22.  27:  IG  ;  Avho  is  invisible,  (for  the  descriptions,  which 
represent  him  as  appearing  at  times  in  a  bodily  form,  are  symbolic,) 
Exod.  33:  18—23.  Deut.  4:  12—20,  39  ;  who  is  the  Lord  of  heaven 
and  earth,  and  everything  in  them,  and  the  friend  of  strangers,  as 
■well  as  of  the  Hebrews,  Deut.  10:  14 — 18.  Besides  him,  there  is 
no  other  God,  Deut.  4:  39.  G:  4.  32:  39.  Moses  everywhere  exhi- 
bits him,  as  the  omnipotent,  the  ruler  of  all  men,  who  cannot  be 
corrupted  by  gifts  and  sacrifices,  but  who  is  kind  and  merciful  to  the 
penitent.  He  teaches,  that  he  is  the  true  God,  who  is  worthy  of 
being   honored   by  the    Hebrews,   not    only  because    He    alone    is 


TO    TIIK    CHARACTEU    uF    GOD.  383 

God,  but  because  lie  had  promised  great  mercies  to  the  Patriarchs 
and  tlieir  iwsterity,  and  had  ah-eady  bestowed  them  in  part ;  because 
He  led  them  out  of  Egypt,  had  furnished  them  with  laws,  would  soon 
introduce  them  hito  Canaan,  and  protect  them  through  future  ages; 
finally,  because  they  had  chosen  God  for  their  king.  The  whole  ob- 
ject of  the  Mosaic  ritual  was  to  preserve  the  worship  of  God,  as  the 
creator  and  governor  of  all,  till  the  time  when  the  true  religion  should 
be  made  known  to  the  rest  of  the  world,  for  which  grand  end  it  had 
been  originally  committed  to  Abraham  and  his  jiosterity.  Gen.  17:  9 
—14.  IS:  19. 


§  307.  Ox  THE  QUESTION,  "  "WHETHER  THE  CHARACTER  OF  Je- 
IIOVAH,  AS  represented  BY  MoSES,  IS  MERELY  THAT  OF  A 
BEING    INEXORABLY"   JuST  ?" 

That  God  is  often  represented  by  Moses,  as  a  just  judge,  who 
punishes  with  no  little  severity  those,  who  are  wicked,  is  not  at  all  to 
be  wondered  at.  The  inconstant,  stiff-necked,  and  intractable  people, 
whom  he  had  to  deal  with,  could  not  be  restrained  from  vices,  nor  be 
brought  in  subjection  to  the  laws,  without  holding  up  such  a  repre- 
sentation. Such  a  representation  was  the  more  necessary,  because 
Jehovah  was  not  only  the  God,  but  in  a  strict  sense  the  king  of  the 
Jews ;  on  whom  it  fell,  consequently  (in  order  to  render  due  protec- 
tion to  the  good.)  to  condemn  transgressors,  and  to  make  them  ob- 
jects of  punishment.  Had  it  been  otherwise,  had  he  not  defended 
the  good  from  the  attacks  of  the  bad,  or  had  pardon  been  given  to 
the  guilty,  all  his  laws  would  have  been  in  vain.  Still,  although 
what  has  now  been  said  be  true,  the  statement,  Avhich  some  have 
made,  viz.  that  Moses  has  made  God  an  inexorable  Judge,  and  that 
07?/^,  is  utterly  false. 

The  original  promises  to  the  Patriarchs,  which  were  so  often 
repeated  to  their  descendants,  the  liberation  from  Egyptian  servi- 
tude, the  laws,  enacted  in  the  wilderness,  the  entrance,  that  was 
gi-antcd  to  the  Hebrews  into  the  land  of  Canaan,  are  deeds  of 
kindness,  which  prove  the  beneficence  of  God,  Deut.  7:  G — 9.  8: 
2 — 20.  9:4 — 8.  10:1 — 11.  Hence  it  is  often  inculcated  upon  the 
Hebrews  to  exhibit  gratitude  towards  God ;  and  the  fact  also,  that 
they  are  expressly  commanded  to  love  God,  is  at  least  an  implied  ad- 
mission of  his  kindness  and  beneficence,  Deut.  G:  4,  5.  11:  12,  15,  22 


38-i  §  308.    KKGULATIONS    TO    I'KKSr.UVK    KKI.IGIOX. 

Moses  calls  God  the  father  of  his  people,  the  merciful,  the  clement, 
the  benign,  the  faithful  Jehovah,  who  exhihits  through  a  thousand 
generations  the  love  of  a  jiarent  to  his  good  and  faithful  followers, 
who  ibrgives  iniquity  and  transgression,  but  to  whose  mercy,  never 
thcless,  there  are  limits,  and  who  visits  the  sins  of  the  fathers  on  the 
posteritv  to  the  third  and  fourth  generation,  Dent.  8:  5.  32:  C.  Pllxod. 
34:  6,  7.  Num.  1-1:  18.  Dent.  7:  9,  10. 

The  infliction  of  punishments  even  to  the  fourth  generation,  (i.  e. 
by  means  of  public  calamities,  the  consecjuences  of  which  Avould  be 
experienced  even  by  posterity,)  a  principle,  which  makes  its  ap[)ear- 
ance  even  in  the  fundamental  laws,  Exod.  20:  5,  6,  has  given 
offence  to  many,  who  are  either  unable  or  unwilling  to  perceive,  that 
the  prospect  of  misery  falling  on  their  postei-ity,  could  be  a  real  source 
of  punishment  to  the  parents,  who,  it  may  be  observed,  were  in  that 
age,  particularly  solicitous  about  the  well-being  of  their  descendants. 
We  learn,  nevertheless,  from  other  places  and  other  considerations, 
that  the  punishments,  which  were  due  to  the  fathers,  were  not  so 
much  designed  to  be  inflicted  in  truth  on  their  posterity,  as  to  remam 
to  them  warnings,  that  if  they  trod  in  their  fathers'  footsteps,  they 
would  expose  themselves  to  the  same  evil  and  fearful  consequences, 
and  that,  when  they  had  done  evil,  their  only  course  was  to  repent. 
That  such  would  be  the  case,  the  deep  and  serious  evils  of  the 
Babylonish  Captivity  gave  them  so  clear  a  proof,  as  to  preclude  all 
subsequent  doubts  on  the  subjects  ;  they  repented  of  their  evil 
ways,  and,  as  Moses  himself  had  predicted,  became  at  length  the 
constant  worshippers  of  God,  Lev.  2G:  20 — 25.  Deut.  4:  28 — 31.  30: 
1—10. 


§  308.  Rkspecting  the  Regulations    which    were   made   in 
order  to  preserve  the  true  religion. 

That  the  Hebrews,  who,  while  in  Egypt,  had  to  a  great  extent 
worshipped  idols,  and  had  with  much  dilliculty,  and  not  without 
the  aid  of  striking  miracles,  been  at  length  restored  to  the  true 
worship,  might  thereafter  remain  firm,  nor  be  easily  led  astray 
by  the  examples  of  neighboring  nations,  God  offei'ed  himself 
'o  them  as  their  Kiufj.  (See  the  two  hundred  and  fourteenth 
eetion.)     As  such  he   was  accepted  ;    and   hence  it  happened,  that 


§  308.    RKGULATIOXS    TO    rRKSEliVF.    r.ELIGIOX.  38.) 

the  obedience  which  they  rendered  him  as  hing,  became  identified 
in  a  manner  with  the  reverence,  to  which  he  had  a  right  as  God, 
and  that  while  they  yiekled  the  former,  tliey  would  not  be  likely  to 
withhold  the  latter. 

This  theocratic  feature  in  the  form  of  the  commonwealth,  by 
means  of  which  the  people  were  so  often  reminded,  that  the  laws 
of  their  King  were  no  other  than  the  laws  of  God,  of  course  per- 
petually recalled  the  true  God  to  their  minds.  The  rigid  obser- 
vation also  of  the  Sabbath,  of  the  feast  of  Pentecost  after  the  seven 
weeks  of  the  harvest,  of  the  seventh  or  Sabbatic  year,  of  the  year 
of  Jubilee  after  seven  Sabbatic  years,  were  all  of  them  symbolic 
acknowledgments  of  God,  as  the  Creator  and  Governor  of  all  things. 
The  Passover  likewise,  and  the  feast  of  tabernacles  vividly  recalled 
to  their  memory  the  fact,  that  the  creating  God  had  been  their 
deliverer  from  the  Egyptians,  and  their  guide  through  Arabia.  And 
when  on  the  feast  of  tabernacles  and  of  Pentecost,  they  were  called  upon 
to  render  thanks  for  the  fruits  they  had  received,  they  were  taught, 
that  these  also  were  to  be  referred  to  the  creating  power  and  the 
goodness  of  God. 

That  their  minds  might  be  accustomed  to  the  fact  of  God's  invis- 
ibility, that  they  might  have  no  disposition  to  attach  any  efficacy 
to  idols,  and  that  all  temptation  to  believe  in  a  plurality  of  gods 
might  be  avoided,  and  images,  which  were  intended  as  a  bodily 
or  visible  representation  of  the  divine  Being,  were  absolutely  pro- 
hibited. The  erection  of  a  Tabernacle  alone  was  permitted ;  and 
to  this  there  could  clearly  be  no  objection,  since  it  did  not  admit 
of  an  ArOTUEOSis.  But,  in  order  to  prevent  any  superstitious  rites 
from  introducing  themselves  into  this  sacred  place,  all  the  ceremo- 
nies were  prescribed  by  law.  It  was  commanded,  that  all  the 
sacrifices  should  be  offered  on  one  altar ;  this,  with  the  reciprocal 
inspection,  that  was  exercised  over  each  other  by  Priests  and 
Levites,  would  have  an  influence  to  prevent  the  introduction  of 
any  practices,  which  might  have  a  tendency  to  pave  the  way  for 
idolatry.  It  was  sedulously  inculcated  on  parents,  that,  on  every 
occasion,  especially  at  the  return  of  the  national  festivals,  and 
when  pei"forming  the  ceremonies  prescribed  by  the  Law,  they 
should  instruct  their  children,  both  in  the  religion,  and  the  history 
of  their  nation.  From  the  fear,  that  their  insti'uctions  might, 
through    ignorance   or    from    a    failure   of   memory,  be,  in    some 

33 


386  §  309.    MOKAL    TKXDKNCY    OF    TIIK    INSTRUCTIOXS 

respects,  erroiR'Ous,  provision  was  mailf,  that  the  Ixjok  of  tlie  Law 
shouKl  be  i)iibli(ly  read  once  every  seven  years  in  tlie  Tabernacle; 
on  whicli  occasion,  not  only  parents  could  correct  the  errors,  which 
they  might  have  cherished,  but  the  children  also  could  determine, 
whether  the  instructions  they  had  received,  were  coincident  with  the 
trutii. 

To  sum  up  what  we  have  further  to  say  in  a  word  ;  we  observe 
that  the  names,  which  were  applied  to  the  supreme  Being,  viz.  Jeho- 
vah, Tin:  God  of  Ahkaiiam,  Isaac,  axd  Jacob;  that  their  resi- 
dence in  the  land  of  Canaan,  that  one  sacred  tabernacle,  one  high 
priest,  one  family  of  priests,  one  tribe  of  Levites  ;  that  even  the  tithes 
and  sacrifices,  the  redemption  of  the  first  born,  the  system  of  impuri- 
ties and  purifications,  and  other  things,  which  were  prescribed  in  the 
Law,  perpetually  admonished  the  Hebrews,  that  God  was  the  sole 
ruler  of  all  tilings,  even  that  God,  who  had  brought  them  out  from 
Egypt  into  the  land  of  their  present  residence,  and  had  commanded 
all  these  things  to  be  observed. 

Compare  particularly  Deut.  2G:  1 — 11,  and  H\od.  10:  1,  2.  12: 
25—28.  13:  4—16. 

The  Hebrews  were  commanded,  moreover,  to  commit  to  memory 
the  song  recorded  in  the  32d  of  Deuteronomy,  that  it  might  be  a  pei'- 
petual  monitor  of  their  duty,  and  in  case  they  failed  in  duty,  of  the 
consequences  which  would  follow. 

§  309.  On  the  moral  tendency  of  the  instructions  and  insti- 
tutions OF  Moses. 

"When  we  remember  that  Closes  prefixed  to  those  instructions, 
and  Laws,  and  the  ritual,  of  whicli  he  may  be  considered  especially 
the  author,  the  Book  of  Genesis,  which  is  so  abundant  in  instances 
of  moral  discipline,  we  shall  be  justified  in  expecting  to  find,  that 
wdiat  has  been  termed  "  the  Mosaic  religion"  will  not  be  deficient  in 
respect  to  its  moral  tendency.  Our  expectations  are  by  no  means 
disappointed. 

We  are  everywhere  taught  in  the  Laws  of  ]\Ioses,  tliat  God  is 
the  Creator  and  Govei-nor  of  the  universe,  to  whom  all  men  owe 
obedience  and-  gratitude.  "We  find,  moreover,  that  he  in  particular 
teaches  his  countrymen,  the  Hebrews,  that  they  were  bound  to 
devote  /hemselves  to   God  by   obligations,   which  Avere   multiplied 


AND    IKSTITUTIOXS    OF    MOSKS.  387 

and  peculiar;  since  they  liad  received  from  liim  such  distinfruijlied 
favors,  and  the  promise  of  others  at  a  future  period,  Exod.  20:  2. 
Lev.  11:  4.5.  25:  38.  Deut.  4:  32 — 40.  5:  24—28.  C:  12,  13,  20—25. 
7:  6—11.  8:  1—6,  10—18.  9:  4,  5.  10:  12.  11:  1.  26:  1—10.  32:  6. 
They  are,  accordingly,  commanded  to  love  God  with  all  the  heart  and 
mind  and  strength,  not  only  as  the  governor  of  the  universe,  and  the 
benefactor,  in  numberless  ways,  of  all  mankind,  but  to  love  him  also 
as  their  own  especial  deliverer  and  friend.  And,  as  the  result  of  such 
gratitude  and  love,  they  are  required  to  obey  his  laws,  and  this  in 
truth  for  the  additional  reason,  that  without  such  obedience,  they 
would  not  deserve  the  kindness  of  God,  and  would  not  be  in  a  situa- 
tion to  receive  any  further  benefits  from  his  hand,  Deut.  6:  4,  5.  11:  1, 
13,  14.  13:  4,  5. 

They  are  not  only  admonished  to  abstain  from  these  kinds  of 
food,  which  were  reckoned  unclean,  but  also  to  keep  themselves 
free  from  moral  defilements,  and  to  be  pure  and  holy  even  as 
God  is  holv,  Lev.  11:  45.  20:  2G.  Deut.  14:  1.  2,  21.  Lev.  19:  2.  20: 
7,8.  ' 

They  are  taught  to  love  their  neighbor,  i."i ,  as  themselves.  Lev. 
19:  18;  not  only  the  Hebrew,  but  the  stranger  also,  Lev.  19:  33,  34. 
Exod.  22:  20,  21.  23:  0,  12.  Xum.  15:  14.  Deut.  10:  18,  19.  24:  17. 
27:  19. 

Hatred  and  revenge  are  prohibited,  Exod.  23:  4,  5.  Lev.  19:  16 — 
18.  Deut.  23:  7,  8.  comp.  Job  31:  29—31. 

Cruelty  and  inhumanity  to  servants  are  guarded  against,  Exod.  20: 
10.11.  21:2—11,20—26.  Lev.  25:  39— 53.  Deut.  5:  14,  15.  12: 
18.  15:  12—15.  16:  11—14.  23:  15,  16.  25:  4.  comp.  Job  31:  13— 
15.  The  exhibition  of  kindness  to  the  poor,  likewise,  to  widows  and 
orphans,  is  inculcated,  Exod.  22:  25,  26.  Lev.  19:  9 — 13,  23:  22.  25: 
5,  6.  Deut.  12:  5—7.  14:  22—24.  15:  7—15.  16:  10—12,  26:  11— 
15.  27:  19. 

As  an  incitement  to  deeds  of  kindness  of  this  sort,  the  people  arc 
told  to  remember,  that  they  themselves  were  of  old  strangers  and  ser- 
vants in  the  land  of  the  Egyptians;  an  exhortation  which  implies  the 
knowledge  and  the  admission  of  the  duty  of  doing  to  others,  wliat  we 
wish  done  to  ourselves,  and  of  not  inflicting  on  others,  what  we  should 
ourselves  be  unwilling  to  suffer.  It  may  be  remarked,  furthermore, 
that  the  Hebrews  were  forbidden  to  exercise  cruelty  to  their  animals, 


388          §  "00.  MOTAi,  TiNDr.S-cv  of  tiik  instructions 

F:xo<1.  iO:  10,  11.    •2:]:  11,  12.  nt:  20.   L<-v.  22:  28.  2,1:  7.    Dent.  14: 
21.  22:  (>,  7,  10.   •„>:.:   I. 

Tlic  ]>coi>l('  arc  coininniKlcd  not,  to  curse  tlie  deaf,  and  not  to  cast 
an  obstacle  in  the  way  of  the  blind,  Lev.  11):  U.  Deut.  27:  18.  Tliey 
are  forbidden  to  utter  falselioods,  Exod.  23:  1 — 7;  and  are  admon- 
ished not  to  go  about  anionji  the  iieople  in  the  character  of  tale- 
bearers, as  they  will  liave  done  their  duty,  by  informing  the  guilty 
persons  of  their  faults  in  iirlvatc,  and  only  linvc  made  themselves  par- 
takers in  their  guilt,  by  giving  to  those;  I'auUs  an  unnecessary  ])ubli- 
city,  L.-v.  1!):  10. 

Thev  are  not  left  at  liberty  to  utter  curses  against  those  magis- 
trates, wiio,  in  their  estimation,  have  been  unfavorable  to  them,  Exod. 
22:  27,  28. 

They  were  commanded  to  avoid  all  fraud,  as  an  abomination  in  the 
sight  of  God,  Deut.  25:  13 — 16  ;  wdien  they  have  found  any  property, 
carefully  to  inquire  out  its  owner,  and  restore  it,  Deut.  22:  1,  3  ;  and 
to  keep  themselves  guiltless  not  only  of  fornication,  adultery,  incest, 
and  bestiality,  but  of  all  impure  concupiscence,  wdiich  are  great  crimes 
in  the  sight  of  Jehovah,  Lev.  18:  1—30.  Deut.  23:  18,  19.  22:  5. 
Exod.  20:  7. 

The  obedience  which  was  due  to  the  civil  law^s,  was  urged  on  the 
ground,  that  they  originated  from  that  merciful  and  holy  Being,  wdio 
is  the  creator  and  governor  of  all  things.  Lev.  11:  44.  18:  3 — 5.  19: 
10,  12,  14,  18,  25,  28,  30—32,  34,  37.  22:  3,  8,  30—33.  23:  22,  43. 
25:  17,  etc.  Moses,  accordingly,  in  reference  to  this  subject,  viz. 
obedience  to  the  civil  laws,  never  fails  to  remind  the  people  of  their 
divine  origin,  and  teaches  them  that,  unless  those  laws  are  observed, 
as  religions,  as  well  as  civil  institutions,  it  will  be  of  no  avail.  Con- 
sult particularly  the  passages  which  follow,  and  which  are  worthy  of 
a  repeated  perusal,  Deut.  4:  1—40.  5:  1— G,  25.  8:  1—19.  10:  12. 
11:  1.  29:  1.  30:  20. 

Numerous  sacrifices  were  insisted  on,  not,  in  truth,  for  any 
supposed  worthiness  in  the  sacrifices  themselves,  but  because 
they  were  an  indication  of  a  grateful  mind,  because  they  pre- 
sented a  symbolic  representation  of  the  punishment  due  to  trans- 
gressors, and  uttered,  as  it  were,  an  impressive  admonition, 
that  all  sins  were  to  be  avoided.  Sacrifices,  accordingly,  and 
other  ceremonies,  are  never  esteemed,  in  themselves  considered, 
of  much  consequence.     On  the  contrary,  it  is  expressly  said,  that 


AND    IXSTITLTIOXS    OF    MOSES.  389 

God  does  not  have  respect  to  gifts  and  offerings,  and  that  \o\vs 
are  not  necessary,  Deut.  10:  17.  23:  22,  23.  A  person  ulio  had 
made  a  vow,  could  free  himself  from  the  performance  of  it,  by- 
paying  a  certain  amount,  to  be  estimated  by  the  priest,  and,  fur- 
thermore, the  power  was  lodged  in  the  master  of  a  family  of  making 
void  the  vows  of  iiis  wives  and  daughters,  Lev.  27:  1 — 33.  Num.  30: 
2—14- 

Particuh^r  forms  of  words,  to  be  used  in  prayer,  are  not  found 
among  tiie  instructions  of  Closes,  [and  the  probable  reason  of  it,  as 
re[)resented  in  the  original  German,  is,  that  such  forms  of  words 
would  have  been  too  near  an  approach  to  the  superstitious  forms 
employed  in  charms,  and  incantations  among  the  neighboring  idola- 
trous nations,  and  might  have  led  to  unpropitious  consequences.] 
Still  there  is  what  may  be  considered  in  some  respects  an  exception 
to  this  statement,  for  we  find  a  form  of  words  prescribed  for  the  bene- 
diction in  Num.  G:  24 — 26,  and  also  for  the  return  of  thanks  in  Deut. 
2G:  1—10,  13—15. 

Promises  of  tcmjioj'al  good,  and  threats  of  temporal  evil  were  ne- 
ccs^ary  in  an  age,  in  which  the  knowledge  of  a  future  life  was  limited 
and  obscure.  But  they  are  no  more  obstacles  to  moral  discipline 
and  instruction,  than  like  threats  and  promises  are,  at  the  present 
day,  to  the  moral  education  of  our  offspring.  Furthermore,  the 
threats  and  promises,  of  which  we  speak,  may  be  considered,  as  ad- 
dressed to  the  Jews,  as  a  people,  rather  than  as  individuals,  and,  in 
this  way,  as  making  a  part  of  the  civil  polity ;  and,  after  all,  they  are 
in  themselves  an  evidence  that  God  approves  what  is  moral,  and  con- 
demns what  is  immoral  and  corrupt,  and  it  is  in  this  way,  that  he 
governs  the  universe. 

The  religion  of  Moses,  therefore,  had  a  good  moral  tendency ;  it 
discipli'-ied  many  men,  whose  characters,  for  their  moral  elevation 
and  wortli,  are  fit  subjects  of  admiration.  If  it  had  defects,  let  us 
have  the  candor  to  acknowledge,  that  they  are  to  be  attributed  in  a 
measure  to  the  circumstances  of  the  times,  and  the  gratitude  to  con- 
fess, that  its  deficiencies  have  been  amply  supplied  by  the  gospel  of 
Jesus  Christ. 

33* 


390  §010.  RKsrr.CTiNG  types. 


§310.   Of   Tin:    Qukstion,  ""Whether   there   are   Tyres   in 
Y  the  Laws  of  Moses?" 

That  there  are  historical  and  moral  types  in  the  Laws  ot"  Moses, 
is  evident  irom  the  Passover,  and  from  tlie  feast  of  tabernacles,  Exodi 
12:  1—13,  IG.  Lev.  23:  4,  8.  Deut.  IG:  1—8 ;  also  from  the  rite  of 
circumcision,  and  the  gold  mitre  of  the  high  priest,  for  a  typical  im- 
port is  expressly  assigned  to  these  last  by  Moses  himself.  Consult 
Exod.  28:  38,  and  Deut.  10:  IG.  30:  G. 

IJut  -whether  there  are  to  be  found  in  tlie  writings  of  Moses 
what  are  termed  propltdical  types,  has  been  a  subject  of  very  great 
contention.  We  see  in  the  discussions,  ■which  have  arisen  upon 
this  subject,  the  tendency,  which  there  is  in  men  to  rush  from 
one  extreme  to  another ;  and  because  types  of  this  kind  were 
formerly  too  much  multiplied,  the  wisdom  of  these  latter  days  has 
taken  upon  itself  boldly  to  deny  the  existence  of  any  such  types  at 
all. 

One  thing,  however,  seems  to  be  cei'tain,  that,  the  whole  Mo- 
saic discipline,  taken  in  connection  with  the  promises  made  to  the 
patriarchs,  was  not  only  introduced  to  preserve  and  transmit  the 
true  religion,  but  implied  and  intimated  something  better  to  come. 
Those  better  times  were  not  hidden  from  the  sight  of  the  prophets, 
and,  in  age  after  age,  and  with  much  frequency,  they  ])redicted 
them  in  their  poetry.  But  express,  and  insulated  types  of  Christ,  or 
of  the  Christian  Church,  known  to  he  such  by  tlie  ancient  Hehretus, 
do  not  appear  to  be  found  in  the  Laws  of  Moses.  Still  it  is  a  ques- 
tion worthy  of  further  investigation,  than  has  hitherto  been  be- 
stowed upon  it,  "Whether  God,  througli  the  instrumentality  of  Moses, 
did  not  so  order  certain  events  and  ceremonies,  that  they  should  be 
discovered  to  be  typical  at  the  coming  of  Christ,  and  in  this  way 
facilitate  the  conversion  of  the  Jews  to  the  Christian  system  ?  Com- 
pare my  Hermeneuticam  generalem  Veteris  et  Novi  Foederis,  §  15,  16. 
p.  43—48. 

(>  Note. — [As  the  subject  of  the  types  of  the  Old  Testament  is 

one,  which  has  not  failed  to  interest,  to  a  considei"able  degree,  the 
feelings  of  many  in  this  country,  I  take  it  for  granted  that  it  Avill 
not  be  deemed  out  of  place,  to  subjoin  to  this  section,  the  opinions 


§311.    Ki:i.U.10N    TILL    AFTICR   Till-:    CAPTIVITT.  391 

of  tlie  tiaiislator  of  Ernesti's  Elements  of  Interpretation.  The 
remarks,  to  wliich  I  refcM",  may  be  foiinfl  in  a  note  to  the  twenty-fifth 
section  of  that  publication,  and  are  as  follows. 

"If  it  be  asked,  How  far  are  we  to  consider  tlie  Old  Tksta- 
MKNT  as  ti/pical?  I  should  answer  without  any  hesitation  :  Just  so 
much  of  it  is  to  be  regarded  as  typical,  as  the  New  Testament 
affirms  to  be  so;  and  no  more.  The  fact,  that  any  thing  or  event 
under  the  Old  Testament  disi)ensation  was  designed  to  prefigure 
something  under  the  New,  can  be  known  to  us  only  by  revelation  ; 
and,  of  course,  all  that  is  not  designated  by  divine  authority  as  typi- 
cal, can  never  be  made  so  by  any  authority  less  than  that,  which 
guided  the  writers  of  the  Scriptures."] 

§  311.  Sketch  of  Religion  euom  Moses  till  after  tue  Baby- 
lonish Captivity. 

The  institutions  of  Moses  retained  their  influence  through  sub- 
sequent ages.  Whenever  religion  was  endangered,  by  neglect  or  by 
idolatry,  the  invariable  consequence  was,  that  there  were  calamities 
and  evils,  which  admonished  the  people  of  the  necessity  of  choos- 
ing rulers,  who  should  restore  to  them  both  the  full  operation  of 
their  religion,  and  their  prosperity  as  a  nation.  In  case  God  did 
not  send  upon  them,  in  the  first  instance,  public  calamities,  he 
commissioned  his  prophets,  who  severely  reproved  kings  and 
princes,  threw  great  obstacles  in  the  way  of  their  wicked  attempts 
to  inti'oduce  idolatry,  and  when  it  was  introduced,  had  the  happi- 
ness of  seeing,  in  some  cases,  pious  kings  raised  up,  as  the  succes- 
sors of  the  impious,  who  rescinded  what  their  predecessors  had 
done,  removed  idolatry,  and  restored  again  the  true  worship  of 
God. 

AVhen  at  length  admonitions  ceased  to  be  of  any  great  avail, 
and  every  thing  was  growing  worse  and  worse,  the  Israelitish  com- 
monwealth was  overthrown,  253  years  after  their  separation  from 
Judah,  and  722  before  Christ.  The  people  were  can-ied  away  by 
the  Assyrians  into  Gozan,  Chalacene,  the  cities  of  Media,  and  into 
Assyria. 

The  kingdom  of  Judah  was  overthrown  387  years  after  the 
separation,  588  before  Christ,  by  the  Chaldeans,  and  the  peo[>le 
were  carried  captive  to  the  banks  of  the  river  Cheber  in  Babylonia. 


302  §  311.    UKLIGIOX    TII.L    AKTr.It    TIIT.    CAPTIVITY. 

Ill  (liCJ-'e  cviMits,  wi'i-e  fulllllcd  tli('  iircdictions  both  of  Moses  and 
llie  Prophets. 

The  diflercnce  in  (he  condilion  of  the  Hebrews  under  the  Judges^ 
who  ruled  four  hundred  and  fifty  years,  and  under  the  Kings,  con- 
sisted in  this,  that  under  the  former,  idolatry  uas  not  commanded, 
but  the  people  rushed  into  it  of  their  own  accord.  Wherefore  the 
contamination  never  extended  so  far,  as  to  reach  the  Tabernacle. 
On  the  contrary,  those  kings,  who  were  im[)ious,  eitlier  expressly 
coininanded  the  worship  of  idols,  or  promoted  it  in  some  way  by  their 
authority  ;  so  that  its  pernicious  inlluence  penetrated  even  to  the 
Temple  itself. 

The  most  impious,  in  the  kingdom  of  Jiulah,  were  Ahaz  and 
INIanasseh,  who  immolated  their  sons  to  INIoloch  ;  and  the  former  of 
M'hom  shut  up  the  Temi)l(.'.  In  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  Ahab  with 
his  Zidonian  wife,  Jezebel,  surpassed  all  others  in  wickedness. 

During  the  period  immediately  preceding  their  overthrow, 
everv  kind  of  superstition,  and  every  moral  pollution  prevailed  in 
both  kingdoms,  especially  in  that  of  Judah.  No  other  means,  there- 
fore, remained,  to  correct  their  vices,  but  that  of  extreme  sever- 
ity, by  Avhich  the  whole  nation,  dispersed  from  their  country  into 
distant  regions,  and  humbled  and  afflicted,  might  learn,  that  they 
could  do  nothing  without  God,  and  that  idols  could  lend  them  no 
assistance. 

When  at  length  the  Return,  predicted  by  Moses  and  the  proph- 
ets, was  unexpectedly  secured  by  the  instrumentality  of  Cyrus, 
and  the  Temple  and  city  rebuilt,  the  people  being  convinced  by 
the  fulfilment  of  so  many,  and  such  distinguished  prophecies,  that 
God  is  the  omnipotent  and  omniscient  governor  of  the  tmiverse, 
and  lliat  all  idols  are  a  vanity,  continued  firm  to  Jehovah  ever 
after.  So  much  so,  that  they  opposed  the  commands,  and  set  at 
defiance  the  punishments  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  endured  evei'y 
suffering,  seized  their  arms,  in  vindication  of  their  liberty  and 
religion,  and  brought  over  other  nations  also  to  the  worship  of  their 
fathers.  The  rest  of  the  Jews,  who  were  widely  dispersed  both 
in  the  East  and  tlie  West,  made  proselytes  every  where,  and  it 
became  known  to  other  nations  that  there  was  a  people,  who 
worshipped  one  invisible  God,  the  creator  and  governor  of  the 
world. 

The   Jews  supposed    at   this  time,   that  the  age   was   approach- 


§  312.  ri;Ksi:vEn.vNCF,  of  iikhrkws  in  tiikiu  i;i:i,if:io\.     393 

ing,  when  the  tuuk  kkligion  should  be  propagated  to  all  nations, 
as  Iiad  been  promised  to  the  patriarchs  and  predicted  by  the 
pro|)hets. 

Their  condition  as  a  nation,  it  is  true,  tiirough  the  di^^cord  of 
the  rulers,  grew  worse,  tlian  it  had  been  previous!}',  and  every 
thing  tln-eatened  ruin.  That  wliich  was  promised,  notwithstanding, 
was  performed  by  Jesus  and  the  apostles,  and  "their  religion,  in 
subsequent  ages,  has  been  propagated  even  to  us ;  a  grand  fullil- 
nient  of  what  was  predicted  to  the  patriarchs  four  thousand  years 
a  20. 


§  312.  Pi;ksi:vekaxce  of  the  Hebrews  in  theiii  Heugiox 
after  the  captivity. 

The  perseverance  of  the  Hebrews  after  the  captivity,  in  their  reli- 
gion, to  whicii  we  have  already  alluded,  was  the  result  chiefly  of  the 
fulfilment  of  the  prophecies,  respecting  the  overthrow  of  the  kingdoms 
of  Israel,  Judah,  Assyria,  and  Chaldea,  and  respecting  the  return  from 
captivity ;  as  is  clear  from  Zech.  1:  2 — G.  Ezra  9:  7 — 15.  Neh.  9:  32 
— 37.  13:  17, 18.  The  punishment  of  a  long  exile,  which  the  foreign 
gods,  they  worshipped,  could  not  avert,  and  their  return,  which  was 
effected  by  the  Providence  of  God  alone,  without  any  cooperation  on 
the  part  of  the  people,  excited  their  minds,  already  softened  by  the 
concurrence  of  so  many  afflictions,  to  renewed  reflection  on  tliese,  and 
on  other  events,  equally  striking  and  more  ancient,  especially  on  the 
mercies  of  God. 

In  order  to  keep  the  memory  of  the  past  fresh  and  living  in  their 
minds,  they  built  synagogues,  in  which  the  Law  of  Moses  was  read 
every  Sabbath  day.  And  not  long  after,  other  sacred  books  were  read 
likewise,  especially  the  prophets ;  prayers  were  also  offered ;  sacred 
hymns  were  sung,  and  the  people  were  exhorted  to  a  moral  and  reli- 
gious course. 

Schools  also  were  established,  in  which  the  rising  generation  were 
instructed  more  carefully  in  the  truths  of  religion,  than  they  could  be 
by  their  parents. 

Tlie  similitude  which  existed  between  the  system  of  Moses,  and 
that  of  Zoroaster,  which  prevailed  in  Persia  and  Media,  may  be  sum- 
med up  in  a  single  article,  viz.  that  they  both  discountenanced  the 
worship  of  idols.     For, 


394       §  3\'2.    I'KKSKVKUANCK    OF    HKIUMCWS    IN*    TIIKIR    RICLIGIOX. 

I.  That  (iri;:iii:il  beginning  of  all  tilings,  called  IIazauuam,  wa3 
nt'itlicr  the  erealor  nor  governor  of  the  world,  but  the  endless  succes- 
sion of  time,  whieh  was  represented  by  Zoroaster,  as  the  supreme 
existence,  kxs,  or  fountain  of  being.  From  IIazaruam,  proceeded 
Ormuz  and  Ahrimanes.  Orniuz  acted  the  part  of  creator  of  the 
world  ;  a  circumstance  which  caused  no  little  envy  in  the  mind  of 
Ahrimanes,  and  induced  him  to  mingle  with  the  workmanship  of 
Ormuz,  the  seeds  or  principles  of  evil,  which  exist.  By  the  Mehes- 
lani,  moreover,  or  followers  of  Zoroaster,  not  only  Ormuz,  but  six 
.Vmsciiasi'AXDI,  also  innumerable  spirits,  dispersed  every  w'here,  the 
sun,  moon,  and  stars,  and  other  earthly  existences,  were  woi-shipped 
without  distinction. 

II.  If  the  example  of  the  Medes  and  Persians,  who  worship- 
ped Omuiz,  as  the  creator  and  governor  of  the  world,  con- 
firmed the  Hebrews  in  the  -worship  of  Jehovah,  it  was  equally 
likely,  on  the  other  hand,  to  induce  them  to  adore  the  stars,  and 
spirits,  which  occupied  so  conspicuous  a  place  in  the  system  of  these 
nations;  also  the  horses  and  chariot  of  the  sun,  which  the  ances- 
tors of  king  Josiah,  influenced  by  the  example  of  the  Mehestani, 
had  introduced  at  Jerusalem,  and  perhaps,  to  practise  that  species 
of  Magian  worslup,  witnessed  by  Ezekiel  in  the  tem[)le  of  Jeru- 
salem. 

HI.  The  Jews,  if  they  had  been  excited,  by  the  example  alone  of 
their  conquerors,  to  perseverance  in  their  religion,  would  not  certainly 
have  continued  their  adherence  to  it  after  the  overthrow  of  the  Per- 
sians, when  they  were  under  the  dominion  of  the  idolatrous  Greeks  ; 
a  period,  in  which,  though  exposed  to  the  hostility  of  Antiochus  Epi- 
phanes,  they  gave  ample  proofs  of  their  integrity. 

The  assertion,  that  the  Jews  adhered  to  the  religion  of  their  ances- 
tors, because  they  had  learnt  the  knowledge  of  the  true  God  from 
philosophical  principles,  is  opposed, 

I.  By  the  i-epresentations  of  the  books,  which  remain  of  that 
period.  For  it  is  evident  from  Ilaggai,  Zechariah,  Ezra,  Nehemiah, 
and  Malachi,  also  from  the  apocryphal  books  of  Wisdom  and 
Ecclesiasticus,  that  the  prevalent  belief  was  founded  on  ancient 
history,  especially  on  ancient  miracles,  and  the  fulfilment  of  the 
prophecies. 

II.  Moreover,  the  firm  persuasion,  which  existed,  would  not 
have   arisen    from   any  philosophical   specalations  about   the  being 


§  313.    KNOWLEDGE    OF    GOD    FROM    I'lIILOSOI'IIY.  395 

of  God,  if  it  had  not  existed  in  a  previous  period,  since,  in  the 
Psalms,  and  the  writings  of  the  Pro[)hets,  were  many  arguments, 
dra^Yll  from  the  nature  of  things,  to  show  the  doctrine  of  the  true 
God,  and  the  vanity  of  idols. 

III.  To  overturn  at  once  this  unfounded  supposition,  it  is  sutlicient 
to  say,  tliat  the  men,  who  are  best  instructed  in  Grecian  philosophy, 
endeavored  to  bring  back  idolatry  again.  But  on  points  connected 
witli  tliis  subject,  something  further  is  to  be  said. 

§  313.    Respecting   the    Knoavledge    of    God    before    the 
TIME  OP  Christ,  as  developed  by  Philosophy. 

!Not  a  single  philosopher  had  any  idea  of  a  God  of  such  an  exalted 
character,  as  to  be  the  agent  in  the  construction  of  the  Universe,  till 
Anaxagoras,  the  disciple  of  Herraotimus.  This  philosopher  came 
to  Athens  in  the  year  456  before  Christ,  and  first  taught,  that  the 
woi'ld  was  organized  or  constructed  by  some  mind  or  mental  being, 
out  of  matter,  which  this  philosopher  supposed,  had  alv;ays  existed. 
Socrates,  Plato,  and  others  adopted,  illustrated,  and  adorned  this 
opinion. 

Aristotle,  on  the  contrary,  supposed  the  world  to  have  existed  in 
its  organized  form  eternally,  and  that  the  supreme  being,  who  was 
coexistent,  merely  put  it  in  motion. 

The  Epicureans  believed  a  fortuitous  concurrence  of  atoms  to  have 
been  the  origin  of  all  things.  Many  were  atheists  ;  many  were  scep- 
tics, who  doubted  and  assailed  every  system  of  opinions. 

Those,  who  maintained  the  existence  of  a  framer  or  architect 
of  the  world,  (for  no  one  believed  in  a  creator  of  it,)  held  also  to 
an  animating  princijjie  in  matter,  which  originated  from  the  su- 
preme architect,  and  Avhicli  animated,  and  regulated  the  material 
system. 

Things  of  minor  consequence,  especially  those,  which  touched 
the  destiny  of  man,  were  referred  by  all  classes,  to  the  govern- 
ment of  the  gods,  who  were  accordingly  the  objects  of  worship, 
and  not  the  supreme  architect.  Paul  gives  a  sufficiently  fovor- 
able  representation  of  this  defective  knowledge  of  God,  Rom.  1: 
19 — 24.  After  all,  it  may  be  made  an  inquiry,  whether  Anaxa- 
goras  or  Ilermotimus  had  not  learnt  some  things  respecting  the  God 
of  the  Jews    from    those  Jews,  who    were    sold    as    slaves  by  the 


39G  §  311.  co.N'urriON  ok  man  aftku  dkatii. 

Plifiiicians  into  Greece,  Joel  3:  G,  or  from  the  riieiiieian.s  themselves, 
who  trailed  in  loiiia  and  Greece,  and  whether  these  jihilosophers  did 
not  thus  acquire  that  knowlcdiic.  Avliirli  was  thouglit  to  liave  origi- 
nated with  themselves.  Tc'rhaps  tiiey  derived  their  notions  of  an 
ETKUNAL  AKCiiiTECT  fi-om  the  doctrine  of  the  Persians  respecting 
Ilazariiani  or  tite  endless  succession  of  time,  and  Ormnz.  However 
this  may  be,  avc  observe  on  this  topic, 

I.  Tliat  the  Hebrews  remained  firm  to  tlieir  religion  before  their 
acquaintance  with  Grecian  philosoi)liy,  aUhough  many  receded  from 
it,  after  ibrming  such  an  acipiaintance. 

II.  The  philosophic  doctrine  respecting  the  architect  of  tlie  woi-ld, 
rested  on  arguments  of  so  subtile  a  kind,  that  they  could  not  have 
been  estimated  by  the  Jewish  iwpulace,  and  could  not  have  been 
applied  by  them,  to  confirm  their  minds  in  religious  trutli.  For,  ac- 
cording to  Cicero,  de  Nat.  Deorum,  Lib.  I.  6,  such  was  the  conten- 
tion, even  among  the  learned,  in  respect  to  the  doctrine  of  the  gods, 
that  those  who  had  the  most  strength  and  confidence  on  their  side 
were  compelled  to  douht. 

The  books  of  Cicero,  de  Natura  Dkoru.ai,  are  by  all  means  to 
be  read. 


§  314.  Ox  the  Condition  of  Man  after  Death. 

That  the  ancient  Hebrews,  that  the  Patriarchs  themselves  had 
some  idea  of  a  future  life,  although  we  must  acknowledge  tlieir 
information  on  the  subject  to  have  been  limited  and  obscure,  is 
evident, 

I.*  From  the  distinction,  which  is  made  between  the  subterranean 
residence  denominated  Sheol,  ?'"^<■r  and  ^''2.,  and  the  grave  or  place 
of  interment  for  the  body,  denominated  i:;^  Gen.  25:  8.  37:  3o. 
49:33.  oO:  2—10.  Num.  20:  24—20.  Dent.  34:  7.  31:  10.  1  Kings 
11:  43. 

II.  That  they  believed  in  the  existence  of  the  spirit  after  the 
death  of  the  body,  is  evident  likewise  from  the  credit,  wliich  they 
were  disposed  to  give  to  the  art  of  necromancy,  by  means  of  which 
the  Jews  believed,  that  the  spirits  of  the  dead,  rSz'it. ,  -'"•x,  °:-~";, 
were  summoned  back  to  the  present  scene  of  existence,  Le\-.  I'J: 
31.  20:  0,  7,  20,  27.  Deut.  18:  11.  1  Sam.  28:  3—10.  2  Kings  23: 
21.   1  Chron.  10:  13.  Isa.  19:  3.   29:  4.  57:  9.    comp.  Zech.  13:  2—0. 


§  014.    CONDITION    OF    .MAN    AFTKlt    nr.ATII.  307 

The  objection,  which  is  sometimes  matle,  viz.  that  persons,  whose 
mintls  are  umlei'  the  influence  of  superstition,  ai'e  very  inconsistent 
with  themselves  ami  in  their  opinions,  does  not  avail  anything  in 
the  present  case,  fur  it  would  in  truth  be  a  miracle  of  incon- 
sistency, if  those  persons,  who  believed,  that  departed  spirits  were 
no  longer  existing,  should,  nevertheless,  give  full  credit  to  the 
ability  of  such  non-existent  spirits,  to  reveal  the  mysteries  of  the 
future. 

The  belief  of  the  ancient  Hebreiva,  therefore,  on  this  subject,  was, 
that  the  spirits  of  the  dead  were  received  info  Shkol,  which  is 
represented,  as  a  large  subterranean  abode,  Gen.  37:  35.  comp. 
Num.  Ifi:  30 — 33.  Deut.  32:  22.  Inlo  this  abode,  we  are  told, 
that  the  wicked  are  driven  suddenly,  their  days  being  cut  short,  but 
the  good  descend  into  it  in  tranquillity,  and  in  the  fulness  of  their 
years. 

This  very  spacious  dwelling-place  for  those  who  have  gone  hence, 
is  often  described  as  dark,  as  sorrowful,  and  inactive.  Job  10:  21. 
Ps.  G:  5.  88:  11,  12.  115:  17.  Isa.  38:  18 ;  but  in  Isa.  14:  9  et  seq.  it 
is  represented  as  full  of  activity ;  and  in  other  places,  as  we  may 
learn  from  Job  2G:  5,  G,  and  1  Sam.  28:  7,  more  than  human  know- 
ledge is  ascribed  to  its  inhabitants,  which  is  indeed  implied  in  the 
credit,  which  was  given  to  necromancers.  In  this  abode,  moreover, 
the  DKPAnxED  sriniTS  rejoice  in  that  rest,  so  much  desired  by  the 
orientals.  Job  3:  13 ;  and  there  the  living  liope  to  see  once  more  their 
beloved  ancestors  and  children,  Gen.  37:  35.  comp.  Gen.  25:  10.  35: 
28.  49:29.  Num.  20:  24—26.  1  Kings  2: 10,  11,  etc.;  and  there  also 
the  servant  is  at  length  freed  from  his  master,  and  enjoys  a  cessation 
from  his  labors,  Job  3:  13 — 19. 

That  the  ancient  Hebrews  believed,  that  there  was  a  differ- 
ence, in  their  situation  in  Sheol,  between  the  good  and  the  bad, 
although  it  might  indeed  be  inferred  from  their  ideas  of  the  jus- 
tice and  benignity  of  God,  (IMatt.  22:  32)  cannot  be  proved  by 
direct  testimony.  The  probability,  however,  that  this  was  the 
case,  seems  to  be  increased,  Avhen  it  is  remembered,  that  the  au- 
thor of  the  book  of  Ecclesiastes,  who.  in  chapter  3:  18,  speaks 
somewhat  sceptically  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  says  in  chap- 
ter 1 2:  7,  that  the  '•  spirit  shall  return  to  God,  who  gave  it,"  [and, 
although  he  nowhere  in  express  terms  holds  U])  the  doctrine  of 
future  rewards  and  punishments,  informs  us  in  ciiap.  12:  14,  of  scir.e- 

34 


398         §015.    RKSPECTING    TIIK    rROPAGATION    OF   JUDAISM. 

thing  very  iniicli  like  it,  viz.  ''  Thai  God  sltall  hriiuj  evcri/  icorh  {)ito 
Ju(h/i>U'id.  uu'/h  every  secret  tiling,  irhetlter  (jood  or  etvY."] 

"NVc  liave  not  authority,  tln-rcfore,  decidedly  to  say,  that  any 
other  motives  were  held  out  to  the  ancient  Hebrews  to  pur- 
sue the  good  and  to  avoid  the  evil,  than  those  which  were  de- 
rived from  the  rewards  ami  punishments  of  tliis  Hfc.  That  tliese 
were  the  motives,  whicii  were  ])resented  to  their  minds  in  order 
to  influence  them  to  pursue  a  right  course  of  conduct,  is  ex- 
pressly asserted  in  Isa.  2G:  .9,  10 ;  and  may  be  learnt  also  from 
the  imprecations,  wliicli  are  met  with,  in  many  parts  of  the  Old 
Testament. 

The  i\Ii:iir.siiTAM,  who  were  disciples  of  Zoroaster,  believed  in 
the  immortality  of  the  soul,  in  rewards  and  punishments  after  death, 
and  in  the  resurrection  of  tlie  body ;  at  the  time  of  which  resurrec- 
tion, all  the  bad  would  be  purged  by  fire,  and  associated  with  the 
good,  Zend  Avesta,  P.  I.  p.  107,  108.  P.  II.  p.  211.  227.  229.  124, 
125.  173.  245,  246.  comp.  Ezek.  37:  1—14. 

There  is  some  uncertainty  respecting  the  passages  in  Daniel 
12:  2,  3,  13  ;  but  it  is  possible  at  any  i-ate,  that  they  may  be  a  con- 
firmation of  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  and 
it  is  very  clear,  that  Ilaggai  (2:  23)  speaks  of  some  state  of 
glory  after  the  termination  of  this  present  life.  Compare  Zech. 
3:  7.  These  sentiments  of  the  later  prophets,  which  are  perfectly 
in  unison  with  what  is  said  of  the  justice  and  clemency  of  God, 
in  other  parts  of  the  (31d  Testament,  were  at  length  adopted  by  the 
Jews  generally,  with  the  exception  of  the  Sadducees,  against  whom 
they  are  defended  in  the  following  passages  of  the  Apocr3-phal  Books, 
viz.  2  Mac.  7:  9,  11,  14,  23,  29,  3G.  12:  40—45,  and  Wisd.  3:  1—11. 
4:  7— IG. 

Thus  the  Jews  were  gradually  prepared  to  receive  that  broader 
and  fuller  light,  whicli  Jesus  shed  upon  them,  2  Tim.  1:  10. 

§  315.  Respecting  the  PnorAGATiox  of  Judaism. 

The  Jews,  during  the  four  centuries  preceding  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  were  very  extensively  dispersed,  and  they  did 
not  fail  to  make  proselytes  to  Judaism,  in  all  the  places  where  it 
was  their  fortune  to  reside.  Tlie  persecutions  of  Antiochus  Epi- 
phanes  promoted  the  cause  of  proselytism ;   for  those  persecutions, 


§  olo.  UtlSrKCTING    THE    rKOlWOATJON    OK    JIDAISM.         399 

under  the  good  providence  of  God,  were  the  occasion  ot"  many  vic- 
tories to  the  Jews,  and  excited,  at  tlie  same  time,  the  interest  and 
Lotice  of  the  surrounding  nations.  In  consequence  of  the  stand, 
which  the  Jews  then  took,  and  the  victories  which  tliey  won,  whole 
nations,  as  the  Idumeans,  the  Itureans,  and  ]Moabites,  professed 
the  Jewish  faith,  and  underwent  the  initiatory  rite  of  circumci- 
sion. The  king  of  Yimian  or  Yemen,  a  district  of  country  in 
Arabia  Felix,  became  a  Jew,  more  than  a  hundred  years  before 
Clu'ist,  and  his  successors  both  defended  and  propagated  the  Jewish 
religion. 

The  Jews  in  Asia  Minor,  in  Greece,  and,  in  the  progress  of  time, 
at  Rome  also,  were  the  means  of  drawing  numbers  within  the  pale 
of  their  country's  religion.  In  Rome,  in  particular,  they  eventually 
became  so  numerous,  as  to  have  a  majority  at  elections  ;  and  because 
they  were  restless  and  turbulent,  they  were  ordered  by  Tiberius,  to 
depart  from  Italy,  and  by  Claudius,  from  Rome.  These  orders,  how- 
ever, in  respect  to  them,  were  not  fully  put  in  execution,  Tacitus, 
Annal.  II.  85.  Suetonius  in  Tiberio,  §  36,  et  in  Claudio,  §  25.  Die 
Cassius,  4.  60.  p.  669. 

Ami)le  privileges  were  in  general  given  to  the  Jews  by  the  Ro- 
mans, and  the  obstacles  were  mostly  removed,  which  might  have  had 
a  tendency  to  prevent  the  increase  of  their  numbers  by  the  accession 
of  proselytes.  In  this  state  of  things,  proselytes,  especially  from  the 
female  sex,  who  were  not  subjected  to  the  inconveniences  of  circumci- 
sion, were  perpetually  multiplied,  and  are  often  mentioned  in  the  New 
Testament.  See  Acts  2:  11.  6:  5.  13:  43.  16:  14.  17:  4.  18:  7,  13. 
19:  29.  13:  50.  Josephus,  Jewish  War,  II.  20,  and  Antiquities, 
XYIII.  3,  5. 

About  the  time  of  Christ,  Izates  the  king  of  Adiabcne,  having 
been  instructed  by  some  females,  was  circumcised,  and  introduced  the 
Jewish  religion  into  his  kingdom.  See  the  Antiquities  of  Josephus, 
XX.  2,  1 — 5.  Providence  thus  prepared  the  way  for  the  propagation 
of  the  Christian  religion  into  all  parts  of  the  world;  for  the  Apos- 
tles, wherever  they  travelled,  found  those,  who  had  embraced  the 
Jewish  religion,  and  they  not  only  had  the  liberty  to  preach  in  their 
synagogues,  but,  as  we  may  learn  from  various  passages,  were  very 
essentially  aided  by  the  Jewish  proselytes,  in  announcing  Jesus  Christ 
to  the  heathen,  Acts  2:  5—11.  11:  19.  13:  4—6,  13—52.  14:  1—28. 
IG:  1—40.   12:  1—17,  etc. 


400  §olG.    GKNKKAL    STATK    OK   .IKAVI^II    AIFAIKS. 


§  oK).   Gknkuai.  SiATi:  «»i-  Jr.wi:>u  AriAins. 

The  .TcAvs.  wlicix'xcr  tiicy  dwt'll,  lived  in  a  measure  separate  from 
the  ii.-t  (if  till'  coiiiniunily,  Imt  tliey  were  extremely  harmonious 
among  tliem.-elvcs.  Indeed  those,  who  lived  in  eoimtries,  that  were 
separate  and  distant,  still  maintained  a  connection  with  each  other,  by 
means  ot'llu;  Temple  at  dei'iisalem.  For  every  individual  was  in  the 
ludjit  of  sending  to  it  yearly  a  half  shekel  in  money ;  those,  who 
were  able  to,  visited  it  in  person,  in  order  to  attend  the  great  festivals, 
and  those,  who  were  not  in  a  condition  to  do  this,  transmitted  gifts, 
either  for  the  Temple,  or  to  be  employed  in  the  sacrifices,  by  the 
hands  of  others. 

The  Jews  of  Egypt,  who  inhabited  Leontopolis  in  the  district 
of  Ileliopolis,  Irom  the  year  1-i'J  before  Christ  to  Anxo  Domini  73, 
had  a  temple  of  their  own,  though  they  still  ke[it  up  a  connection 
with  the  Jews  at  Jerusalem.  Nor  was  this  general  harmony  in 
the  least  interrupted  by  the  existence  of  the  three  prominent  sects, 
which  influenced  by  their  philosophical  systems,  differed  so  much 
in  their  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures.  AVhen  we  speak  of  their 
interpretation,  and,  consequently,  belief  being  influenced  by  their 
philosophy,  the  meaning  is  obvious  ;  for  Josephus,  (Antiquities  XV. 
10,  4.)  informs  us  that  the  riiarisees  approximated  very  near  to  the 
Stoics,  the  Sadducees  to  the  Epicureans,  and  the  Essenes  to  the 
Pythagoreans. 

The  Pharisees  cultivated  a  very  friendly  intercourse  with  each 
other,  and,  as  they  were  the  favorites  of  the  people,  and  generally 
secured  to  their  party  the  influence  of  females  of  high  rank,  they 
were  very  powerful.  As  is  too  apt  to  be  the  case,  where  there  is 
power,  they  became  audacious,  were  inclined  to  make  disturbances, 
and  were  in  truth  formidable  to  the  high  priests,  and  to  the  kings 
themselves,  Josephus,  Antiquities,  XIII.  10,  5,  G.  XVII.  2,  4. 
XMII.  1,  3.  The  minor  divisions,  which  eventually  introduced 
themselves  into  this  sect,  and  ranked  its  members  as  the  followers, 
some  of  Shammai,  some  of  Ilillel,  and  others  at  length  of  Judas 
of  Galilee,  did  not  interrupt  the  exercise  of  general  harmony  and 
good  feeling. 

The  sect  of  the  Sadducees  in  general  consisted  of  those  only 
who    wei-e     wealth  v    and     honorable.       When,    however,    it    was 


§  317.    ox    THE    ANTIQUITY    OF    THKSK    SIXTS.  401 

their  fortune  to  sustain  any  public  olFices,  they  foun.l  tliemselves 
under  4lie  necessity  of  conforming  to  the  sentiments  of  the  Pharisees, 
for,  otherwise,  they  would  not  have  been  tolerated  by  the  [leoplo, 
JosKriics,  Antiquities,  XIII.  10,  G.  XVIII.  1,  3,  4. 

Tlie  Essenes  were  a  sect,  who  were  very  closely  linked  together, 
and  constituted  what  may  be  termed  an  order  of  jnon/cs.  The  mcm- 
bei-s  of  this  sect  not  only  lived  in  Egypt,  and  in  other  countries ; 
but  nearly  four  thousand  of  them  resided  in  Palestine  itself,  particu- 
larly on  the  western  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Consult  Josephus's  An- 
tiquities of  the  Jews,  XVIII.  1,  5,  and  Pliny's  Natural  History,  Bk. 
V.  ch.  17. 


§  317.    Ox    THE    AXTIQUITY    OF   THESE    SECTS. 

It  is  remarked  by  Josephus,  (Antiquities  XIII.  10,  5,  6,)  that 
John  Ilyrcauus  went  over  from  the  Pharisees  to  the  Sadducees, 
and  thereby  created  much  trouble  to  his  family.  This  happened, 
when  he  was  young,  i.  e.  about  the  year  150  before  Christ;  of 
course  both  of  these  sects  were  not  only  in  existence,  but,  it  may 
reasonably  be  inferred,  had  secured  no  little  notoriety,  as  far  back  as 
that  period. 

Furthermore ;  Josephus  expressly  says,  (Antiquities  XIII.  o,  9.) 
that  the  Pharisees,  Sadducees,  and  Essenes  existed,  as  separate 
sects,  at  the  time  when  Jonathan  was  prince,  i.  e.  between  159 
and  144  before  Christ;  that  they  were  flourishing  at  that  period, 
and  were  even  then,  as  he  remarks,  r/.  tov  navv  unyaiov.  It  is 
true,  they  are  not  mentioned  in  the  book  of  Maccabees,  but  it  is 
clear  from  the  passage  in  Josephus  just  referred  to,  that  they 
existed  in  the  time  of  those  princes.  Some,  however,  suppose,  that 
the  Pharisees  are  meant  to  be  designated  by  the  word  aoiduioii, 
Cl'Sr!,  the  pious,  which  occurs  in  1  Mace.  2:42.  7:  13,  also  in 
2  Mace.  14:  6,  and  that  this  sect  are  there  called  the  piozis,  from 
the  circumstance  of  their  being  desirous  to  do  more,  than  the  Law 
required ;  while  on  the  contrary,  other  persons,  (among  whom  are 
to  be  reckoned  the  Sadducees,)  who  were  willing  to  be  satisfied 
with  adhering  to  the  letter  of  the  Law,  and  Avith  doing  as  much 
and  ?io  more,  than  it  demanded,  were  denominated  'z"p"^>'i  the  just. 
That  these  sects,  the  Sadducees  and  Pharisees,  were  nearly  simul- 
taneous in  their  origin,  there  is  hardly  room  to  doubt :  but  the 
34* 


402  §  318.    ox    TIIK    DOCTUINE    OF   THE    rilAniSEES. 

precise  time  of  tlicir  origin  is  to  be  inferred,  at  any  rate,  to  a  period, 
anterior  to  the  days  of  the  Maccabees.  * 

It  is  further  to  be  added,  that  tlie  naidatot,  Assideans,  men- 
tioned in  1  !Macc.  2:  -12,  are  said  to  have  been  those,  h.ovaiu- 
Loiiftoi  Tfo  voiicp  r,y.70  -'^:r":  b'r,  u-fto  voluntarily  fought  for 
tliclr  religion  ;  and,  furtlierniore,  the  Jewisli  soldiers  in  general,  in  2 
l^Iacc.  14:  G,  are  denominated  uatduint.  Josephns  likewise  (Anti- 
quities, XII.  10,  3.)  does  not  call  the  uni8uini  Pharisees,  but 
uyaflnv^^  y.(a  oaiov','  rov  tOtovi,;  the  good  and  pious  of  the  people. 

The  circumstance,  Avhich  is  stated  in  Pirke  Auotii,  viz.  that 
Zadock  and  Baithos,  discii)les  of  Antigonus  Sochaeus,  were  the 
founders  of  the  sect  of  the  Sadducees,  is  not  of  so  much  -weight,  in 
as  much  as  nothing  of  the  kind  is  mentioned  in  Josephus.  It  seems 
to  be  the  fact,  nevertheless,  that  both  Sadducees  and  Pharisees  had 
their  origin  about  the  time  of  Antigonus  Sochaeus,  who  was  the 
disciple  of  Simon  the  Just,  i.  e.  about  the  beginning  or  middle  of  the 
third  century  before  Christ. 

In  respect  to  the  Essenes,  it  ap[)ears  both  from  their  mode  of 
life,  and  from  the  great  numbers,  who  resided  in  that  country,  that 
they  had  their  origin  in  -Egypt.  Philo  likewise,  in  his  treatise 
(de  vita  contempl.)  expresses  himself  in  such  a  way,  as  to  afford 
evidence,  that  this  was  the  fact.  He  indeed  makes  a  distinction 
between  the  Essenes  or  Esseans,  N"'CX ,  and  Therapeutae,  {fsQantvTui, 
but  it  is  only  in  some  minute  particulars  of  small  consequence.  Both 
names  signify  physicians,  for  the  members  of  this  sect  professed  not 
only  the  healing  of  the  body,  but  of  the  mind. 


§  318.    Ox   THE    DOCTKIXE    OF   THE    PhAKISEES. 

The  Pharisees  boasted,  that  they  were  peculiarly  acceptable  to 
God,  on  account  of  their  accurate  knowledge  of  the  Jewish  Law  and 
religion,  Josephus,  Antiquities,  XVII.  2,  4.  Jewish  War,  II.  8,  14. 
Luke  11:52.  18:  11. 

We  shall  give  a  short  account  of  their  opinions,  as  far  as  they  are 
mentioned  or  alluded  to  in  the  New  Testament. 

1.  They  agreed  with  the  Stoics  in  teaching  the  doctrine  oi'  fate, 
or  an  immutable  order  of  things,  fixed  by  the  decree  of  God.  Per- 
haps  it  may  be    more    agreeable   to    some,    if   we    should  denomi- 


§  318.    ox    THE    DOCTltINK    OF    Til:-:    rilARlXEES.'  403 

iiate  their  opinions  in  this  rt-spcct  the  doctrine  of  divine  Pi'oridence, 
i.  c.  that  oversight  in  the  Supreme  Being,  which  rules  and  co-ope- 
rates with  all  events  in  such  a  manner,  as  to  prevent  at  least  their 
being  left  entirely  dependent  on  the  will  of  man ;  since  the  actions 
of  man  himself  are  dependent  on  the  eternal  purpose  of  God,  Jose- 
phus,  Antiquities,  XIII.  5,  9.  XVIIL  1,  3.  Jewish  War,  II.  8,  14. 
Acts  o:  38,  30. 

II.  They  taught,  that  the  souls  of  men  Avere  immortal,  and  dwelt, 
after  the  present  life,  in  some  subterranean  abode,  (sheol).  They 
further  taught,  that  the  spirits  of  the  wicked  were  tormented  with 
everlasting  punishments,  and  that  they  at  times  made  their  reappear- 
ance upon  the  earth  to  vex  men  with  epilepsy,  mental  derangement, 
madness,  and  melancholy ;  that  the  good,  on  the  other  hand,  received 
rewards,  and  at  length  passed  into  otiier  human  bodies.  Antiquities, 
XVIIL  1,  3.  Jewish  War,  II.  8,  14.  III.  8,  5.  Matt.  14:  2.  IG:  14. 
John  9:  2,  34. 

It  is  nowhere  remarked  by  Josephus,  that  they  believed  in  the 
resurrection  of  the  dead,  but  that  they,  nevertheless,  held  to  such  a 
belief,  is  clear  from  the  New  Testament.  Consult  ]Matt.  22:  24 — 34. 
Mark  12:  18—23.  Luke  20:  27— 3G.  John  11:  24.  2  Mac.  7:  9—11, 
14,  23,  29,  30.  12:  40—45. 

III.  The  Pharisees  believed  in,  and  taught  the  existence  o^  angels, 
both  good  and  bad.  The  angel,  that  held  the  highest  rank  among 
the  latter  class,  they  believed  to  have  been  uncreated.  The  name 
of  this  angel,  at  least  as  it  occurs  in  the  more  recent  Jewish  writings, 
is  that  of  MiTTATROx.  The  highest  in  rank  among  the  former 
class,  or  the  prince  of  bad  angels,  received  various  names,  and  was 
called  the  devil,  Samael,  Asii.medai  or  the  temptf,  a  liar  and 
homicide  from  the  beginning,  the  old  serpent,  the  prixce  of 
THIS  "WORLD,  who  accuses  men  before  God  and  demands  their  de- 
struction. Matt.  4:  3.  Luke  4:  2.  John  8:  44.  14:  30.  Rev.  12:  9. 
20:  2.  Ileb.  2:  14.  They  believed,  that  angels  were  the  ministers  or 
agents  of  the  divine  Being  on  the  earth,  and  that  some  one  of  them 
was  assigned,  not  only  to  every  kingdom,  but  to  every  individual,  and 
at  times  made  his  appearance,  Matt.  18:  10.  Luke  4:  10.  Ileb.  2:  5. 
Acts  12:  15.  23:  8,  9. 

IV.  Tliey  believed,  furthermore,  that  God  was  under  obliga- 
tion, and  bound  in  justice,  to  bestow  favors  upon  the  Jews,  to 
render  them  partakers  of  the  kingdom  of  the  ^lessiah,  to  justify, 


iOi  §  .'ll'.t.    DKFKCTS    IN    TIIK    MOUAI.S    OF    TUT.    I'lIAIIISEES. 

ami  lo  rciuh'r  tluin  eternally  liMjipy ;  and  that  lie  could  not  con- 
demn anv  of  them.  The  ground  of  justijication  in  the  case  of  the 
Jews,  they  all<>ged  to  be  the  merits  of  Abraham,  the  knowledge  of 
God  which  existed  among  them,  circumcision,  and  the  offering  of 
sacrifices,  Josephus,  Antiquities,  XVII.  2,  1.  Jewish  War,  IL  8,  4. 
Justin's  Dialofjrte  with  Tryflio  P'lrhc  Ahvth,  Rom.  i — xi.  Ileb.  10: 
1—18. 

5  310.    Dkfixts  IX  THE  Moral  PuixcirLES  and  Practice  of 
THE  Pharisees. 

The  pharisees  professed  to  aim  at  the  strictest  moral  integrity  in 
their  conduct ;  but  the  principles,  by  which  their  conduct  was  guided 
in  this  respect,  were  in  a  great  degree,  both  lax  and  erroneous.  For 
instance, 

I.  They  considered  many  things,  which,  in  order  to  prevent 
crreater  evils,  had  been  admitted  to  hold  a  place  in  the  civil  Laws  of 
Moses,  to  be  for  that  reason,  morally  right ;  for  instance,  the  laic  of 
retaliation,  (jus  talionis.)  and  the  divorce  of  a  wife,  for  any  cause 
whatever,  Matt.  5:  31  et  seq.  19:  3  et  seq. 

IT.  In  some  instances,  they  adhered  too  closely  to  the  letter 
of  the  Mosaic  Laws,  and  further  perverted  their  spirit  by  accom- 
modating them  to  their  own  philosoiihy.  Thus,  according  to  the 
construction,  which  they  put  upon  the  Law  in  respect  to  loving 
one's  neighbor,  they  were  bound  to  love  their  neighbor  merely, 
and  considered  themselves  at  liberty  to  exercise  hatred  towards 
their  enemies.  Matt.  5:  43.  Luke  10:  33.  They  maintained,  that 
the  oath,  in  which  God  was  not  expressly  named,  was  not  binding, 
or,  at  least,  esteemed  it  but  of  little  consequence,  Matt.  5:  33.  On 
the  Sabbath,  they  forbade  the  gathering  of  a  few  cars  of  corn, 
healing  the  sick,  etc.,  Matt.  12:  1  et  seq.    Luke  6:  6  et  seq.    14:  1  et 

seq. 

III.  They  attached  but  little  importance  to  those  natural  Laws 
which  Moses  had  not  enforced  by  a  penalty,  and  gave  a  decided  pre- 
ference to  the  ceremonial  Laws,  as  if  the  latter  were  great  and 
weighty  commands.  Matt.  5:  19.  22:  34.  15:  4. 

They  esteemed  anger  without  any  adequate  cause,  and  likewise 
the  exercise  of  impure  affections,  matters  of  but  Tery  little  moment, 
Matt.  5:  21,  22,  27—30. 


S  320.  ox  xni:  traditions  ov  tiik  riiARisicES.  405 

They  were  anxious  to  make  proselytes,  but  they  cared  more  about 
merely  enrolling  them  in  their  number,  than  about  making  them  bet- 
ter men,  Matt.  23:  15.  Avaricious  and  devoted  to  the  pleasures  of 
the  world,  they  resorted  to  any  measures,  whether  just  or  unjust,  to 
procure  riches,  INIatt.  5:  1—12.  23:  4.  James  2:  1 — 8.  Luke  IG:  11. 
Josephus,  Antiquities,  XIII.  3.  4,  5.  They  were  so  desirous  of  vain 
<ilory,  and  so  impressed  with  the  idea  of  their  own  personal  sanctity, 
that  they  uttered  their  prayers  publicly,  in  the  sight  of  all  men,  ]Matt. 
G:  2,  5.  Luke  18:  11.  They  took  a  pride  in  ornamenting  the  tombs 
of  the  prophets.  Matt.  23:  29. 


§  320.  Ox  tiik  Traditions  of  the  Pharisees. 

The  Pharisees  observed  a  multitude  of  traditions,  i.  e.  unwritten 
ordinances,  whicli  originated  with  their  ancestors,  and  some  of  them 
indeed,  as  they  maintained,  with  Moses  himself.  They  not  only 
placed  these  traditions  on  an  equality  with  the  Laws,  which  were 
acknowledged  to  be  divine,  but  even  esteemed  them  of  still  higher 
importance,  Matt.  15:  2,  3,  G.  jNIark  7:  3 — 13.  Talmud,  Hosh  Ilash- 
chana,  p.  19,  1.  Zebachim,  p.  101,  1.  Josephus,  Antiquities,  XIII. 
10,6. 

The  practices,  which  were  founded  on  tradition,  at  length 
made  their  appearance  in  a  collected  form  in  the  Talmud,  and  in 
truth  witli  many  additions.  By  the  aid  of  what  is  there  stated,  we 
shall  endeavor  to  illustrate  some  things,  Avhich  occur  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament. 

The  washing  of  hands,  before  meals,  (a  custom  which  originated 
from  the  practice  of  conveying  food  to  the  mouth  in  the  fingers,) 
was  eventaally  made  a  religiom  duty  ;  on  the  ground  that,  if  any  one, 
though  unconscious  of  the  circumstance  at  the  time,  had  touched  any 
thing,  whatever  it  might  be,  which  was  unclean,  and  remained  un- 
washed, when  he  ate,  he  thereby  communicated  the  contamination  to 
the  food  also.  The  Pharisees  judged  the  omission  of  this  ablution 
to  be  a  crime  of  equal  magnitude  with  fornication,  and  worthy  of 
death.  Consult  the  Talmud  of  Babylon,  Aboda,  Zara,  p.  11,  1. 
Sota,  p.  4,  2.  Berachoth,  p.  4G,  2.  Thaanith,  p.  20,  2,  compared  with 
Matt.  15:  1  et  seq. 

They  taught  that,  if  a  person  had  not  departed  from  the  house, 


40G  §  320.  ON  Tin:  TnAniTiONS  of  tiik  riiARisr.KS. 

the  liaiuls,  witliout  tlie  fingers  being  distcndeil,  should  be  wet 
witli  water  poured  over  them,  and  then  elevated,  so  that  the  water 
mi'dit  How  down  to  tiie  elbows ;  furthermore,  the  water  was  to 
be  poured  a  second  time  over  the  arms,  in  order  that,  (the  hands 
beini;  held  down.)  it  might  flow  over  the  fingers.  This  practice 
is  alluded  to  in  Mark  7:  3,  iav  nij  nvyuii  vhi'wvTui,  and  is  denomi- 
nated by  the  Rabbins  ^v*: .  See  Duxtorf's  Chaldaic,  Talmudic, 
a:id  Rabbinic  Lexicon,  col.  1335.  On  the  contrary,  those,  who 
had  departed  from  the  house,  washed  in  a  bath,  or  at  least,  immersed 
their  hands  in  water  with  the  fingers  distended.  The  ceremony 
in  this  case,  (Mark  7:  4.)  is  denominated  lav  /</)  ^umCZorTai,  and 
by  the  Rabbins  Vs-J.  See  Buxtorf's  Lexicon,  col.  849.  The  water- 
pots,  which  are  mentioned  in  John  2:  6,  appear  to  have  been  used 
in  ablutions  of  the  kind,  that  have  now  been  mentioned.  From 
these  ablutions,  it  is  necessary  to  distinguish  the  symbolic  wash- 
ings, spoken  of  in  Deut.  21:  6.  Ps.  26:  6,  and  Matt.  27:  24.  Indeed 
the  Pharisees  were  so  scrupulously  cautious,  that  they  deemed  it 
necessaiy  to  strain  the  liquids  they  were  to  drink,  from  the  fear,  that 
they  might  inadvertently  swallow  some  unclean  animalcule.  Matt.  23: 
24. 

They  were  so  fearful  of  being  contaminated,  that  they  would  not 
eat  with  Gentiles,  nor  indeed  with  those  persons,  to  whom  it  fell 
to  discharge  the  unpopular  office  of  tax-gatherer,  and,  in  the  true 
spirit  of  the  philosophers  of  their  times,  were  disposed  to  con- 
sider, as  sinners,  and  to  spurn  from  their  presence  all,  who  were 
not  of  their  own  sect,  Talmud,  CJtacjiga  2,  7.  Luke  7:  39.  Matt.  9: 
11. 

They  fasted  twice  a  week,  viz.  on  Thursday,  when,  as  they  sup- 
posed, Moses  ascended  Mount  Sinai,  and  on  Monday,  when  he  de- 
scended, Taanith,  IL  9.  p.  Shahb.  L  24.  compare  Luke  18:  11. 

They  enlarged  their  phylacteries,  and  the  borders  of  their 
garments,  Matt.  23:  5.  Of  the  border  or  fringe  of  the  garment, 
'/.nuanedor,  ^^^""'4,  Chald.  yr&;q-0.  a  slight  mention  has  already 
been  made  in  the  hundred  and  twenty-second  section.  The  phy- 
lacteries, which  had  their  origin  from  Exodus  13:  16,  and  Deut. 
6:8.  11:  18,  were  pieces  of  parchment,  on  which  were  inscribed 
four  passages  of  Scripture,  to  wit  Exod.  13:  1 — 10,  11 — 16,  and 
Deut.  5:  4 — 9.  11:  13 — 21  ;  and  which  were  then  rolled  up  in  the 
form  of  the  letters  of  the  word  •^'ir ,  and  placed  in  receptacles  of 


§  321.    COXCERMN'G    GALILEANS    AND    ZKALOTS.  407 

Icathor.  They  were  confined  ui)on  tlie  back  of  the  left  hand  by  a 
leather  thong,  T'  hv  r."N,  and  likewise  upon  the  forehead  between  the 
eyes,  c-^rr  -pa  riis'ji:. 

NOTK.  The  riiarisees  then,  as  appears  from  the  statements, 
which  have  now  been  made,  were  in  general  a  corrupt  class  of  men. 
This  assertion,  nevertheless,  will  not  apply  to  every  individual  of 
them  ;  for  there  were  not  wanting  persons  even  in  that  sect,  who 
were  distinguished  for  their  moral  integrity,  IMark  15:  48.  Luke  2: 
25.  23:  51.  John  19:  38.  Acts  5:  34. 

Tliat  such  was  in  truth  the  case,  may  be  inferred  both  from 
the  Jerusalem  Talmud,  {Berachoth,  p.  13,  2.  Sola,  p.  20,  3.)  and 
from  tlie  Talmud  of  Babylon,  {Sota,  p.  22,  2.)  where  it  is  stated, 
that  there  were  seven  classes  of  Pharisees,  who  were  very  much 
unlike. 

Of  two  of  these  classes  we  shall  briefly  make  mention,  viz.  (1) 
the  Pharisees,  who  were  called  Sic/iemites,  crj  -'*3 »  "\vho  en- 
tered into  that  sect  merely  for  the  purposes  of  temporal  emolument, 
Matt.  23:5,  14;  and  (2)  those,  who  were  anxious  to  place  them- 
selves under  strict  moral  discipline,  and  were  ready  to  perform 
every  duty.  It  was  in  reference  to  the  last  mentioned  persons, 
that  the  name  of  Pharisee  was  given,  which  means  one,  who  is  desi- 
rous of  Inowiiifj  his  duty,  in  order  that  he  may  do  it,  t'-jS  ma 
nrrx"  ■"-■n  rra,  Luke  18:  18. 

§  321.  CoNXERNixG  Galileans  and  Zealots. 

In  tlie  twelfth  year  of  Christ,  about  the  time  that  Archelaus 
was  sent  away  from  his  government,  a  secession  was  made  from 
the  sect  of  the  Pharisees,  and  a  new  sect  arose,  called  the  Gali- 
leans. Not  far  from  this  time,  Judea,  which  was  a  Roman  pro- 
vince, was  added  for  civil  purposes  to  Syria,  over  which  Quirinus 
was  governor.  It  happened,  when  the  tax  was  levied  l)y  Quiri- 
nus, that  one  Judas  of  Galilee,  otherwise  called  Gaulonites,  in 
company  with  Zaduk,  a  Sadducee,  publicly  tauglit  that  such  taxa- 
tion was  repugnant  to  the  Law  of  Moses,  according  to  which  the 
Jews,  they  maintained,  had  no  Hng,  but  God.  The  tumults,  which 
this  fellow  excited,  were  suppressed,  (Acts  5:  37,)  but  his  disci- 
ples, who  were  called   Galileans,  continued  to  propagate   this   doc- 


408  §  322.  KKSPr.CTiNG  Tin:  saddlx'eks. 

trine,  and,  furtlicrmorc,  required  of  all  proselytes,  that  tli<y  should 
be  eircumeised.  Consult  Josephus,  Antiquities,  XVIII.  1,  G.  Jew- 
ish War,  II.  17:  7—9.  YII.  8.  1— G.  9,  1,  2. 

It  was  in  reference  to  this  sect,  that  the  captious  question  was 
proposed  in  Matt.  22:  17  et  seq.  viz.  ""Whether  it  was  lawful  to  give 
tribute  to  Caesar?"  The  Galileans,  whom  Pilate  slew  in  the  Tem- 
ple, (Luke  13:  1,  2,)  appear  to  have  been  of  this  sect. 

Simon,  one  of  the  Apostles  of  Jesus,  is  called  y.uiuiiTifg,  or 
cz/P-or/^t,*  Zr.LOTF.s,  Luke  G:  15 ;  and  in  Acts  21:  20.  22:  3,  we 
find,  that  there  were  certain  Christians  at  Jerusalem,  who  are 
denominated  Zicalots.  But  these  merely  insisted  on  the  fulfil- 
ment of  the  Mosaic  Law,  and  by  no  means  went  so  far  as  those 
persons,  termed  Zelotae  or  Zealots,  whom  we  read  of  in  the  history 
of  the  Jewish  "War. 

KOTE.      Calmet  respecting  Simon  the  Zealot. 

["Simon  the  Canaanite,  or  Simon  Zelotes,  an  apostle  of  Jesus 
Christ. — It  is  doubtful  whether  the  name  Canaanite  were  derived 
to  him  from  the  city  of  Cana  in  Galilee;  or  whether  it  might 
not  be  written  Ghananean,  from  -X-JS  Chenani,  Chananean,  or 
Canaanite;  or  whether  it  should  not  be  taken  according  to  its 
signification  in  Hebrew,  from  the  root  Kana  x:p,  from  which  comes 
^;p  or  iirp  Kani  or  Kanani,  to  be  zealous.  St.  Luke  gives  him 
the  surname  of  Zelotes,  the  zealot,  Luke  G:  15.  Acts  1:  13,  which 
seems  to  be  a  translation  of  the  surname  Canaanite,  given  him  by 
the  other  evangelists,  Matt.  10:  4.  ]Mark  3:  18.  Some  fathers  say, 
he  was  of  Cana,  of  the  tribe  of  Zebulim,  or  of  Naphtali.  Theodoret, 
in  Ps.  G7:  18.  Hieron.  in  Matt.  x.  The  learned  are  divided  about 
the  si'niifioation  of  Zelotes ;  some  take  it  only  to  denote  his  zeal  in 
embracing  the  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ ;  others  think  he  was  of  a  sect 
called  Zealots,  mentioned  in  Josephus,  de  Bello,  lib.  iv.  cap.  2.  idem, 
lil).  vi.  cap.  1."] 

§  322.  Respectixg  the  Sadducees. 

The  opinions  of  the  Sadducees  were  peculiar.     They  believed, 
I.    That    besides    God,    there    was    no     other    spiritual    being, 
whether  good  or  bad.     They  believed,  that  the  soul  and  the  body 


§    322.    RESPECTING    THE    SADDUCEES.  409 

died  together,  and  that  tliere  neither  was,  nor  could  be  any  resurrec- 
tion, Matt.  22:  23.  Acts  23:  8. 

II.  They  rejected  the  doctrine  of  fate,  or  of  an  overruling  Provi- 
dence, and  maintained  on  the  contrary,  that  the  events,  which  hap- 
pened, depended  on  the  free  and  unconstrained  actions  of  men. 

They  held,  that  the  trciMtlons,  which  were  received  by  the  Phari- 
sees, were  not  binding,  Josephus,  Antiquities,  XIII.  5,  0.  10,  G. 
XVIII.  1,  4.  Jewish  War,  II.  8,  14. 

They  held  other  sentiments,  it  is  true,  peculiar  to  them  as  a  sect, 
but  they  neither  disseminated  them  with  much  zeal,  nor  cultivated  a 
close  intercourse  and  union  with  each  other.  It  cannot  be  inferred, 
as  some  suppose,  from  what  is  remarked  by  Josephus,  (Antiquities, 
XIII.  10,  G.)  that  they  merely  received  the  Pentateuch,  and  rejected 
all  the  other  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  for  he  does  not,  in  the  pas- 
sage in  question,  oppose  the  Law  to  the  other  Books,  but  to  those 
iinicritten  traditions,  which  it  was  one  of  their  principles  to  reject. 
Accordingly  we  find  in  the  disputes  of  the  Talmud,  that  the  Saddu- 
cees  are  not  only  attacked  from  the  other  books  of  the  Old  Testament, 
besides  the  Pentateuch,  but  also  draAV  arguments  from  them  in  their 
own  defence,  Sanhedrin,  p.  90,  2.    Cholin,  p.  87,  1. 

Note.  The  Sadducees,  in  progress  of  time,  appear  to  have  admit- 
ted the  existence  of  angels,  and  also  to  have  embraced  the  belief  of 
the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and  in  the  eighth  century,  were  distin- 
guished, as  a  sect,  merely  by  rejecting  the  authority  of  traditions. 
"Whence  they  were  at  length  called  Caraites. 

If  any  are  disposed  to  doubt  this  statement,  it  is,  nevertheless,  cer- 
tain, that  the  Caraites  are  comparatively  of  recent  origin,  since  Jose- 
phus says  not  a  word  concerning  them.  Dr.  Rosenmuelleu,  how- 
ever, contends,  {Anulectae  III.  Stuck  S.  1G3— 17G.)  that  the  Scribe, 
mentioned  in  Mark  12:  28  et  sea.  was  a  Caraite. 

35 


410  §  323.    ESSENE3    AXD    TUERAPEUTAE. 


§  323.    ESSEXES    AND   TlIERAPKUTAE. 

Tlic  ])riiici|)al  ground  of  clifFereiice  between  the  Essenes  or  ^s- 
S(U'i,  and  Tlanipcutae,  consisted  in  tJds ;  the  former  were  Jews, 
who  s].()k('  the  Aramenn,  the  hitter  '■were  Greek  Jews,  as  the 
names  ihcmselves  intimate,  viz.  s^CX  and  OtQunevrai.  The  Es- 
senes  Hved  ohieHy  in  Palestine,  the  Therapeutae  in  Egypt.  The 
Therapeuiae  were  more  rigid  than  the  Essenes ;  since  the  latter, 
alliiongli  they  made  it  a  practice  to  keep  at  a  distance  from  large 
cities,  lived,  nevertlieless,  in  towns  and  villages,  and  practised  agri- 
culture and  the  arts,  with  the  exception  of  those  arts,  which  were 
made  more  directly  subservient  to  the  purposes  of  war.  The 
Therapeutae,  on  the  contrary,  fled  from  all  inhabited  places,  dwelt 
in  fields  and  deserts  and  gardens,  and  gave  themselves  up  to  contem- 
plation. 

Both  the  Essenes,  and  the  Therapeutae  held  their  property  in 
common,  and  those  things,  which  they  stood  in  need  of  for  the 
support  and  the  comforts  of  life,  were  distributed  to  them  from 
the  common  stock.  The  candidates  for  admission  among  the  Es- 
senes gave  their  property  to  the  society,  but  those,  who  were  des- 
tined for  a  membership  with  the  Therapeutae,  left  theirs  to  their 
friends ;  and  both,  after  a  number  of  years  of  probation,  made  a 
profession,  which  bound  them  to  the  exercise  of  the  strictest  up- 
rightness. 

The  Essenes  offered  prayers  before  sunrise  ;  after  which  each  one 
was  sent  by  the  person  who  was  placed  over  them,  to  his  respective 
trade,  or  to  some  agricultural  employment.  About  eleven  o'clock, 
they  left  their  work,  and  assembled  to  partake  of  their  bread  and 
pottage.  In  tlie  evening  also  their  supper  was  in  common.  Before 
and  after  meals,  the  priest  offered  up  prayers. 

On  the  Sabbath,  the  Essenes  listened  to  the  reading  of  the  Law 
in  their  Synagogues,  which  was  attended  with  an  allegorical  ex- 
planation ;  they  also  read  books  by  themselves  in  private  on  that 
day. 

They  {)retended  to  possess  the  secret  names  of  angels,  which 
it  would  have  been  an  act  of  impiety,  to  have  communicated  to 
profane  persons.  They  were  upright,  kept  themselves  free  from 
crimes,  and  were  particularly  celebrated  for  their  veracity.     They 


§  32  i.    CONCEKXIXG    THE    IIELLKMSTS.  411 

did  not  approve  of  oatlis,  and  never  took  one,  except  when  joining 
the  order.  They  asserted,  that  slavery  was  repugnant  to  nature. 
Some  of  them  made  pretensions  to  possessing  the  gift  of  prophecy. 
The  Essenes  avoided  matrimony,  with  the  exception  of  a  particular 
chiiJS  of  them,  who  married,  but  did  not  cohabit  after  there  was  evi- 
dence of  pregnancy.  The  rest  lived  in  celibacy,  not  because  they 
had  any  objection,  in  itself  considered,  to  the  marriage  state,  but 
because  they  supposed  all  women  to  be  adulteresses.  If  any  one 
of  tliis  sect  was  Ibund  to  be  guilty  of  any  crime,  he  was  excluded  from 
their  society. 

In  point  of  doctrine,  their  sentiments  were  nearly  the  same  with 
those  of  the  Pharisees. 

I.  They  believed,  that  God  was  the  author  of  all  good,  but  not 
of  e^■il ;  or,  in  other  words,  cooperated  in  good  actions,  but  not  in 
evil. 

II.  They  believed,  that  the  soul  was  immortal,  that  the  good  after 
death  received  rewards  beyond  the  islands  of  the  sea,  and  that  the 
wicked  suffered  punishments  under  the  earth. 

III.  They  objected  to  sacrifices  from  slain  animals,  and,  accord- 
inglv,  did  not  visit  the  Temple,  Josephus,  Antiquities,  XV.  10,  5. 
Xvil.  13,  3.  XYIII.  I,  0.  10,  5.  Jewish  War,  II.  8,  2—12. 

The  Therapeutae  agreed,  in  most  things,  with  the  Essenes, 
but  they  all  lived  unmarried.  They  received  females  into  their  sect, 
but  such  remained  virgins,  and  followed  the  same  mode  of  life  with 
the  men.  On  the  Sabbaths  only,  both  sexes  sat  at  the  same  table, 
the  men  on  the  right,  and  the  females  on  the  left  side  of  it ;  their 
meals  consisted  of  bread  and  salt  alone,  sometimes  with  an  addition 
of  hyssop.  The  Therapeutae  kept  vigils  on  the  night  of  the  Sab- 
bath ;  and,  in  imitation  of  the  Israelites  after  their  passage  through 
the  Red  Sea,  sung  hymns,  and  led  sacred  dances,  Philo  de  vita  con- 
templativa. 

§  324.  Concerning  the  Hellenists. 

Hellenist  is  the  name,  wliich  is  given  to  the  Jews,  who  are 
mentioned  in  Acts  6:  1.  9:  29.  11:  20,  and  who,  not  only  in  Egypt, 
Asia  Minor,  and  Greece,  but  in  all  places,  spoke  the  Greek,  as 
their  vernacular  tongue.  They  do  not  appear  to  be  the  same 
with    tliose    who    are    mentioned  in  John  7:  3.').    James  1:  1,  and 


412  §325.    CONCERNING    rUOsKLYTES. 

1  Pet.  1:  1  ami  are  called  SiuaTTond  to)v  t)li,icoi;  the  dispersed 
among  the  Gentih-s ;  for  it  appears,  that  the  Hellenists  were  found 
at  Jerusalem,  Acts  G:  1  ;  and  there  were  likewise  found,  among 
the  Siacnona  or  dispersed,  -lews,  who  spoke  the  Aramean  dia- 
lect ;     as,    for    instance,    Paul    himself,    who    Avas    born    at    Tarsus, 

2  Cor.  11:  22.  Phih  3:  o.  Indeed  those,  who  spoke  the  Aramean 
dialect,  were  thought  to  possess  the  preeminence  over  those  Jews 
who  spoke  the  Greek  merely,  and  they,  therefore,  strove,  in  va- 
rious places,  to  transmit  their  vernacular  tongue  down  to  their  pos- 
terity. 

Onias,  son  of  Onias  III,  as  has  already  been  mentioned,  erected 
a  Temple  in  Leontopolis  in  Egypt,  for  the  accommodation  of  the 
Hellenists  who  resided  there,  about  the  year  149  before.  Christ ; 
in  which  priests  of  the  house  of  Aaron,  and  Levites  adminis- 
tered. 

In  this  Temple,  the  internal  arrangements  were  the  same, 
as  in  that  of  Jerusalem,  except  that  the  golden  candlestick,  instead 
of  being  placed  on  a  base,  was  suspended  by  means  of  a  gold 
chain,  Josephus,  Antiquities,  XIII.  3,  1 — 3.  Onias,  in  engaging 
in  this  undertaking,  was  supported,  as  he  supposed,  by  the  ex- 
pressions in  Isa.  19:  18  et  seq. ;  but  the  representations,  which 
are  there  given  are  not  to  be  so  literally  interpreted.  This  Tem- 
ple, therefore,  was  erected  without  any  sufficient  authority  from  the 
Jewish  Scriptures,  and  was  not  frequented  by  any  other  Jews  than 
the  Egyptian  and  Cyrenian,  who,  notwithstanding  its  erection  in 
the  midst  of  them,  frequently  went  to  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem,  Acts 
6:  9.  Talmud  of  Jerusalem,  megilla,  p.  73,  4.  The  Egyptian 
Temple  was  shut  up,  in  the  year  73  of  the  Christian  era,  by  the 
command  of  the  emperor  Vespasian,  on  account  of  some  tumults 
of  the  Jews,  Josephus,  Jewish  War,  YII.  10,  4.  Antiquities,  XX. 
10,  1. 

§  325.  Concerning  Proselytes. 

Proschjtes,  7rnoG{,lv{yni,  i.  c.  those  who  have  come  in,  (so 
called  uno  toi"  nooah^hjOtrui,)  are  mentioned  at  a  very  an- 
cient period,  but  scarcely  anywhere  except  in  connection  with 
the  journey  tln-ough  Arabia,  and  afterwards  in  the  history  of  the 
reisns  of  Solomon  and  David.     Persons  of  this  description  are  de- 


•5  32o.    CONCKUMNG    mOSELYTES.  413 

nominatcil  by  Moses  :"".:^,  it'  they  are  destitute  of  a  Louse,  aud 
c-^'r"n,  if  they  have  one. 

In  the  time  of  Christ  and  his  Apostles,  they  were  found  every 
where  in  jireat  numbers :  some  circumcised,  and  some  uncircum- 
cised.  Tiie  former  were  ealled  p"mn  'y^  just  or  righteous  proselytes  ; 
the  latter  "i;;":"  --r.  proselytes  of  the  gate.  In  the  New  Testament 
we  find  a  number  of  epithets  applied  to  the  latter  class  of  proselytes, 
as  follows,  tvhi^iii,  nvat^tu',  (jt^ofievoi  zov  t^toy,  q:o^ovfitroi  7ov 
Otoi;  the  pious,  the  devout,  the  reverential,  etc.  Acts  2:  5.  10:  2,  22. 
13:  IG.  18:  7.  comp.  2  Kings  5:  17 — 19. 

The  ancient  Kenites,  also  the  Rechabites,  who  were  the  pos- 
terity of  Ilobab,  the  father-in-law  of  Moses,  are  to  be  reckoned  with 
this  class  of  proselytes ;  for  they  worshipped  the  one  true  God, 
while  at  the  same  time,  they  altogether  refused  to  observe  the 
Laws  of  Moses,  Num.  10:  29.  Judges  1:  16.  4:  11.  1  Sam.  15:  G. 
Jer.  XXXV. 

It  is  a  saying  among  the  Jews,  that  these  proselytes  observed  those 
precepts,  which  were  called  ihe  precepts  of  Xoah,  viz. 

(1.)  That  men  should  abstain  from  idolatry. 

(2.)  That  they  should  worship  the  true  God  alone. 

(3.)  That  they  should  hold  incest  an  abhorrence. 

(4.)  That  they  should  not  commit  homicide. 

(5.)  That  they  should  not  steal  nor  rob. 

(6.)  That  they  should  punish  a  murder  with  death. 

(7.)  That  they  should  not  eat  blood,  nor  any  thing,  in  which  blood 
Ls,  consequently,  nothing  strangled. 

They  frequented  the  Synagogues  in  company  with  the  Jews, 
and  although  they  were  at  liberty  to  offer  sacrifices  to  God  in  any 
place,  where  they  chose,  they  preferred  visiting  the  Temple  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  offered  sacrifices  through  the  priests. 

The  other  class  of  proselytes,  called  the  righteous,  ^Y^^r^  'T*  > 
were  united  with  the  great  body  of  the  Jewish  people,  not  only 
by  circumcision,  but,  (after  they  were  restored  from  the  wound, 
that  was  inflicted  in  consequence  of  that  rite,)  by  baptism  also. 
Three  witnesses,  or  sponsors,  were  present  at  the  ceremony  of 
baptism.  Their  immersion  was  not  only  a  symbol  of  their  having 
been  purified  from  the  corruption  of  idolatry,  but  it  signified  like- 
wise, that,  as  they  had  been  buried  in  the  water,  they  now  arose 


414  §  32G.  coNCKiJXiNG  Tiin  sa:\iai:ita\s. 

new  men,  or  rcgc'iicratod,  as  it  were,  i/te  new  born  sons  of  Abraham, 
John  3:  3. 

The  Jews  assert,  that  the  baptism  of  proselytes,  A\hieh  has  now 
been  spoken  of,  is  mentioned  in  Exod.  19:  10,  14.  24:  8,  and  Gen. 
35:  2.  Tliey  not  only  maintain,  that  it  is  a  necessary  ceremony,  but 
assert,  it  is  so  eflicacious,  that  it  puts  an  entire  end  to  the  connection 
of  the  proselyte  with  his  kindred  according  to  the  flesh,  so  much  so 
that  he  is  at  liberty,  if  he  chooses,  to  marry  his  own  mother.  Comp. 
1  Cor.  5:  1  et  seq. 

Christ  speaks  of  this  baptism  in  such  u  way,  as  to  imply,  that 
it  was  well  known,  John  3:  10;  and  the  only  point,  which  ^I'icode- 
mus  did  not  undertand,  was,  that  the  Jews  also,  who  were  already 
the  children  of  Abraham,  were  to  be  born  again  by  baptism.  The 
proselyte,  after  baptism,  offered  a  sacrifice  of  two  turtle  doves,  and 
two  young  pigeons. 

The  female  proselytes,  who  received  the  Mosaic  Law,  were  bap- 
tized likewise,  and  were  expected  to  present  a  similar  offering.  See 
Seidell  DE  JURE  NAT.  ET.  GENT.  II.  25.  c.  4.  p.  158  et  seq. 

§  32G.  CoxcERXixG  THE  Samaritans. 

The  people  who  were  sent  by  Shalmaneser  and  Esarhaddon 
from  Cuthah,  Ava,  Ilameth,  and  Sepharvaira  into  the  tract  of 
country,  which  had  formerly  belonged  to  the  tribes  of  Ephraim 
and  Manasseh,  (2  Kings  17:  24.  Ezra  4:  2 — 11.)  united  with  one 
another,  and  with  the  Israelites,  Avho  were  left  there,  and  formed  one 
people.  They  were  called  Samaritans  from  their  principal  city, 
Samaria. 

At  first  these  people  worshipped  the  respective  gods  of  their 
own  nations.  But  being  harassed  by  lions,  which  had  increased 
in  number  on  account  of  the  country's  having  been  desolate,  they 
attributed  their  sufferings  from  this  source  to  the  circumstances  of 
their  having  neglected  to  worship  the  God  of  the  country.  They, 
therefore,  received  back  from  the  king  of  Assyria  an  exiled  Hebrew 
priest,  who  took  up  his  residence  in  Bethel,  where  the  golden  caf 
had  formerly  been. 

This  priest  taught  tliem  in  the  worship  of  Jehovah  from  the 
Books  of  Moses ;  not,  however,  as  we  may  well  suppose,  Avithout 
mingling  with  it  the  idolatry  of  the  calf,  and  representing  that  ani- 


§  32G.    CONCKUNIXG    TIIK    SAMAIilTAXS.  415 

nial,  <'i>  tlie  embodied  form  of  the  Deity  ;  so  that  the  people  were  led 
in  this  way  to  worsliip  idols  and  Jehovah  at  the  same  time,  2  Kings 
17:  2G— 34.  comp.  2  Chron.  30:  1—10. 

The  Hebrews,  after  their  retiun  from  exile,  commenced  building 
the  Temple.  The  Samaritans  obtruded  themselves  upon  them,  as 
companions  in  the  undertaking.  The  Jews,  who  saw  that  they 
merely  sought  a  pai'ticipation  in  the  benefits  conceded  by  Cyrus, 
that  they  would  not  leave  their  idols,  and  cared  but  little  about  the 
true  religion,  repelled  their  proposals  for  an  union.  This  was  the 
source  of  an  implacable  hatred  in  the  minds  of  the  Samaritans 
against  the  Jews.  They  impeded,  as  much  as  possible,  the  building 
of  the  Temple,  and  surreptitiously  obtained  from  the  false  Smerdis  a 
decree,  counteracting  that  of  Cyrus. 

The  Jews,  on  the  other  hand,  were  in  turn  greatly  embittered, 
and  somewhat  intimidated,  Ezra  4:  4 — 24.  Hence,  while  they  were 
pursuing  their  labors  ui  the  reign  of  Darius  Hystaspes,  they  were 
often  exhorted  by  the  prophets  Haggai  and  Zechariah,  to  be  of  good 
courage.  AVhile  Nehemiah  was  engaged  in  restoring  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem,  the  Samaritans  tried  every  art  to  frighten  him  from  his 
labors,  but  in  vain,  Xeli.  G:  1 — 14.  These  things  increased  the  hatred 
of  the  Jews.  When  Nehemiah,  about  the  year  408  before  Christ, 
took  the  resolution  of  removing  from  the  people  their  foreign  wives 
for  fear  of  their  being  led  astray  by  them,  Manasses,  the  son  of  the 
high  priest  Joiada,  was  unwilling  to  part  with  his.  This  woman  was 
the  daughter  of  Sanballat,  the  ruler  of  the  Samaritans,  and,  accord- 
ingly, Manasses,  her  husband,  went  over  to  them,  Neh.  13:  28. 

Sanhallat  obtained  leave  of  Darius  Nothus,  and  Luilt  a  Temple  on 
Blount  Gerezim,  and  placed  the  Jew,  his  son-in-law,  over  the  sacred 
observances.  While  he  fulfilled  the  office  of  high  priest  among 
them,  the  Samaritans  appear  to  have  dismissed  their  idols. 

After  this,  very  many  of  the  Jews,  when  they  had  transgressed  the 
laws,  fled  to  the  Samaritans,  that  they  might  escape  punishment,  and 
thus  the  hatred  was  increased  on  both  sides.  In  the  year  1 G7  before 
Christ,  when  Antiochus  Epiphanes  was  king,  the  Samaritans  conse- 
crated their  Temple  to  Jupiter,  1  Mace.  3:  10.  Antiq.  XH.  5,  5,  but 
they  returned  afterwards  to  the  religion  of  Moses. 

In  the  year  129  before  Christ,  John  Ilyrcanus  destroyed  their 
Temple,  Josephus,  Anticpiities,  XIH.  0,  1.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Samaritans,  whenever  they  could,  harassed  and  injured  the  Jews, 


41G  §  32G.  CONCKUNING  THK  SAMARITANS. 

Anli(i.  XII.  I,  1.  XVIII.  -2,  -2.  AVIilmicc  tlie  luitml,  already  strong, 
was  mutually  increased,  and,  in  the  tinle  of  Christ,  there  appears 
to  have  heen  no  intercourse  between  them,  Luke  17:  16.  John  4: 
9  et  seq.  So  that  the  Jews  in  going  from  Galilee  to  Jerusalem 
could  not  with  safety  pass  through  Samaria,  but  crossed  the  Jor- 
dan, and  went  through  Gilead.  The  Jews,  under  the  influence  of 
the  hatred  they  bore  to  the  Samaritans,  changed  the  name  of  the 
city  nzd  Sic/iem,  into  that  of  "i2"i'  Sychar,  which  means  drunlen, 
John  4:  5. 

Other  grounds  of  controversy  and  ill-feeling,  between  the  Samari- 
tans and  Jews,  were  as  follows. 

I.  The  Samaritans  did  not  receive,  as  of  divine  authority,  all  the 
Books  of  the  Old  Testament,  but  only  the  Pentateuch,  which  they 
had  received  from  the  Jewish  priest,  who  had  been  sent  to  them  fi'om 
Assyria.  They,  nevertheless,  expected  the  advent  of  a  IMessiah, 
John  4:  25  et  seq. ;  gi-ounding  their  expectations  on  this  point  proba- 
bly on  Gen.  12:  3.  18:  18.  22:  18.  26:  4.  28:  14. 

II.  The  Samarilaiis  contended,  that  the  proper  place  of  worship 
was  not  Jerusalem,  but  Mount  Gerezim,  John  4:  20.  Josephus,  Anti- 
quities, xni.  3,  4. 

For  some  remarks,  respecting  the  errors,  which ,  Josephus  has 
committed  in  his  account  of  ]Manasses,  mentioned  in  this  section, 
etc.  see  the  original  German  edition  of  this  Work,  P.  II.  vol.  II.  §  63. 
p.  278—280. 


417 


CHAPTER  II. 


OF    SACRED    PLACES. 


§  327.  Of  Sacred  Places  ix  general. 

In  the  earliest  ages,  God  -was  worshipped,  without  a,ny  di;,tiiiction, 
at  any  time  and  at  any  place,  whenever  and  wherever,  the  prompt- 
ings of  de\otion  moved  in  the  hearts  of  his  creatures;  more  espe- 
cially, however,  under  the  shade  of  imbowering  trees,  on  hills,  and 
mountains,  and  in  places,  where  they  had  experienced  some  manifes- 
tations of  his  favor. 

The  earliest  altar,  of  which  we  have  any  account,  is  that  cf  Xoah, 
Gen.  8:  20. 

Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  erected  a  number  of  Altars  in  the 
land  of  Canaan,  particularly  in  places,  where  they  had  been  fiwored 
with  communications  from  God,  Gen.  12:  7.  13:  4,  18.  26:  25.  33: 
20.  35:  1,  3,  7. 

]Moses,  and  the  author  of  the  Book  of  Joshua,  both  speak  of  idols, 
altars,  and  groves,  but  are  silent  respecting  Temples.  The  Jirst 
Temple  of  which  Ave  have  any  account,  was  the  one  at  Shechem, 
which  was  dedicated  to  the  god,  Baal-herith,  but,  as  it  was  fur- 
nished with  a  tower,  etc.  there  had  probably  been  others  before  it, 
Judg.  9:  4. 

Moses,  although  he  had  been  acquainted  with  temples  in  Egypt, 
was  not  in  a  condition  to  erect  one,  while  marching  through  Ara- 
bia, and  constructed  in  its  stead  the  Tahernade,  which  could  easily 
be  transferred  from  place  to  place.  This,  as  we  may  infer  from 
Amos  5:  26,  was  not  the  first  of  its  kind,  and  it  is  furthermore 
worthy  of  notice,  that  the  Carthaginians  are  said  to  have  borne 
with  them  likewise,  at  least  in  their  warlike  expeditions,  a  sacred 
tent. 

"With    respect   to   the  Temple,  which   was  subsequently  erected 


■118  §  328.    OF    THE    TAI'.KKNACI.i:. 

in  I'alcMinc,  it  may  be  oliscrvcd,  that  IMostNS  gave  no  command  on 
the  subject.  Tlie  phin  appears  to  have  originated  witli  David ;  al- 
though it  was  left  to  be  executed  by  his  successor. 


§  328.  Ok  Till-:  Tahkrnacle. 

The  ri.ACE,  ■where  public  worship  was  held  from  the  time  of 
Moses,  till  Solomon,  viz.  the  Tabernacle,  is  mentioned  in  the  Old 
Testament  by  various  names,  to  icit,  Snx  a  tent,  "rJ-c  a  habitation^ 
t-^^-z  a  sanctuary,  T'ZTi  a  house,  n;;-!"^  -i-^3  '{r::-2  the  du-eUinrj- 
place  of  Jehovah's  glory,  l^^rr  bnx  Jehovah's  tent,  iri-a  \rvk  and 
r-"i;T:  \rrk  the  tent  of  the  congregation,  awiX  sometimes  b="n  the  palace. 
It  was  divided  into  three  parts. 

The  first  part  was  the  akea  or  covrt  of  the   Tabernacle,  an  hun- 
dred cubits,  [about  an  hundred  and  fifty  feet,]  long,  and  fifty  cubits,  , 
[about  seventy-five  feet,]  broad. 

It  was  surrounded  on  all  sides,  to  the  height  of  five  cubits, 
with  curtains  C^r^p  made  of  linen.  They  were  suspended  froiji 
rods  of  silver,  which  reached  from  one  column  to  another,  and 
ix'sted  on  them.  The  columns  t-^l^r^ ,  on  the  East  and  AVest,  were 
ten,  on  the  North  and  South,  twenty  in  number,  and  were,  without 
doubt,  made  of  the  acacia,  (shittim  wood.)  The  columns,  in  order 
to  prevent  their  being  injured  by  the  moisture  of  the  earth,  were 
supported  on  bases  of  brass  C'r'iX .  Near  the  top  of  the  columns, 
were  silver  hooks  C^ii ,  in  which  the  rods  that  sustained  the  curtains 
were  inserted. 

That  ]iart  of  the  court  of  the  Tabernacle,  which  formed  the  e?i- 
trance,  was  twenty  cubits  in  extent,  and  was  on  the  East  side  of  it. 
The  entrance  was  closed  by  letting  fall  a  sort  of  tapestry,  which 
hinig  from  rods  or  poles,  resting  on  four  columns,  and  which  was 
adorned  with  figures  in  blue,  purple,  and  scarlet.  "When  the  entrance 
was  opened,  the  tapestry  was  drawn  up.  The  curtains  of  the  en- 
trance were  called  Ti^^  [in  distinction  from  the  curtains,  that  were 
suspended  around  other  parts  of  the  court  of  the  Tabernacle.]  Exod. 
27:  9—19.  39:  9—20. 

The  TABERNACLE,  (strictly  so  called,)  was  situated  in  the  middle 
of  the  western  side  of  the  court.  It  was  covered  on  e\ery  part,  and, 
in  point  of  form,  was  an  oblong  square,  being  thirty  cubits  long  from 
West  to  East,  and  ten  broad  from  North  to  South. 


§    3'20.    TIIK    AI.TAU    ANK    BKAZi-.N    LAVKIt.  419 

Tlie  Willis  were  composed  of  forty-eiglit  boards  or  planks,  viz. 
twenty  on  the  North  side,  twent\'  on  the  South  side,  and  six  on  the 
"West.  Tiie  two  at  the  angles  were  doubled,  making  the  forty-eight, 
Exod.  "20:  15 — 30.  The  Eastern  side  was  not  boarded.  The 
boards,  z"'":;~;?,  were  of  acacia  or  sliittim  wood,  ten  cubits  long, 
one  and  a  half  broad,  and  overlaid  Avith  plates  of  gold.  They  rested 
on  b*ises  of  silver,  and  were  united  together  by  bars  or  poles  also  of 
gold. 

Tiie  tabernacle,  thus  constructed,  was  shielded  by  four  cov- 
erings. The  first,  or  rather  interior  or  lower  covering,  called 
'P'^"^,  was  made  of  ^'Jine  ticined  linen"  extended  down  within 
a  cubit  of  the  earth,  and  displayed  pictures  of  Cherubim,  wrought 
into  it  with  various  colors,  viz.  blue,  purple,  and  scarlet.  The 
second,  properly  called  "fix,  was  a  fabric,  woven  of  goat's  hair, 
and  extended  very  nearly  to  the  ground,  Exod.  2G:  7 — 13.  The 
third  was  of  rams'  skins  dyed  red,  the  fourth,  of  the  skins  of  the 
'inr ,  a  difficult  word,  meaning,  according  to  some,  a  sky-blue 
color,  according  to  others  a  sea-animal ;  both  of  the  last  were  called 
nor-s . 

The  eastern  side  or  entrance  was  closed  by  means  of  a  curtain  made 
of  cotton,  which  was  suspended  from  silver  rods,  that  were  sustained 
by  five  columns,  covered  with  gold. 

The  interior  of  the  Tabernacle  was  divided  into  two  parts ;  the 
first,  twenty  cubits  long,  and  ten  broad  and  high,  was  separated  from 
the  second  or  inner  apartment,  by  a  curtain  or  veil,  Avhich  hung 
down  from  four  columns  overlaid  with  gold,  and  was  denominated 
divt^nr.v  y.azuTZiTaoiia,  or  t/ie  inner  veil,  Exod.  2G:  36,  37.  The 
first  apartment  was  called  "J";? ,  or  ilte  Holy,  and  in  Hebrews  9:  2, 
(Tx/j/]  nnojTt; ;  the  inner  apartment  was  called,  -"''•^■"I?  -ip,  ayia 
dyicop  or  t/te  most  Ilohj,  and  sometimes  (7/:/;r/}  devzina,  or  the  inner 
Tabernacle. 

§  329.  The  Altau  and  Buazex  Layer. 

Nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  outer  court  was  the  altar,  nr*";,  T^z'-z 
-b'-.rn,  Exod.  40:  29.  It  was  a  kind  of  coffer,  three  cubits  high,  live 
long  and  broad,  made  of  sliittim  wood.  The  lower  part  rested  on 
four  short  columns  or  feet,  the  sides  of  which  Avere  grates  of  brass, 
throusrh  which  the  blood  of  the  victim  flowed  out.     The  sides  of  the 


420  §  330.    TlIK    GOI.DICX    CANDLK5TICK. 

iipiH'i  ]-:n-t  of  tlic  :ilt:ir  wiic  wood  covered  with  l)^a^^?.  niid  tlie 
iiitcrioi'  space  was  lilled  witli  earth,  upon  which  the  fire  was 
kindh-d.  The  fuur  corners  of"  the  altar  projected  upwards,  so  as  to 
resemble  horns.  At  the  four  corners  were  rings,  ni"2:: ,  through 
which  pok's  ~'^? ,  were  placed,  for  the  purpose  of  transporting  it 
from  place  to  place.  On  the  South  side  there  was  an  ascent  on  to  it, 
made  of  earth  heaped  up,  Exod.  20:  24.  24:  4.  27:  1—8.  38:  1—7. 
Lev.  9:  22. 

The  appurtenances  of  the  altar  were  the  Vr!"]'?  """"^  or  7(riis  for 
canying  away  the  ashes ;  the  ly^  or  shovels  for  collecting  them 
together;  the  p'^p'^Ta,  or  skins  for  receiving  and  sprinkling  the  blood 
of  the  victims ;  the  riir;T"2 ,  a  sort  of  tongs  for  turning  the  jjarts  of 
the  victim  in  the  fire  ;  the  rinn^ ,  or  censers  for  burning  incense  and 
other  instruments  of  brass,  Exod.  27:  3.  38:  3. 

Between  the  altar  and  the  Tabernacle,  a  little  to  the  South,  stood  a 
circular  layer,  "i""S,  which,  together  with  its  base,  ii3  '3  was  made 
of  the  brazen  ornaments,  which  the  women  had  presented  for  the  use 
of  the  Tabernacle,  and  was  thence  called  r/rn?  "i'"3,  Exod.  30:  18. 
40:  7.  The  priests,  when  about  to  perform  their  duties,  washed  their 
hands  in  this  laver. 

§  330.  The  Goldex  Candlestick. 

The  Golden  Candlestick,  fn'""?,  was  placed  in  the  first 
apartment  of  the  Tabernacle,  on  the  South  side.  It  stood  on  a  hase 
^■i;^ ,  from  which  the  principal  stem  n:"?,  arose  perpendicularly.  On 
both  sides  of  it,  there  projected  upwards,  in  such  a  way  as  to  describe 
a  curved  line,  three  branches,  r:":p .  They  arose  from  the  main 
stem,  at  equal  distances  from  each  other,  and  to  the  same  height 
with  it.  The  height  in  the  whole,  according  to  the  Jewish  Eabbins, 
was  five  feet,  and  the  breadth  or  the  distance  between  the  exte- 
rior branches  three  and  a  half.  The  main  stem  together  with  the 
branches  were  adorned  with  knops,  flowers,  and  other  ornaments  of 
gold. 

The  seven  extremities  of  the  main  stem  and  branches  were 
employed,  as  so  many  separate  lamps,  all  of  which  were  kept  burning 
in  the  night,  but  three  only  in  the  day,  Exod.  30:  8.  Lev.  24:  4. 
Antiq.  IIL  8,  3. 

The   priest,  in   the   morning,  put   the   lamps   in  order  with  his 


§  iJul.    OF    TIIK    TAULK    OF    SIIEM--r.Ui;AD.  -121 

golden  snu^ers,  z---;r:-2,  and  carried  away  the  filth,  tliat  might  have 
gathered  upon  them,  in  golden  vessels  made  for  that  purpose,  r/'.nn-s . 
The  weight  of  the  whole  candlestick  was  a  talent  or  one  hundred  and 
twenty-live  pounds,  Exod.  '2o:  31 — 40.  27:  20.  37:  17 — 24.  Lev.  24: 
1_4.  XuMi.  4:  9. 


§  331.   Of  the  Tadle  of  Siiew-Buead. 

In  the  Jirst  apartment  of  the  Tabernacle  also,  on  the  Xurlh 
side,  was  a  lable,  "(HV^ ,  made  of  acacia  wood ;  two  cubits  long, 
one  broad,  and  one  and  a  half  high,  and  covered  over  with  hnninae 
of  gold.  The  top  of  the  leaf  of  this  table  was  encircled  with  a  bor- 
der, or  rim  of  gold.  The  frame  of  the  table,  immediately  below 
the  leaf,  was  encircled  with  a  piece  of  wood,  r^JS": ,  of  about  four 
inches  in  breadth,  around  the  edge  of  whicii  there  was  a  rim  or 
border,  *iT ,  the  same,  as  around  the  leaf.  A  little  lower,  down,  but 
at  equal  distances  from  the  top  of  the  Table,  there  were  four  rings 
of  gold,  fastened  to  the  legs  of  it,  through  which  staves  covered  with 
gold,  were  placed,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  it,  Exod.  25:  23 — 28. 
37:  10—16. 

The  rings  here  mentioned,  rr;:  t'VZ'~,  were  not  found  in  the  table 
of  shew-bread,  which  was  afterwards  made  for  the  Temple,  nor  in- 
deed in  any  of  the  sacred  furniture,  where  they  had  previously  been, 
except  in  the  Ark  of  the  covenant. 

Twehe  unleavened  loaves  were  placed  u[X)n  tliis  taljle,  which  were 
sprinkled  over  with  frankincense,  and,  it  is  stated  in  the  Alexandrine 
version,  (Lev.  24:  7,)  with  salt  likewise.  They  were  placed  in  two 
piles,  one  above  another,  were  changed  every  sabbath  day  by  the 
priests,  and  were  called  zr-i^  zrh  the  bread  of  the  face,  because  it  was 
exhibited  before  the  face  or  throne  of  Jehovah,  nz-r-^n  zrh  the  bread 
arranged  in  order,  and  "!^":ri  cnb  the  perpetual  bread,  Lev.  24:  G,  7. 
1  Chron.  23:  29. 

WiXE  was  placed  ujx)n  the  table  in  bowls,  some /or^rer,  r'—';-p , 
and  some  smaller,  r-22,  also  in  a  sort  of  vessels,  that  were  covered, 
T'i'::X^,  and  in  cups,  r"";?:~,  which  were  emi)loyed  in  pouring  in  and 
taking  out  the  wine  from  the  other  vessels,  Exod.  25:  29,  30.  37: 
10—16.  40:  4,  24.  Lev.  24:  5—9.  Num.  4:  7. 
36 


422     §  033.  AKK  or  the  covenant  in  the  holy  of  holies. 


§  332.  The  Altaii  of  Incense. 

The  Altar  of  Incense,  r-i:;?  -i-J^f"?  nST-: ,  was  situated  between 
the  Table  of  shew-bread  and  the  golden  candlestick,  towards  the  veil, 
which  enclosed  the  intei'ior  apartment  of  the  Tabernacle,  or  the  Holy 
of  lioJles.  It  was  constructed  of  shittim  or  acacia  wood,  a  cubit  long 
and  hioad,  and  two  higli.  It  was  ornamented  at  the  four  corners, 
and  overlaid  throughout  with  laminae  of  gold.  Hence  it  was  called 
the  (johJen  altar,  nn?  niT-: ,  also  the  interior  altar,  "^r'^rsn  nzi"? ,  in 
contradistinction  from  the  altar  for  the  victims,  which  was  in  the  large 
court. 

The  upper  surface  of  this  altar,  l^,  was  encircled  by  a  harder,  -_:, 
and  on  each  of  the  two  sides,  were  ftistened  at  equal  distances,  two 
rings  for  the  admission  of  the  rods  of  gold,  by  which  it  was  cari-ied. 
Incense  was  offered  on  this  altar  daily,  morning  and  evening,  a  de- 
scription of  which  is  given  in  Exod.  30:  34 — 37.  comp.  Exod.  30: 
1 10.  37:  25—29.  40:  5,  2G.  Josephus,  Antiquities,  III.  G,  8.  Jew- 
ish AVar,  V.  3.  5. 

§  333.  Arav  of  the  Covenant  in  the  Holy  of  Holies. 

The  Ark  of  the  Covenant,  T.''^^'r\  '^^^^^,,  T^rrjri  ';''"'>i>>  n  x'^o^^og 
Tz/i'  8iuO/,y.)ig,  was  deposited  in  that  part  of  the  Tabernacle,  called 
the  Holy  of  holies,  a  place  so  secluded,  that  the  light  of  day  never 
found  an  entrance  within  it.  It  was  a  box  of  an  oblong  shape, 
made  of  shittim  wood,  a  cubit  and  a  half  broad  and  high,  and  two 
cubits  long,  and  covered  on  all  sides  with  the  purest  gold.  It  was 
ornamented  on  its  upper  surface  with  a  border  or  rim  of  gold,  and  on 
each  of  the  two  sides,  at  equal  distances  from  the  top,  were  two  gold 
rings,  in  which  were  placed,  (to  remain  there  perpetually,)  the  staves 
of  gold,  by  which  the  Ark  was  carried,  and  which  continued  with  it, 
after  it  was  deposited  in  the  Temple.  It  was  so  situated  in  the  Bbly 
of  holies,  that  the  ends  of  the  rods  touched  the  veil,  which  seoarated 
the  two  apartments  of  the  Tabernacle,  Exod.  25:  10 — 15.  3'i  1 — 9. 
1  Kings  8:  8. 

Tlie  lid  or  cover  of  the  Ark,  r^.s? ,'  '0.aoTi]Q<,ir,  eniOtj^ia,  was  *f  the 
same  length,  and  breadth,  and  made  of  the  purest  gold. 

Over   it,   at    the    two    extremities,   were    two    Cherubim     vitb 


§  334.  UKsricCTiNG  the  holy  i.axd.  423 

their  faces  turned  towards  each  otlier,  and  inclined  a  little  to  (he  lid, 
[otherwise  called  the  me  ret/seat.']  Their  wings,  whieli  were  spread 
out  over  the  top  of  the  ark,  formed  the  throne  of  God,  the  king, 
wliile  the  ark  itself  was  his  footstool. 

There  was  nothing  within  the  ark,  excepting  the  two  Tables  of 
stone,  on  which  were  inscribed  the  ten  fundamental  laws  of  the 
Jewish  religion  and  commonwealth. 

A  quantity  of  manna  was  laid  up  beside  the  ark,  in  a  vase  of  (/old. 
r:^:::*,  Exod.  17:  32,  30 ;  also  the  rod  of  Aaron,  Num.  17:  10,  and  a 
copy  of  the  Books  of  Moses,  Deut.  31:  2G. 

Note.  It  is  stated,  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  that  the 
altar  of  incense  was  placed  in  the  interior  apartment  of  the 
Tabernacle  or  Holiest  of  all,  and  that  the  rod  of  Aaron,  and 
the  vase  of  manxa  were  deposited  within  the  ark  of  the  covenant. 
The  writer  of  this  Epistle,  (even  supposing  Paul  was  not  the  author 
of  it,)  gives  far  too  decided  indications  of  his  erudition,  to  per- 
mit us  to  suppose,  that  he  was  ignorant  of  the  statements  in 
Exodus  16:  33,  34.  Xum.  17:  10,  and  1  Kings  8:  9.  The  assertions, 
therefore,  to  which  we  have  referred,  are  to  be  considered  the  errors 
of  the  person,  who  translated  the  Epistle  from  the  Hebrew  into  the 
Greek. 

§  334.  Respecting  the  Holt  Land. 

The  Camps  of  the  Hebrews  participated,  in  some  degree,  in 
that  sacredness,  which  attached  itself  to  the  tabernacle,  Deut.  23: 
13 — 15.  Lev.  13:  46.  This  idea  of  consecration  and  holiness  became 
connected  afterwards  Avith  the  country  of  the  Hebrews  itself,  which 
had  formerly  been  consecrated  to  the  true  God  by  the  patriarchs  in 
the  erection  of  altars,  and  was  now  the  residence  of  the  only  true 
religion,  Exod.  15:  16.     2  Mace.  1:  7. 

The  more  recent  Jews  assigned  different  degrees  of  holiness, 
etc.  to  different  regions,  the  highest  to  the  countries  occupied 
by  Moses  and  Joshua,  and  the  least  to  the  regions  subdued  bv 
David.  As  to  all  other  lands  and  districts,  they  considered  them 
profane,  the  verv'  dust  of  which  would  contaminate  a  Jew,  Matthew 
10:  14.  Acts  13:  51.  18:  6.  That  place  or  town  was  considered 
peculiarly  hohj,  the  most  so  of  any  other,  in  which  the    Tabernacle 


/124  §  30.').  oi-  ,n;iasAi,i:M,  riii:  holy  city. 

was  fixed  and  the  Ark  o\'  tlu'  covenant.  For  instance,  Gil(/al, 
and  afterwards  S/iiloJi,  a  city  situated  on  a  pleasant  mountain,  twenty- 
three  miles  north  of  Jerusalem,  in  the  tribe  of  Ephraini,  Josh.  18:  1, 
8,  9.  Jud-es  20:  1.  1  Samuel  1:  3—24.  2:  14.  3;  3—21.  4:3,  4, 
13—18.    7:  ").    10:  17. 

The  Tabernaele,  during  the  reign  of  Saul,  was  removed  to  Nob, 
betv.een  Arimathea  and  Joppa,  six  and  a  quarter  miles  north  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  was  afterwards  conveyed  to  Gibeon,  1  Chron.  IG:  39 — 43. 
2  Chron.  1:  2— G,  13.  1  Kings  3:  5—9.  The  ark  of  the  covenant 
was  taken,  in  the  time  of  Eli,  from  the  tabernacle,  and  carried  into 
the  army,  was  captured  by  the  Philistines,  and  afterwards  sent  back 
to  the  city  of  Kirjathjearim,  situated  on  the  boundary  between  Judah 
and  Benjamin,  and  nine  miles  west  of  Jerusalem,  1  Sam.  6:  20. 
7:  2.  It  remained  there  till  it  was  carried  back,  nearly  seventy 
years  after,  to  JNIount  Zion  by  David,  2  Sam.  6:  1 — 20.  1  Chron.  13: 
1 — 4.  15:  1 — 16.  It  was  at  last  removed  by  Solomon  into  the  tem- 
ple, 1  Kings  8:  1—9.  2  Chron.  5:  2—20. 

§  335.  Of  Jerusalem,  the  Holy  City. 

After  this  time,  viz.  the  erection  of  the  temple,  and  the  re- 
moval of  the  ark  into  it,  Jerusalem  was  called  the  citi/  of  God, 
c-n'bxn  ni>";  tlie  holiest  dwelling-place  of  the  3Iost  High,  ^i-pp 
■ji-ibr  -;2ra;  and  the  holy  city,  -dip  ni^,  Ps.  4G:  3.  Isa.  48:  2.  Dan. 
9:  24;  by  which  last  title,  it  is  mentioned  on  the  coins  of  the  Mac- 
cabean  age  ;  and  it  is  thus  called  throughout  the  East,  at  the  present 
day,  l)y  the  Mohammedans. 

It  was  situated  on  the  southern  boundary  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin, 
in  lat.  31°  50',  Josh.  15:  8.  18:  2G— 28.  Judges  1:  21.  It  is  thirty- 
seven  miles  distant  from  the  Mediterranean,  and  twenty-three  from 
the  Jordan.     See  Reland's  Palestine,  P.  I.  B.  II.  p.  423. 

The  holy  city  was  situated  on  three  hills,  and  was  bounded  on 
three  sides  by  valleys,  viz.  on  the  East,  West,  and  South  ;  but  on 
the  North,  there  was  merely  a  steep  declivity.  The  most  lofty  of 
these  hills  Avas  Zion,  otherwise  called  the  city  of  David. 

The  hill  of  Bloriuh  was  situated  to  the  East  of  Zion,  and  was 
separated  from  it  by  a  deep  valley  intervening.  Upon  this  hill,  the 
Temple  was  built. 

There   was  a  third  hill  of  less  elevation,  than    either   of  those. 


§  335.    Ol'  JKIIUSALEM,  THE   HOLY   CITT.  42j 

uliich  liave  been  mentioned,  situated  to  tlie  North  and  separated  from 
Moriah  and  Zion  by  a  valley.  It  has  been  named  in  modern  times 
AcuA. 

In  the  time  of  Christ,  there  was  a  suburb  to  the  North  of  the  city, 
called  ^i^t{yci,  snin  r'^z,  y.utio.-zoh.;,  which  was  at  length  enclosed 
with  walls  by  king  Agri2)pa. 

Both  Zion  and  Acra  had  walls  of  their  own,  distinct  from  the 
great  city  wall,  and  the  hill  of  Moriah  was  encircled  likewise  by  the 
wall  of  the  temple.  The  circumference  of  the  city,  in  the  time  of 
Josephus,  was  about  four  miles  and  an  eighth,  Jewish  "War,  V. 
4,3. 

At  the  bottom  of  Mount  Moriah,  to  the  South-east,  flowed  the  foun- 
tain Siloam  or  Siloe,  nsr,  Isa.  8:  6.  Neh.  3:  15.  John  9:  7,  11.  Luke 
13:  4 ;  the  only  fountain,  whose  waters  gladdened  the  ;:;ity. 

On  the  borders  of  this  stream  were  the  gardens  of  the  Kings, 
and,  so  late  as  the  time  of  Jerome,  the  valley  through  which  it 
passed,  was  rendered  delightful  by  shady  groves.  See  his  Com- 
mentary on  Matt.  X.  This  commentator  observes  further,  in  his 
remarks  on  Jeremiah  xiv.  and  Isaiah  8:  G,  that  Siloe  does  not  flow- 
regularly,  but  on  certain  days  and  hours,  when  it  bursts  forth 
through  the  crevices  of  the  earth,  and  from  rocky  caves,  with 
much  violence  and  with  surprising  noise.  The  hill  Ophel  ap- 
pears to  have  been  not  far  from  this  stream,  Josephus,  Jewish  "War, 
V.  4,  1. 

Both  the  valley,  which  separates  the  city  on  the  East  from  the  much 
more  lofty  Mount  of  Olives,  and  the  winter-torrent,  which  flows 
through  it,  were  called  by  the  common  name  of  Cedrox,  ",'"""!? 
Ki'^QOJv,  Josephus,  Jewish  War,  V.  6,  1. 

To  the  South  of  the  city  is  the  valley  of  the  son  of  Hinnom, 
E""  "2  •'s,  in  which  was  the  jilace  called  Topiiet,  rsr,  rendered 
famous  on  account  of  the  immolation  of  children,  which  was  wit- 
nessed there.  To  the  West,  is  the  valley  of  Ginox,  V""'?*  which  is 
less  deep,  however,  than  that  of  Ilinnom,  1  Kings  1:  33,  38.  2  Chron. 
33:  14.  32:  30. 

The  approach  of  an  army  to  the  city,  from  either  of  these  tln*ee 
valleys,  was  diiricult.  It  wa.s  therefore,  commonly  attacked  on  the 
North. 

GoEGOTiiA  or  Calvary,  in  Syriac  iirb'l'-^j  i"  Chaldaic 
'   3G*        ' 


•12G  §  33G.  MorxT  mouiaii. 

Nr;;":;i^  ami  r"~:."-;,  was  situated  out  of  tlie  city,  Matt.  27:  33.  Mark 
15:  22.  John  19:  17.  According  (o  Eusebius  and  Jerome,  it  was  to 
the  North  of  Zion.  Hence  the  hill,  which  is  now  situated  in  the 
middle  of  the  city  of  Jerusalem,  and  on  which  is  shown  to  the  pil- 
grim tlie  pretended  tonih  of  tiie  Saviour,  cannot  be  the  place,  where 
he  wa>  buried.  What  is  said  in  opposition  to  this  conclusion,  viz. 
that  tlie  city  as  it  noio  exists,  is  built  in  a  different  place  from  what 
it  was  formei-ly,  can  be  admitted  only  so  far  as  this,  that  the  hill 
of  Zion  and  Bezetha  are  excluded  from  it,  but  it  does  not  prove  that 
the  city  has  extended  North  and  West,  more  than  it  did  originally, 
and  thereby  taken  in  the  hill  of  Calvarj',  which  could  not  be  well 
done,  on  account  of  the  valleys.  This  statement  in  respect  to  Cal- 
vary solves  some  diiriculties  in  the  account  of  the  resurrection  of 
Christ. 

Many  of  the  gates  of  the  city  are  indeed  mentioned,  but  the 
situation  of  almost  all  of  them  is  difficult  to  be  precisely  ascer- 
tained. 

§  33G.  Mount  Mokiah. 

MouxT  MoRiAii,  on  which,  agreeably  to  the  last  wishes  of  king 
David,  the  Temple  was  erected,  about  the  year  592  after  the  depar- 
ture of  the  Hebrews  from  Egy[tt,  was  an  abrupt  ascent,  the  summit 
of  which  was  so  small,  that  it  did  not  extend  base  sufficient  for  the 
courts  and  appendages  of  the  sacred  edifice,  Josephus,  Jewish 
War,  Y.  ."),  1.  It  was  with  the  view  to  remedy  the  evil,  which  was 
thus  occasioned,  by  giving  a  greater  extent  to  this  eminence,  that 
Solomon  raised  a  wall  of  square  stones,  along  the  valleys,  which 
encircled  it,  and  filled  up  the  intervening  space  between  the  wall 
and  the  acclivity  of  the  hill  with  earth,  Josephus,  Antiquities,  XV. 
11,  2. 

After  the  Captivity,  the  Hebrews  continued  gradually  to  increase 
the  extent  of  this  hill  for  many  ages  ;  they  moved  back  the  wall  on 
the  North,  and  on  the  South  and  AVest  also  erected  Avails  of  immense 
square  stones  from  the  lowest  parts  of  the  valleys,  so  as  at  last  to  ren- 
der the  top  of  tlie  hill  a  furlong  square.  The  smalleet  altitude  of  the 
walls  was  four  hundred  and  fifty  feet,  the  greatest,  vig.  in  the  southern 
direction,  six  hundred. 

Josiephus,  who  makes  these  statements,  is  not  always  consistent 


§  337.    OF    TIIK    TE.Mri.E    OF    SOLOMON.  427 

witli  himself;  but,  on  this  point,  we  do  not  wish  at  present  to  enter 
into  a  discussion.  Compare  the  history  of  the  Jewish  War,  V.  5,  1, 
with  tlie  same  Work  L  21,  1.  V.  5,  6,  and  Jewish  Antiquities,  VIII. 
3,  9.  XV.  11,  3.  XX.  9,  7. 


§  337.  Of  TIIK  Temple  of  Solomox. 

Tiii:  SUMMIT  of  Moriah,  the  extent  of  which  had  been  increased, 
as  has  already  been  seen,  by  a  wall  built  around,  and  which  was 
encircled  on  the  Eastern,  and  probably  on  all  sides  with  a  gallery 
or  portico,  was  divided  into  the  great  or  exterior  court,  i:»P.ri 
r:'":i">r:n ,  and  the  interior  court,  rr^r^rsn  '::»~ri  otherwise  called  the 
court  hefore  the  temple,  rn'ir}  -:e5  irj<  -.icrin,  called  also  the  court 
of  the  priests,  c^rnrn  -i:in,  1  Kings  6:  36.  7:  12.  2  Kings  23:  12. 
2  Chron.  4:  9.  20:  5.  Ezek!  40:  28. 

Whether  these  two  courts  were  separated  from  each  other  by  a 
wall,  or  merely  by  a  sort  of  latticed  fence  or  trellis,  does  not  clearly 
appear,  for  the  description  of  the  temple,  as  it  is  given  in  1  Kings  6: 
1 — 38.  7:  13 — 51,  and  2  Chron.  3:  1 — 4,  22,  is  a  very  concise  one. 
This,  however,  is  evident  in  respect  to  this  subject,  that  the  neio  court, 
so  called,  iT^"""n  "^^nn ,  mentioned  in  2  Chron.  20:  5,  was  not  a  third 
court,  but  the  second  or  interior  one,  newly  repaired. 

There  were  various  buildings,  and  aparttnerUs,  r""r"3 ,  in  which 
provisions  were  kept,  also  the  vases  and  other  utensils,  which  be- 
longed to  the  temple  ;  and  some  of  which  were  occupied  likewise  by 
the  priests  and  Levites,  ■while  they  were  employed  there,  in  the  fulfd- 
ment  of  their  sacred  duties,  1  Chron.  9:  2G,  33.  23:  28.  28:  12. 
2  Chron.  31:  12.  Jer.  35:  2,  4.  36:  10. 

The  ALTAI?  in  the  interior  court  or  the  court  of  the  priests  was 
built  of  unhewn  stones,  for  Moses  expressly  forbade  any  others  to  be 
used ;  it  was  covered,  like  that  in  the  tabernacle,  with  brass,  although 
it  was  not  built  with  the  same  dimensions,  it  being  twenty  cubits  long 
and  broad,  and  ten  high,  2  Chron.  4:  1,  10. 

The  vases,  and  other  utensils,  belonging  to  this  altar,  were  much 
more  numerous,  than  in  the  tabernacle,  1  Kings  7:  40 — 47.  The  very 
large  buazex  laver,  called  the  molten  sea,  'p^'.'z  Z"^,  was  an  hemis- 
phere, ten  cubits  in  diameter,  five  deep,  and  thirty  in  circumfer- 
ence.     It   could  contain    three   thousand   baths,  and    was   adorned 


•128  §  308.  Tin:  sanctuauy  of  Solomon's  templi:. 

ill  its  ii[»i>or  t'llge  willi  liguivs,  tliat  resembled  lilies  in  bloom.  But, 
altliougli  it  held  the  large  number  of  baths,  which  have  been  men- 
tioned, it  was  commonly  sup|)lied  with  only  two  thousand,  2  Chron. 
4:  3 — 0.  1  Kings  7:  2G. 

It  was  enriched  with  various  ornamental  figures,  and  rested  on  the 
back  of  twelve  oxen,  three  facing  to  the  North,  and  three  to  the  East, 
and  the  others  in  the  opposite  directions. 

There  were,  in  addition  to  the  brazen  sea,  ten  smaller  hruzen 
/(«T/'S  r'ir:  r'"i~"3,  which  were  also  set  off  with  various  ornaments, 
five  on  the  North,  and  live  on  tiie  South  side  of  the  court.  They 
rested  on  bases  and  wheels  of  brass,  were  each  four  cubits  in  circum- 
ference, and  held  forty  baths.  The  flesh  of  the  victims,  that  were 
sacrificed,  was  washed  in  these  lavers,  1  Kings  7:  27 — 39.  2  Chron. 
4:  C. 


§  338.  The  Sanctuary  of  Solomon's  Temple. 

The  sanctuary,  r"r,  '^n,  r"3  ^?"f3,  o  vaog\  was  sixty  cubits 
long,  twenty  broad,  and  thirty  high,  with  the  exception  of  the  part 
called  the  sanctissimum  or  Most  Holy,  the  height  of  which  was  only 
twenty  cubits ;  so  that  there  remained  a  room  above  it  of  ten  cubits 
in  lieight. 

The  ivindoics,  Z'-'.'^-ii  n-sp'J  '^:-sri,  appear  to  have  been  latticed, 
1  Kings  G:  2 — 4. 

In  front  of  the  sanctuary,  was  the  -porch,  TrnoraOi,  -'"N,  an  hun- 
dred and  twenty  cubits  high,  twenty  broad  from  North  to  South,  and 
ten  long  from  East  to  "West,  1  Kings  G:  3.  2  Chron.  3:  4. 

Two  columns  of  brass  were  erected  near  the  entrance  of  this  Porch  ; 
each  twelve  cubits  in  circumference.  Tlie  one  to  the  North  was 
called  ■p:"' Jaciiin;  the  other,  which  was  to  the  South,  was  called 
•,v'z  BoAZ.  The  height  of  the  sliafts  of  these  columns  was  eighteen 
cubits;  of  the  capitals,  r'rr:^,  five  cubits;  and  of  the  base,  thirteen 
cubits,  making  the  whole  altitude  thirty-six. 

If  in  1  Kings  25:  17,  the  capitals  are  said  to  be  only  three  cu- 
bits m  height,  the  reason  of  it  probably  was,  that  tlseir  altitude 
had  been  diminished,  in  the  repairing,  at  some  time,  of  the  Tem- 
ple. These  pillars  were  profusely  ornamented  with  carved  repre- 
sentations of  leaves,  pomegranates,  etc.,  were   hollow    within,  and 


§  338.    TIIK    SANCTUAKY    OK    SoLOMON's    Tr..M/'I.K.  429 

tlie  brass  of  wliicli  tlii'v  were  made  was  a  Land's  breadth  in  thickness, 
1  Kings  7:  15 — "20.  2  Chron.  3:  15 — 17. 

A  GALLERY  extended  along  the  sides  of  the  sanctuary,  with  the 
exception  of  tlie  Eastern,  which  was  three  stoi'ies  high,  was  constructed 
of  beams  and  planks,  and  to  which  there  was  an  ascent  on  the  South 
side,  by  a  flight  of  winding  stairs,  n*'="b,  1  Kings  G:  5,  G,  8.  The 
sanctuary  itself  was  constructed  of  square  stones,  but  was  covered 
with  boards  of  cedar,  within  and  witliout,  in  which  a  variety  of  orna- 
mental ligures  were  carved  out,  and  which  was  overlaid  with  laminae 
of  gold.  Tlie  passage  into  the  Porcli,  TToorudi,  was  very  lofty  and 
broad,  but  it  was  merely  an  open  entrance,  without  any  door.  The 
entrance  into  the  sanctuary,  on  the  contrary,  was  closed  by  a  valve  or 
folding  door,  made  of  the  oleaster  or  ti-ild  olive,  which  was  orna- 
mented witli  specimens  of  carved  work  in  the  shape  of  cherubim, 
palms,  and  flowers,  Avas  covered  with  gold,  and  turned  on  golden 
hinges,  1  Kings  G:  33 — 35. 

The  door,  tliat  opened  into  the  sanctissimu.ai  or  Holy  of  holies, 
which  was  a  pentagon  in  point  of  form,  was  adorned  and  enriched,  in 
the  same  way,  with  tliat  of  the  sanctuary,  1  Kings  G:  31,  32.  Both 
doors  were  covered  with  a  veil  of  linen,  wrouglit  with  embroidery,  2 
Chron.  3:  14. 

"NYithin  the  sanctuary  was  the  altar  of  incense,  overlaid  with  gold, 
ten  tables,  also  overlaid  with  gold,  and  ten  golden  candlesticks, 
five  of  each  on  the  North,  and  five  on  the  South  side.  On  these 
tables  were  placed  not  only  twelve  loaves,  but  also  an  hundred  golden 
cups.  The  other  vessels  of  the  sanctuary  likewise  were  more 
numerous,  than  in  the  tabernacle,  1  Kings  7:  48 — 50.  2  Chron.  4: 
19—22. 

The  ark  of  the  covenant  was  deposited  in  the  Holy  of  holies.  Its 
position  was  such,  that  the  staves,  by  whicii  it  was  carried,  and  which 
were  somewhat  long,  touched  tlie  veil ;  from  which  circumstance  it 
may  be  inferred  that  the  door  of  this  apartment  stood  open,  1  Kings 
8:  8.  2  Chron.  5:  9. 

Near  the  ark,  were  two  cheruhim,  made  of  the  wood  of  the 
wild  olive,  and  covered  with  gold.  Each  of  which  was  ten  cubits 
high,  and  each  extended  one  of  its  wings  over  the  ark,  to  the  middle 
of  it,  and  the  other  to  the  wall,  1  Kings  G:  23 — 28.  2  Chron.  3:  10 — 
13. 


430  §  339.  OF  Tine  tkmi'I.i:  of  /,i;iar.i',Ai;i:L. 

XoTK  I.  The  description  of  the  Temple  of  Solomon,  uliieh  is 
given  in  the  Books  of  Kings  and  Clwonieles,  is  silent  on  many  points, 
which,  in  the  age  in  which  those  books  were  written,  could  be  leai'nt 
without  dilhculty  from  other  sources.  In  various  places  also,  the 
account  appears  to  have  suffered  from  the  carelessness  of  transcribers. 
Hence  the  statements,  in  1  Kings  vi. — vii.  and  2  Chron.  iii. — iv.  do 
not  everywhere  agree.  It  will,  therefore,  be  readily  seen,  that  it  is 
not  possible  to  give,  in  every  respect,  a  perfect  idea  of  this  edifice. 
When  viewed,  as  the  work  of  very  early  times,  and  in  reference  to 
the  notions  which  then  prevailed,  Solomon's  temple  may  be  considered 
maynijiccnt,  but  it  ought  not  to  be  compared  with  more  recent  speci- 
mens of  architecture. 

Note  II.  Cheruhiji,  ""i:"";,  were  figures  of  a  wonderful  form, 
which  sustained  the  chariot  of  thunders  or  throne  of  God.  They 
had  ft)ur  iaces,  and  as  many  wings  and  hands ;  and  their  feet, 
which  projected  down  straight,  had  hoofs  like  an  ox,  Ezek.  i.  Cheru- 
bim of  such  a  form  could  not  be  fully  represented  on  embroidered 
work,  and  it  would  seem,  from  the  account  Avhich  is  given  of 
them,  that  the  golden  cherubim,  which  spread  their  wings  over 
the  ark  of  the  covenant,  were  different  in  shape  from  those,  which 
have  now  been  described.  Perhaps,  therefore,  this  class  of  beings 
existed  in  different  forms.  The  meaning  of  these  symbolic  represen- 
tations, I  have  ex})]ained  in  my  treatise  on  Herraeneutics,  §  20.  p. 
5'J,  CO. 


§  339.  Of  tiik  Temple  of  Zeuubbabel. 

This  Temfi.e  was  commenced  under  the  direction  of  Zerubbabel, 
after  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonish  Captivity,  in  the 
year  535  before  Christ.  The  work  had  no  sooner  been  begun,  than 
it  experienced  an  interruption  of  fifteen  years,  but  was  resumed  again 
in  the  year  520  before  Christ,  and  completed  in  the  year  515,  Ezek. 
3:  8,  9.' 4:  4— 24.  5:  1— G,  21. 

According  to  the  decree,  which  was  given  by  Cyrus,  (Ezra  6: 
3,  4,)  its  lieight  and  breadth  were  sixty  cubits  each ;  and  we 
may  therefore,  suppose  the  length,  which  was  either  never  men- 
tioned, or  has  fallen  out  from  the  text,  to  have  been,  (in  order 
to  maintain  the  proportion,)  120  or  180  cubits.     But  the  old  men, 


§  340.    OK    TIIK    TK.MrLK    OK    HEKOD.  431 

who  had  lived  to  si-e  the  fomidations  hiid,  predicted,  that  it  would 
be  inferior  to  the  Temple  of  Solomon,  Ezra  3:  12.  Ilaggai  2:  1 — 9. 
To  how  great  an  extent,  their  anticipations  turned  out  to  be  true, 
there  is  nothing  stated,  which  will  enable  us  precisely  to  deter- 
mine. 

This,  however,  is  clear,  that  its  treasures,  which  arose  from 
the  annual  contribution  ot  a  half-shekel  by  every  Jew,  whenner  he 
might  be,  and  from  the  presents  of  proselytes  and  the  heathen 
became  immense,  Antiq.  XIV.  12,  1.  XX.  9,  7.  Jewish  War,  I.  G,  8. 
It  was  by  the  aid  of  tlmse  treasures,  that  the  immense  walls,  which 
liave  been  mentioned,  around  the  bottom  of  mount  ]\Ioriah,  were 
erected,  Jewish  War,  V.  5,  1. 

But  in  this  Temple,  there  was  only  one  candlestick,  and  one  golden 
table.  The  Ark  of  the  covenant,  the  sacred  oil,  the  Urim  and  Thum- 
mim,  and  the  sacred  fire  were  gone ;  also  that  singular  cloud  the  She- 
hinah  TZ^z':^ ,  which  anciently  was  seen  over  the  Tabernacle  and  had 
afterwards  filled  the  Temple,  2  Chron.  7:  1 — 3.  1  Kings  8,  10—12. 
2  Chron.  5:  13,  14.  G:  1. 

The  Maccabean  princes  built  a  tower,  which  they  call  Baris, 
on  the  North  side  of  this  edifice.  Herod  rebuilt,  enlarged,  and 
adorned  it,  and  named  it  Antoma,  in  honor  of  Mark  Antony, 
Antiq.  XV.  11,  4.  Alexander  Jannaeus  separated  the  COURT  of  the 
Priests  by  a  wooden  trellis  from  the  court  of  the  Israelites,  Antiq. 
XIII.  13,  5. 

§  340.  Ok  Tin-:  Temple  of  Herod. 

IIf.iiod,  by  successively  renewing  the  parts  of  the  Temple,  ren- 
dered it  extremely  magnillcent.  He  began  the  work  in  the  IGth  year 
before  Christ,  and  finished  it  in  a  great  measure,  in  the  eighth  year; 
but  additions  continued  to  be  made  to  the  Temple,  till  the  year  G4 
Anxo  Domini,  John  2:  20.  Josephus,  Antiquities,  XV.  11,  1.  5.  G. 
XX.  9,  7.  Jewish  War,  I.  21,  1. 

The  Temple,  as  it  appeared  after  having  been  subjected  to  the 
labors  of  Ilerod,  had  three  courts  or  open  areas,  each  one  of 
which  was  situated  above  the  other. 

The  first  court  was  enclosed  by  that  outer  wall,  which  lias 
been  described,  and  which  was  raised  from  the  base  of  the  mount. 
In  the  middle  of  this  court  was  an  ascent  of  four  steps,  which  led 


432  §  341.  OF  Tin:  gatks  or  ukkod  s  tkmi'LK. 

to  an  t'liclosiire  of  stone.  On  tlie  gates,  that  opened  through  this 
enclosuic,  and  on  the  cohimns  conlignons,  were  inscriptions  in 
Hebrew,  Latin,  and  Greek,  wliieli  interdieted,  under  pcMialty  of 
death,  any  further  entrance,  to  the  unclean  and  the  (Jcnti'.es.  Im- 
niediatelv  back  of  this  wall,  succeeded  an  ascent  of  Ibiirteen  steps 
into  a  level  space  of  ten  cubits  broad,  which  was  succeeded  by 
another  ascfut  of  five  steps  to  the  gates  of  the  second  wall,  which 
was  fortv  cubits  high  outside,  and  twenty-five  within.  This  wall 
enclosed  the  court  of  the  Israki.itks,  while  the  first  court  in 
reference  to  the  inscriptions,  which  have  been  mentioned,  was  called 

the  COUKT  OF  THE  GENTILES. 

Between  the  court  of  the  Israelites,  and  that  of  the  Gentiles. 
on  the  East  side  was  the  court  of  the  Ikhrcic  tcomen,  which  was 
separated  from  the  court  of  the  Israelites  by  a  wall  so  low,  as  to 
permit  its  occupants  to  see  the  men,  while  they  themselves  re- 
mained unseen.  The  entrance  into  the  court  of  the  women  was 
through  two  gates,  the  one  on  the  North,  the  other  on  the  South 
side. 

The  quadrangular  area,  immediately  around  the  altar  and  the 
Sanctuary,  was  called  the  <:ourt  of  the  Priests ;  it  was  surrounded 
by  a  low,  but  elegant  enclosure,  so  that  the  people  had  an  oppor- 
tunity of  looking  into  it,  while,  at  tlie  same  time  they  were  not  per- 
mitted to  enter,  Josephus,  Antiquities,  XV.  11,  5.  Jewish  War,  V.  5, 
2— G. 

§  341.  Of  the  Gates  of  Herod's  Temfle. 

The  largest  Gate  was  situated  in  the  outer  wall,  on  the  East- 
ern side.  It  was  called  the  Beautiful,  {>vQa  coouiu,  (Acts  3:  2.) 
and  was  splendidly  ornamented  with  Corinthian  brass,  which  was 
reckoned  preferable  either  to  silver  or  gold,  Pliny,  N.  H.  XXXIV. 
1,  3,  7. 

It  equalled  the  Sanctuary  in  height,  which  in  the  highest  place, 
was  more  than  an  hundred  cubits.  The  folds  of  this  gate  were  fifty 
cubits  high  and  Ibrty  broad,  and  were  covered  with  plates  of  gold  and 
silver.  The  ascent  to  it  was  from  the  valley  of  Cedron,  over  many 
steps,  Josephus,  Jewish  War,  V.  5,  3. 

To  the  South  of  the  Temple,  there  was  a  valley  four  hundred 
cubits   deep.      There   was   a   gate   nevertheless,   in   that   direction. 


§  342.  POUCHES  in  tiik  tkmi'I.i:  ur  hi:i;oi>.  433 

leading  from  the  wall  into  the  lower  part  of  the  city,  which  stretched 
along  through  the  valley  towards  the  East,  in  such  a  way,  that  the 
wall  of  the  city  joined  itself  to  the  eastern  wall  of  the  Temple,  An- 
tiquities, XV.  11,  0. 

On  the  West  side,  two  Gates  led,  by  numerous  steps,  into  the  val- 
ley below,  which  ran  in  a  Southern  direciion,  and  was  tilled  with 
houses.  There  were  two  other  Gates  on  the  Western  side  of  the 
temple  beside  these ;  one  of  which  connected  the  temple,  by  means 
of  a  bridge  over  the  valley,  with  Mount  Zion,  and  the  other  conducted 
into  the  lower  part  of  the  city,  Josephus,  Antiquities,  XV.  11,  5. 
Jewish  War,  V.  5,  3. 

On  the  X^orf/t,  there  was  no  Gate,  but  the  tower  Aatoma  was 
connected  Avith  the  temple  by  means  of  a  covered  passage.  This 
tower  Avas  so  situated,  as  to  command  it,  and  was  accordingly  made 
the  station  for  a  cohort  of  Roman  soldiers.  Compare  Acts  21:  31 — 
34.  Josephus,  Antiquities,  XV.  11,  4.  Jewish  War,  V.  5,  3. 

On  the  Xorth  and  South  sides  of  the  in7ier  wall,  there  were  six 
Gates,  three  on  each  side,  which  faced  each  other.  On  the  Eastern 
side,  there  was  a  Gate,  which  corresponded  to  the  one  called  the 
beautiful  in  the  first  wall,  and  two  Gates,  already  mentioned,  led 
into  the  court  of  the  women.  The  Western  side  of  the  inner  wall, 
which  was  contiguous  to  the  sanctuary,  had  no  Gate,  Jose{)hu5,  Anti- 
quities, XV.  11,  5.  Jewish  War,  V.  5,  3. 

All  these  Gates  had  folds,  Avere  thirty  cubits  high,  and  fifteen 
broad;  the  thresholds  and  the  posts,  as  Avell  as  the  Gates,  Avere 
covered  Avitli  silver  and  gold.  They  Avere  all  surmounted  Avith  a 
sort  of  turret,  Avhich  increased  the  height  to  forty  cubits.  There 
was  a  vacant  space  left  around  the  Gates  of  thirty  cubits  in  extent, 
Avhere  the  people  Avere  in  the  habit  of  assembling,  JcAvish  War,  V. 
5,3. 

§  342.    PoiicnES  in  the  Temple  of  Hekod. 

A  TRIPLE  ropxii  extended  around  the  Southern  wall  of  the  cuuht 
of  the  Gentiles,  but  the  Porches  in  the  other  directions,  that  is  to  say, 
Avhich  Avere  contiguous  to  the  Northern,  Eastern  and  Western  sides 
or  Avails  of  this  court,  Avere  merely  double.  The  Porches,  in  the  court 
of  the  Israelites,  Avere  double  likcAvise. 
37 


434  §  342,  roiiCHi.s  in  tiii:  rr.Mri.K  or  iif.kod. 

Each  double  jioirli  rf^tril  on  a  (n'j>h\  and  each  triple  porcli  on  a 
quadruple  row  of  columns,  the  last  row  being  contiguous  to  the 
wall. 

The  coLrMXS.  (which  were  Corinthian  in  respect  to  architecture,) 
were  hewn  out  of  white  marble,  and  were  twenty-five  eubits  in 
height,  but  the  whole  altitude,  including  pedestals,  capitals,  cornice, 
and  roof,  did  not  fall  short  of  fifty  cubits. 

The  columns  were  so  lai'ge,  that  three  men  could  scarcely  extend 
their  arms  around  them.  The  roof,  which  was  flat,  was  constructed 
of  cedar  wood. 

Each  of  these  ])orches  was  thirty  cubits  broad,  and  fifty  high  ;  with 
this  exception,  viz.  that  the  middle  one  on  the  Soutli  side  was  forty- 
five  broad  and  an  hundred  high,  from  the  roof  of  which,  one  could 
hardly  look  down  into  the  valley  below,  five  hundred  cubits  deep, 
without  experiencing  dizziness.  It  is  this  porch,  without  doubt,  which 
is  called,  in  Matt.  4:  5,  nmni-fiov  rov  Ibqov,  (he  pinnacle  of  the  temple. 
Comp.  Matt.  4:  5,  with  Strabo,  p.  805,  Antiquities  XV.  11,  5.  Jew- 
ish War,  V.  5,  2. 

The  easlcrn  porch  in  the  court  of  the  Gentiles  was  called  Solomon's, 
John  10:  23.  Acts  5:  12.  Jewish  "War,  Y.  5,  1. 

All  tlie  porches  were  paved  with  marble  of  various  colors,  Josc- 
phus,  Jewish  "War,  Y.  o,  2.  The  porches  in  the  court  of  the  Gen- 
tiles were  resorted  to  by  money  changers,  and  those,  who  sold  ani- 
mals, that  were  destined  for  the  altar,  Matt.  21:  12 — 16.  John  2:  12 
— 22.  Jerusalem  Talmud,  Gemara,  Jom  tob.  p.  Gl,  and  Chagiga  p. 
78,  1.  In  this  COURT,  (that  of  the  Gentiles,)  appear  to  have  been 
repositories,  of  which  we  are  informed  by  Josephus,  (Jewish  "War, 
YI.  o,  2.)  in  which  the  treasures,  utensils,  and  supplies,  etc.  of  the 
temple  were  kept.  But  these  repositories  are  to  be  distinguished 
^rom  the  treasury,  mentioned  in  Mark  12:  41,  into  which  the  gifts 
Df  the  temple  were  cast. 

The  Talraudists  state,  that  there  were  thirteen  such  trea- 
suries, different  ones  being  allotted  for  the  reception  of  different  ar- 
ticles. They  furtlier  state,  that  they  were  situated  in  the  court  of  the 
vjomeji,  and  that  they  were  coffers  or  boxes,  which,  in  point  of  shape 
resembled  a  horn,  the  gifts  of  the  temple  being  thrown  into 
them. 

It  may  be  inferred  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  no  less  than 
from  the   fact   of  Josephus's  incidentally  mentioning  subterranean 


§  343.  or  Tin:  s.OsCtlauy.  435 

chambers,   that   there    were    i)robably   other    apartments    in   these 
COUHTS,  of  which  the  knowledge  has  not  come  to  us. 

The  altar  for  victims  was  constructed  of  unhewn  stones,  fifteen 
cubits  high,  and  fifty  in  length  and  breadtii,  and  the  corners  of  it  pro- 
jected upwards,  like  horns.  The  ascent  to  it  was  on  the  South  side, 
Josephus,  Jewish  War,  V.  5,  6. 


§  343.  Of  the  Sanctuary'. 

The  Sanctuary  or  Temple  strictly  so  called  o  tuog,  Avas  con- 
structed of  white  marble,  wi\s  higher  than  the  court  of  the  priests, 
and  was  approached  by  an  ascent  of  twelve  steps.  The  porch  of  the 
Sanctuary  or  troxaos  was  an  hundred  cubits  high,  and  as  many 
broad.  The  open  space,  which  served  as  an  entrance  into  it,  and 
which  was  destitute  of  folds  or  door  of  any  sort,  because,  as  Josephus 
informs  us,  it  was  a  symbol  of  the  visible  heaven,  was  seventy  cubits 
high  and  twenty-five  broad. 

The  interior  of  the  Porch  was  ninety  cubits  high,  fifty  from  North 
to  South,  and  twenty  from  East  to  West ;  so  that  on  the  North  and 
South,  there  was  room  for  recesses  or  chambers  of  almost  twenty 
cubits  in  extent. 

The  entrance  which  opened  into  the  Sanctuary,  was  fifty-five 
cubits  high  and  sixteen  broad.  Over  it  was  the  figure  of  a  vine  in 
gold  of  the  size  of  a  man,  and  loaded  with  golden  clusters.  This 
entrance  was  closed  by  an  embroidered  veil,  Josephus,  Jewish 
War,  V.  5,  4.  Antiquities,  XV.  11,  3.  It  was  in  the  Porch  of  the 
Temple,  that  Judas  cast  down  his  tliirty  pieces  of  silver,  Matthew 
27:  5. 

The  Sanctuary  itself  was  twenty  cubits  broad,  sixty  long, 
and  sixty  high.  It  was  surrounded  on  three  sides,  with  a  structure, 
three  stories  high,  making  an  altitude  of  forty  cubits.  It  equalled 
the  Porch  or  nQovaog  pronaos,  in  breadth,  into  the  two  chambers 
of  which,  there  was  an  entrance  from  it.  On  the  flat  roof  of  the 
Sanctuary  were  erected  long,  sliarp  rods  of  iron,  covered  with  gold, 
Josephus,  Jewish  War,  V.  5,  5,  G. 

From  the  Sanctuary,  which,  as  has  been  remarked,  was  sixty 
cubits  high,  although  only  twenty  broad,  we  enter  the  sanc- 
TISSIMU3I  or  Holy  of  holies,  which  Avas  twenty  cubits  in  length, 
twenty   broad,  and    twenty   high,   so   that   there    were    two   stories 


436  §  344.  oi:i(;iN  ok  syxagogucs. 

above,  each  of  twenty  cubits.  In  llie  Sanctuary,  was  the  golden  can- 
dlestick, llie  golden  table,  and  tbe  altar  of  incense,  but  in  the  most 
Holy  ]>lace,  there  was  nothing  deposited.  The  walls  within  and 
without,  we  are  under  the  necessity  of  supposing,  were  covered  with 
cold  ;  and  it  was  separated  from  the  Sanctuary  by  an  embroidered 
veil.  .Tosei)hus,  Jewisli  AVar,  V.  5,  5. 


§  344.  OniGiN  OF  Syxagogues. 

Althouf'h  the  sacrifices  could  not  be  offered,  exce[)t  in  the 
Tabernacle  or  the  Temple,  all  the  other  exercises  of  religion  were 
restricted  lo  no  particular  place.  Accordingly  we  find,  that  the 
praises  of  God  were  sung,  at  a  very  ancient  period,  in  the  Schools 
of  the  ])rophets,  and  those,  who  felt  any  particular  interest  in  reli- 
gion, were  assembled  by  the  Seers,  on  the  Sabbath,  and  the  New- 
moons,  for  prayers  and  religious  instruction,  1  Sam.  10:  5 — 11.  19: 
18—24.  2  Kings  4:  23. 

During  the  Babylonish  Captivity,  the  Jews,  who  were  then  de- 
prived of  their  customary  religious  privileges,  were  wont  to  collect 
around  some  prophet  or  other  pious  man,  who  taught  them  and  their 
children  in  religion,  exhorted  to  good  conduct,  and  read  out  of  the 
sacred  Books,  Ezek.  14:  1.  20:  1.  Dan.  6:  11.  compare  Neh.  8:  18. 
These  assemblies  or  meetings  became,  in  progress  of  time,  fixed  to 
certain  places,  and  a  regular  order  was  observed  in  them.  Such  was 
the  origin  of  Synagogues. 

§  345.  Of  the  Stuucture,  etc.  of  Syxagogues. 

In  speaking  of  Synagogues,  it  is  worthy  to  be  noticed,  that  there 
is  nothing  said  in  respect  to  the  existence  of  such  buildings  in  Pales- 
tine, during  the  reign  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  They  were,  there- 
fore, first  erected  under  the  IMaccabean  princes,  and  not  long  after 
were  much  multiplied;  but  \n  foreign  countries,  thej  were  much 
more  ancient,  Josephus,  Jewish  AVar,  VII.  3,  3. 

Whether  this  statement  be  true  beyond  a  question,  or  whether 
some  be  inclined  to  make  an  objection  to  it,  it  is,  nevertheless, 
certain,  that,  in  the  time  of  the  Apostles,  there  were  Synagogues, 
wherever  there  were  Jews.  They  were  built  in  imitation  of  the 
Temple  of  Jerusalem  with  a  court  and  Porches,  as  is   the  case 


§  345.    OF    THE    SinUCTUIIE    OK    SYNAGOGUES.  437 

with  the  Synagogues  in  the  East  at  the  present  day.  In  the  centre- 
of  the  court,  is  a  cliapel,  supported  by  four  columns,  in  which,  on  an 
elevation  jjrepared  for  it,  is  placed  the  Book  of  the  law,  rolled  up. 
This,  on  the  appointed  days,  is  publicly  read. 

In  addition  to  the  Chapel,  there  is  erected  within  the  court, -a  large, 
covered  hall  or  vestry,  into  which  the  people  retire,  when  the  weather 
happens  to  be  cold  and  stormy,  and  each  family  has  its  particular  seat, 
Delhi  Yalle's  Travels,  P.  IV.  Epistle  5.  p.  19.1  conip.  Talmud,  siic- 
cotli,  51,  2. 

77ie  uppermost  seats  in  the  Synagogue,  i.  e.  those  which  were  near- 
est the  Chapel,  where  the  sacred  Books  were  kept,  were  esteemed 
peculiarly  honorable,  Matt.  23:  G.  .James  2:  3. 

The  TROSEUCHAE,  TiQoaEv/ui  are  understood  by  some  to  be  smaller 
Synagogues,  but  by  others  are  supposed  to  be  particular  places 
under  the  open  sky,  where  the  Jews  assembled  for  religious  exer- 
cises. But  Josephus,  in  his  account  of  his  OAvn  Life,  §  54.  calls 
the  PROSEUCHA  of  Tiberius,  a  large  house,  which  held  very  many 
persons. 

"We  infer,  therefore,  that  nnoatvyt]  is  the  same  with  xonog  or 
oho^  r/~i'  7inoa£vyJ;g,  viz.  cmy  place  of  tcorship,  answering  to  the 
Aramean  phrase,  "p rsr.  r-2 ,  which  is  used  for  Synagogue.  They 
were  distinguished  from  Synagogues  on  the  ground  merely,  that 
they  were  not  buildings  especially  set  apart  for  divine  worship.  Acts 
IG:  13,  IG.  Philo  de  Legat.  ad  Caium.  p.  1011.  Juvenal,  Satire,  HI. 
14. 

The  apostles  preached  the  Gospel  in  Synagogues  and  proseu- 
CiiAE,  and  with  their  adherents  performed  in  them  all  the  religious 
services.  When  excluded,  they  imitated  the  Jews  in  those  places, 
where  they  were  too  poor  to  erect  these  buildings,  and  held  their  reli- 
gious meetings  in  the  houses  of  individuals.  Hence  we  not  only  hear 
of  Synagogues  in  Iiouses  in  the  Talmud,  but  of  Churches  in  houses  in 
the  New  Testament,  Rom.  IG:  5.  1  Cor.  IG:  19.  Col.  4:  15.  Phil.  2. 
Acts  2:  46.  5:  42. 

The  apostles  sometimes  hired  a  house,  in  which  they  performed 
religious  services  and  taught  daily.  Acts  19:  9.  20:  9. 

XoTE.  ^iTuycoyi';  means  literally  a  convention  or  assembly, 
Lut  the  metonymy,  was  eventually  used  for  the  place  of  assembling; 
in   the   same  way,  that   fy.ylr^at'u,  which  means   literally  a   calling 

37* 


438  §  31G.  ox    THE    ANTlQriTY    OK    Tlli:    S.Vni'.ATII. 

togcllicr,  or  convocation,  signifies  al<o  at  the  present  lime  the  place 
of  convocation.  Synagogues  were  sometimes  called  by  the  Jews 
Schools,  but  they  were  careful  to  make  an  accurate  distinction 
between  such,  and  the  Schools  jn-operly  so  called,  the  D''■rn^•2, 
or  suUhner  Schools,  in  which  the  Talmud  was  read,  while  the 
Law  merely  was  read  in  the  Synagogues,  which  they  placed  far 
behind  the  Talmud. 


CHAPTER  HI. 


OF    SACRED    SEASONS 


§  346.  On  the  Antiquity  of  the  Sabbath. 

In  speaking  of  sacred  seaso?is,  it  will  readily  occur,  that,  of  the 
periods  of  time  which  may  be  thus  denominated,  the  Sabbath, 
rrr,  "I'TrrJ  od^^lSuToi,  cu^-i^jara,  is  especially  worthy  of  attention. 
It  may  be  remarked,  that  the  Greek  and  Hebrew  words,  here  men- 
tioned, are  applied  in  some  instances,  to  other  periods  of  time,  set 
apart  for  the  purposes  of  religion  or  recreation,  but  are  generally, 
and,  more  especially,  used  in  reference  to  the  seventh  day  of  the 
xceek. 

Whether  the  practice  of  consecrating  the  Sabbath  originated  from 
what  is  stated  in  Gen.  2:  1 — 3,  is  a  question,  which,  while  it  has  been 
defended  by  some,  has  been  disputed  by  others,  on  the  ground,  that 
there  is  no  express  mention  of  it  previous  to  the  time  of  Moses.  But 
in  regard  to  this  point,  viz.  the  origin  and  antiquity  of  the  Sabbath,  1 
proceed  to  state, 

I.  As  we  find  by  an  examination  of  the  Mosaic  Laws,  that  the 
greatest  part  of  the  ordinances  which  are  sanctioiied  by  that  Le- 


§  3-lG.    ON    Tlir.    ANTIQUITY    OF    TIIK    SAIWiATII.  439 

gislator,  existed  in  j>reviotis  tinics,  \vu  have  a  right  to  say,  the  proha- 
bility  is,  that  this  Avas  tlie  case  in  respect  to  the  Sabbath  also. 

II.  What  we  should,  therefore,  naturally  expect  in  this  case,  is  ren- 
dered more  probable  by  the  expressions,  used  in  Exod.  20:  8 — II, 
where  the  command  runs  thus :  Remember  the  Sabbath  day,  to  keep 
it  holy.  [For  these  expressions  are  of  such  a  nature  as  evidently  to 
imply,  that  the  consecration  of  the  seventh  day,  although  it  might  have 
been  omitted  for  a  time  during  their  residence  in  Egypt,  was  not  a 
new  thing  to  the  Israelites,  and  tliat  they  understood,  how  the  day 
should  l)e  kept  or  sanrfijjecl,  and  were  able  to  do  it,  if  they  had  a  dis- 
position to.] 

III.  This  view  in  respect  to  the  Sabbath  is  further  confirmed  by 
the  ciiTumstances,  that  we  are  nowhere  told,  what  things  are  to  be 
done  and  what  are  to  be  omitted  on  that  day  ;  which  implies,  that  the 
duties  connected  with  it  were  known  from  custom. 

IV.  There  is  mention  made  of  the  sanctification  of  the  Sabljath. 
before  the  formal  promulgation  of  the  Law  concerning  it  from  Mount 
Sinai,  Exod.  16:  22—30, 

V.  A  "WEEK  occurs  under  its  appropriate  name  r'^'i ,  as  far  back 
as  Gen.  29:  27,  and  we  further  find  that  a  definite  period  of  seveji  days 
occurs  in  Gen.  7:  4,  10.  8:  10,  12 ;  which  implies,  that  one  day  of  the 
seven  was  marked  by  some  distinction. 

VI.  As  the  very  nature  of  the  case  compels  us  to  believe,  tliat  the 
doctrines  of  the  Creator  and  the  creation  could  not  liaA'e  existed  at  so 
early  a  period,  as  they  did,  without  a  revelation ;  so  there  is  far  from 
being  any  improbability  or  inconsistency  in  considering  Gen.  1:  1.  2: 
2,  3,  as  a  simultaneous  revelation  in  regard  to  the  Sabbath. 

YIJ.  Finally,  that  this  was  the  case,  is  hinted  in  Exod.  20:  8 — 11  ; 
and  furthermore,  it  is  on  this  ground  only,  viz.  that  the  Sabbath  was 
consecrated  previous  to  the  time  of  Moses,  or,  in  other  words,  existed 
from  creation,  that  wo  are  able  to  account  for  the  fact,  that  very  many 
nations,  who,  it  is  certain,  did  not  take  the  practice  from  the  IMosaic 
Laws,  have,  in  some  way  or  other,  distinguished  that  day,  Josephns 
against  Apion,  II.  39. 


4.40  §  347.    ox    TIIK    DESIGN    OF   THE    SABBATH. 


^  ;)47.  O.N"  THE  Design  oe  the  Saiujatii. 

Tlic  design  of  the  Sabbath,  as  iiK'ntioncil  in  Exod.  20:  8 — 11 
and  ill  31:  12 — 17,  where  there  is  a  r('])ctilion  of  the  statement, 
made  in  Gen.  2:  1 — 3,  Avas  to  exhibit  a  symboHc  acknowledgment, 
that  God  was  the  Creator  of  the  universe,  and  that  He  alone  is  wor- 
thy to  be  and  ought  to  be,  worshipped.  Hence  the  same  punishment 
was  attached  to  a  violation  of  this  Institution,  that  there  was  to  an 
open  defection  from  the  true  God,  viz.  death,  Exod.  35:  2.  Y^\^m.  15: 
32— 3  G. 

In  addition  to  this  general  object,  there  was  another  of  a  sub- 
ordinate kind,  viz.  that  men,  especially  slaves,  might  rest,  and  be 
refreshed,  and  might  be  led  to  rejoice  in  the  goodness  of  God,  who 
"■ave  them  this  season  of  suspension  from  their  toils,  Exod.  23: 
12. 

That  the  Sabbath,  as  some  maintain,  was  consecrated  in  com- 
memoration of  the  deliverance  from  Egyptian  servitude,  is  nowhere 
asserted;  and  the  most,  that  can  be  contended  for  on  this  point,  is, 
that  the  Jews  are  exhorted  to  remember  the  sufierings,  they  endured 
in  that  land,  in  order  that,  prompted  by  reminiscences  of  this  kind, 
they  might  the  more  willingly  allow  the  rest  of  the  Sabbath  to  their 
servants  and  to  their  cattle,  Deut.  5:  14,  15. 

The  statement,  which  is  made  in  Exod.  31:  13 — 17,  and  Ezek.  20: 
20,  21,  viz.  that  the  Sabbath  is  the  sign  of  a  covenant  between 
God  and  the  Israelites,  means  merely  this,  that  God,  as  creator,  had 
a  claim  on  the  worship  of  the  Jews,  that  he  was  disposed  to  exact 
such  worship,  and  that  they  had  promised  to  render  it. 

XoTE. — The  more  recent  Jews  distinguished  certain  Sabbaths  by 
particular  names.  The  Sabbath,  for  instance,  innnediately  preceding 
the  Passover,  was  denominated  the  great  Sabbath,  (John  19:  31. 
comp.  Orach,  chajjim,  p.  430,  and  Sehulchan  Aruch,  p.  33,  2 ;)  be- 
cause the  Israelites,  while  in  Egypt,  had  witnessed  on  that  day  a 
<Treat  miracle.  Indeed  any  Sabbath,  Avhich  was  immediately  followed 
by  one  of  the  principal  festivals,  was  denominated  great. 

Another  kind  of  Sabbath  is  called  the  secoiid  first,  cu^^utov, 
davTenoTTocoTOV.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  Saljhath,  which 
is  thus  named  in  Luke  G:  1,  the  second  first,  is  called  in  Matthew 


§  .j4S.  things  to  ui:  omitted  on  tue  sabbath  day.     441 

12:  1,  aiul  in  ^Luk.  2:  23,  simply  the  Suhbath.     What  thi?  second-Jirst 
Sabbath  is:,  is  somewhat  difficaiU  to  be  cxphiincd. 

Tiie  majority  of  critics  suppose,  it  was  that,  which  immediately 
succeeded  the  second  day  of  the  Passover.  For,  since  the  Jews  num- 
bered their  days  from  the  Passover  to  the  Pentecost,  (Deut.  IC:  9,) 
the  first  Sabbath  after  the  second  day  from  the  Passover,  seems  to 
have  been  proi)erly  enough  termed  SECUNDO-rRUiUM,  the  second-Jirst. 
The  word  od^^aror,  in  the  phrase  fUTUiv  cd^^uzor,  (Acts  13:  42,) 
is  nothing  else  than  the  tceek  itself,  which,  as  has  been  elsewhere 
observed,  is  sometimes  designated  by  the  customary  Greek  word  for 
Sabbath. 


§  348.  Concerning  those  things  which  were  to  be  omitted 
ON  the  Sabbath. 

The  name  of  the  Sabbatli  itself,  rs'r ,  which  signifies  rest,  is  an 
intimation,  that  the  labors,  in  which  men  ordinarily  engaged,  shall 
be  intermitted  on  that  day ;  and  we  frequently  meet  with  express 
commands  to  that  effect,  Exod.  20:  10.  31:  14—17.  35:  1—3.  Deut, 
5:  12 — 14.  A  particular  specification,  however,  or  enumeration  of 
Avhat  mif/Jit,  and  what  might  not  be  done,  is  no  where  found,  and  we 
can  only  say,  that,  before  the  promulgation  of  the  law  on  Mount 
Sinai,  the  gathering  of  Manna  was  one  of  those  things,  upon 
which,  we  ai"e  assured,  labor  could  not  be  expended,  and  that, 
subsequently  to  its  promulgation,  the  making  of  a  fire,  was  another, 
Exod.  16:  22—30.  35:  3.  Num.  15:  32,  36.  What  other  things 
there  were,  which  were  expressly  prohibited,  we  have  no  means  of 
ascertaining. 

AVe  are  at  liberty  to  say,  nevertheless,  on  the  other  hand, 

I.  That  the  use  of  arms  was  not  interdicted,  as  the  more  recent 
Jews  supposed,  1  Mace.  2:  31  et  seq. 

II.  Tlie  healing  of  the  sick  also  was  not  forbidden,  nor  the  taking 
of  meclifines,  as  was  dreamt  by  some  of  the  Jewish  teachers  in  the 
lime  of  Christ,  and  by  some  of  the  writers  in  the  Talmud,  nor,  in 
truth,  a  journey  or  walk  of  more  than  a  thousand  geometrical  paces, 
nor  the  plucking  of  a  few  ears  of  corn  to  appease  one's  hunger, 
nor  the  performance  of  any  acts  of  necessity,  as  feeding  cattle,  or 
plucking  them  from  the  ditch.  If  they  had  fallen  into  one,  Matt.  12: 


442     ;^  '^>\^.  TI11XG6  TO  i;k  omittki)  on  Tin;  s.vr.nxTii   dav. 

1—1.').    Luke  G:  1— .0.    IVr.  10—17.    3Iark  I}:  2.  Jului  .3:  2—18.  9:  1 
—.'34. 

Tlie  Talmiidi^ts,  (^SJnihhath  VII.  2.)  reckoned  up  lliirty-six  different 
instances  of  labor,  wliicli  were  interdicted  on  the  Sabbath,  and  among 
others,  (hat  ui"  making  or  kneading  dough.  This  accounts  for  the  cir- 
cumstance of  the  Jews  considering  it  a  crime  in  the  Saviour,  tliat  he 
mingled  his  spittle  with  tiie  dust,  and  anointed  the  eyes  of  the  blind 
man,  John  9:  1 — 34. 

III.  Furlhemiore,  certain  duties  of  a  religious  nature  weri;  not  })ro- 
hibited,  such  as  circumcision  on  the  eighth  day,  the  slaughtering  and 
burning  of  victims,  and  the;  labors  in  general,  which  were  connected 
with  the  observances,  practised  in  the  tabernacle  and  temple,  Lev.  6: 
8  et  seq.  Num.  28:  3  et  seq.  Matt.  12:  2.  John  7:  23. 

In  consequence  of  the  circumstance,  that  the  kindling  of  a  fire  was 
interdicted  on  tlie  Sabbath,  whatever  cooking  was  necessary  in  mak- 
ing preparation  lor  the  supper  of  Friday  evening,  Avas  to  be  attended 
to  before  sunset.  Hence  the  afternooii  of  that  day  (Friday)  was 
denominated  i]  nanaoy.tvt],  tlie  j)rc2:>uration,  and,  in  the  Aramean, 
{y.iu  tio'/j^v,  hj  way  of  disiindicn  or  emphasis,)  i<rz^~v  the  eve- 
ning. 

On  the  noon  of  the  Sabbath,  the  Jews  took  a  slight  dinner,  as  at 
other  times,  but  they  deferred,  till  alter  sunset,  the  prei)arations  for 
su})per. 

IV.  There  was  no  law  in  respect  to  the  Sabbath,  whicli  com- 
manded the  observance  of  what  may  be  termed  an  Ante-SahbaUi ; 
which  the  Jews  after  the  Captivity  were  in  the  habit  of  commencing 
a  number  of  hours  before  the  setting  of  the  sun.  As,  however,  the 
provisions  for  the  Sabbath  were  to  be  i)repared  at  this  time,  the  pro- 
SABBATiiUM  or  Ante-Sahhalh  may  be  considered  as  a  necessary  result 
of  the  law,  which  rendered  it  necessary  to  make  such  prepai-ation,  but 
it  was  too  scrupulously  defined  and  insisted  on  by  the  more  recent 
Jews,  Mark  15:  42. 


§  349.    THINGS   PKKMITTED    OX   THE    SABB.iTU.  4-13 


§  340.  CoNCERNiXG  Tnosn  THINGS  -w-iiicii  ^yv.n\■.  it-kmitted  to 

BE  DONE  ON  THE  SaBBATII. 

The  duties,  that  were  appro[)riixte  to  the  Sabbath,  appear  to 
have  been  learnt  from  custom.  Hence  there  were  no  precepts 
on  the  subject,  with  the  exception  tliat  the  priests,  beside  the  daily 
victims,  were  to  ofier  up  on  tliat  day  two  other  lambs  of  a  year  old, 
together  witli  two  tenth  deals  of  Hour  mingled  with  oil,  and  a  drink- 
offering,  and  Avere  also  to  change  tlie  sliew-bread,  Lev.  24:  8.  >^uni. 
23:  9,  10. 

From  the  general  design  of  the  Sabbath,  and  from  Genesis  2: 
3,  where  God  is  represented  as  blessing  the  seventh  day,  i,  e.  pro- 
nouncing it  joyful  and  propitious,  it  is  evident,  that  the  day  was 
to  be  considered  a  cheerful  one,  that  the  people  were  to  con- 
template, with  emotions  of  a  glad  and  grateful  kind,  on  God  as 
the  creator  and  governor  of  the  universe,  which  is  intimated  also 
in  Isaiah  58:  13.  Accordingly  sorrow  on  the  Sabbath  day  was 
an  indication  of  some  great  calamity,  Hosea  2:  11.  Lam.  2:  6.  1. 
Mace.  1:  41. 

The  Hebrews,  therefore,  spent  the  Sabbath  in  rest  and  in  a  decent 
cheerfulness,  and  did  not  deem  it  inconsistent  with  its  sacredness,  to 
dance,  sing  songs,  and  play  on  instruments  of  music,  Exod.  15;  20, 
21.  32:  6,  7.  2  Sam.  G:  14.  Ps.  G8:  25—27.  149:  3.  150:  4.  [By 
consulting  these  passages,  it  will  appear,  that  the  songs,  music,  and 
dances  here  mentioned,  were  of  a  religious  nature,  or  were  expres- 
sive of  religious  emotions.]  In  a  word,  they  spent  the  Sabbath,  as  far 
as  the  external  acts  Avere  concerned,  nearly  in  the  same  way,  that 
other  nations  spend  their  festival  days. 

It  was  peculiar,  however,  to  the  Hebrews,  to  gather  on  this  day 
around  their  prophets,  and  to  receive  instructions  from  them,  2  Kings 
4:  23.  Religious  parents  were  in  tlie  habit  of  instructing  their  cliil- 
dren,  on  this  day  in  particular,  in  the  doctrine  of  God,  as  the  creator 
and  governor  of  all  tilings ;  and  in  the  wonderful  providences  both 
of  mercy  and  punishment,  which  he  had  shown ;  and  those,  who 
were  not  far  distant,  visited  the  Tabernacle  or  Temple. 


414  §  3")1.    OF    THK    YKAU    OF   JUBILEE. 


^  .■]."»().  CoNCKiiNixr,  TiiK  Sai'.hatic  Yeau. 

Ar^  a  piTioil  of  sevoii  davs  was  completed  by  tlie  Sabbath,  so 
was  a  period  of  ^vvcn  years  by  the  Sabbatic  year,  y.rZ'::  r3r,  ryj 
riw"':; .  It  seems  to  have  been  the  design  of  tlie  Sabbatic  year  to 
aflbrd  a  longer  opportimity,  than  would  otherwise  be  enjoyed,  for  im- 
pressing on  the  memory  the  great  triitli,  that  God  tlie  creator  is  alone 
to  be  u'orsliipjied. 

The  commencement  of  this  year  was  on  the  first  day  of  the  sev- 
enth month  or  Tisimi  (October).  It  is  proper  to  remind  the  reader, 
that  we  have  already,  in  a  former  section,  (79,)  remarked  on  the  sub- 
ject of  the  ground  being  left  fallow  during  this  year.  See  Exod.  23: 
10,  11.  Lev.  25:  1—7.  2G:  33—35. 

During  the  continuance  of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  this  year, 
the  Law  was  to  be  publicly  read  for  eight  days  together,  eithei' 
in  the  Tabernacle  or  Tem[)le,  Deut.  31:  10 — 13.  Debts,  on  ac- 
count of  there  being  no  income  from  the  soil,  were  not  collected, 
Dent.  15:  1,  2.  They  were  not,  however,  cancelled,  as  was  imag- 
ined by  the  Talmudists  ;  for  we  find  in  Deut.  15:  9,  that  the  He- 
brews are  admonished  not  to  deny  money  to  the  poor  on  account 
of  the  approach  of  the  Sabbatical  year,  during  Avhich  it  could  not 
be  exacted,  but  nothing  further  than  this  can  be  educed  from  that 
passage.  Nor  were  servants  manumitted  on  tliis  year,  but  on 
the  seventh  year  of  their  service,  Exod.  21:  2.  Deut.  15:  11.  Jer. 
34:  14. 


§  351.  Of  the  Year  of  Jubilee. 

Tlie  Jubilee,  bsT^ ,  followed  seven  Sabbatic  years,  i.  e.  was  on  the 
50th  year,  Lev.  25:  8 — 11,  Josephus,  Antiquities  IIL  12,  3.  Philo 
de  caritate  p.  404.  de  septenario  p.  1178,  1188. 

To  this  statement  the  Jews  generally,  their  Rabbins,  and  the 
Caraites  agree,  and  say  further,  that  the  argument  of  those,  who 
maintain  that  it  was  on  the  49th,  for  the  reason,  that  the  omission 
to  till  the  ground  for  two  years  in  succession,  viz.  the  49lh  and 
50th,  would  produce  a  famine,  is  not  to  be  attended  to.  It  is 
not  to  be  attended  to,  simply  because  these  years  of  rest,  being 
known   long  beforehand,    the    pcoi)le  would  of  course    lay    up  pro- 


§  l^')\.    or  Til!-:  y!:ai:  oi-   .unii.r.i;.  i-l') 

vision  for  tlit-in.  It  nr.xy  be  ivniaiketl  f'urtlicr  in  refcrciu'c  to  this 
point,  tliat  certain  Irees  proJuccd  their  IVuits  spontaneoiisli/,  par- 
ticuhirly  tlie  fig  and  sycamore,  which  yield  half  the  year  round,  and 
that  those  fruits  could  be  preserved  for  some  months;  wliich  explains 
;it  oricc,  how  a  considerable  number  of  the  people  might  have  obtain- 
ed no  inconsiderable  portion  of  their  support.  We  have  already  i-e- 
marked,  in  a  preceding  section,  that  the  observance  of  the  Sabbatic 
year,  so  far  as  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  was  concerned,  was  not  al- 
ways practised. 

The  return  of  the  year  of  Jubilee,  was  announced  on  the  tenth 
day  of  the  seventh  month  of  TisiiRi  (October,)  being  the  day  of 
propitiation  or  atonement,  by  the  sound  of  tnimpet,  r,".~.s'rr,  "-;? 
b;;-p,  Lev.  25:  8—13.  27:  24.  Num.  36:  4.  Isa.  Gl:  1,  2.  Beside  the 
regulations,  which  obtained  on  the  Sabbatic  year,  there  were  others, 
which  concerned  the  year  of  Jubilee  exclusively. 

I.  All  the  servants  of  Hebrew  origin,  on  the  year  of  Jubilee,  ob- 
tained their  freedom,  Lev.  2o:  39 — 4G.  comp.  Jer.  34:  7  et  seq. 

IL  All  the  fields  throughout  the  countr}-,  and  the  houses  in  tlie 
cities  and  villages  of  the  Levites  and  priests,  whicli  had  been  sold  on 
the  preceding  }'ears,  were  returned  on  the  year  of  Jubilee  to  the 
sellers,  with  the  exception  of  those,  which  had  been  consecrated  to 
God,  and  had  not  been  redeemed  before  the  return  of  said  year.  Lev. 
25:  10,  13—17,  24—28.  27:  16—21. 

III.  Debtors,  for  the  most  part,  pledged  or  mortgaged  their  land  to 
the  creditor,  and  left  it  to  his  use,  till  the  time  of  payment,  so  that  it 
was  in  effect  sold  to  the  creditor,  and  was,  accordingly,  restored  to  the 
debtor  on  the  year  of  Jubilee.  In  other  words,  the  debts  for  Avhich 
land  was  pledged,  were  canceUed  ;  the  same,  as  those  of  persons,  who 
had  recovered  their  freedom,  after  having  been  sold  into  slavery,  on 
account  of  not  being  able  to  pay.  Hence  it  usually  happened  in  the 
later  periods  of  Jewish  history,  as  we  learn  from  Josephus,  that,  at  the 
return  of  Jubilee,  there  was  a  general  cancelling  of  debtS;  Antiquities, 
IIL  12,  3. 

38 


440       §  oo2.  Ninv-.MOONS  and  i  t.ast  of  the  ne-\v  year. 


§  5'>2.  Ni:w-]\r(X)NS  and  Feast  or  the  Xeav  Year. 

In  order  to  exchicle  any  opportunity  for  the  exercises  of  the  super- 
stitions of  the  Gentiles,  who  sacrificed  to  the  Mwn,  it  is  commanded 
in  Num.  10:  10,  and  28:  11 — 14,  that  on  the  New  Moons,  (-rxi 
C^r-n.)  in  addition  to  the  daily  sacrifices,  two  bullocks  should  be 
offered  to  God,  a  ram,  and  seven  sheep  of  a  year  old,  together  with 
a  meal-offering,  and  a  libation.  These  were  to  constitute  the  burnt 
offering,  and  a  goat,  the  sin  oflfering. 

The  return  of  the  IS'ew-moons  was  announced  by  the  sound- 
ing of  the  silver  trumpets,  ry^^zTj,  Num.  10:  10.  28:  11 — 14;  and 
in  this  way  provision  was  made  for  keeping  up  a  knowledge  of  the 
end  and  commencement  of  each  month.  The  Kings,  it  appears, 
after  the  introduction  of  the  monarchical  form  of  government,  were 
in  the  habit  of  offering  up  sacrifices  at  the  refiirn  of  the  Xew-moons, 
1  Sam.  20:  5,  24 — 27,  and  those  persons,  Avhose  piety  led  tliera  to 
seek  for  religious  instruction,  visited  on  those  occasions,  the  pro- 
phets, 2  Kings  4:  23.  Labor  was  not  interdicted  on  the  day  of  the 
New-moon.  As  the  New-moon,  however,  of  the  seventh  month  or 
Tishri  (^October)  was  the  commencement  of  the  civil  year,  it  was 
observed,  as  a  festival,  and  was  announced  by  the  sound  of  trum- 
pets. Hence  it  is  called  the  day  of  '•'■trumpet  lloicing,''  -V'-.T}  =r, 
and  also  ■'  the  memorial  of  hluwiug  of  trumpets,"  Lev.  23:  24.  Num. 
29:  1—0. 

Beside  the  sacrifices,  common  to  other  New-ynoons,  a  bullock 
was  then  offered,  a  ram,  seven  lambs  of  a  year  old,  a  meal-offer- 
ing of  flour  and  oil,  and  a  libation  of  wine  for  the  burnt  offering. 
Num.  29:  2—9. 

Note. — The  days  of  the  New-moon  were  not  ascertained  by 
astronomical  calculation,  as  the  Rabbins  assert,  but  were  the  days, 
on  which  the  New-moon  first  made  its  appearance,  as  is  maintained 
by  the  Caraites.  This  is  evident  from  the  fact,  that  Moses  did  not 
regulate  his  chronology  on  astronomical  principles,  but  by  the  aspect 
of  the  eai'th,  the  return  of  the  seasons,  etc. 

Further;  the  Talmudists  speak  of  the  signs  of  the  appearance 
of  the  New-moon,  and  it  is  clear,  that  neither  Philo  nor  Josephus 
knew  any  thing   of  the    distinction  between    the   astronomical  and 


§  354.    CONCKRNIXG    THE    PASSOVER.  447 

the  apparent  new  moon.  Still  the  author  of  the  Book  of  Kings  ap- 
pears to  have  made  use  of  the  astronomical  cak-ulation,  who  si)eak3 
of  the  27th  day  of  the  twelfth  month  in  Babylon,  while  Jeremiah, 
who  Avas  in  Palestine,  calls  the  same  day,  the  25th,  2  Kings  25:  27. 
Jer.  52:  31.  The  modern  Jews,  in  reference  to  Avhat  is  stated  in 
1  Sam.  20:  27.  observe  the  return  of  the  Xew-raoon  for  two  days  in 
succession. 


^  353,  Of  the  great  Festivals  ix  Gexeual. 

The  Passover,  the  Pentecost,  and  the  feast  of  Tabernacles,  were 
festivals,  instituted  lor  the  purpose  of  commemorating  the  wonderful 
kindness  of  God.  The  Pentecost  continued  only  for  one  day,  the 
Passover  seven,  and  the  feast  of  the  Tabernacles  eiglit,  but  the  first 
and  the  liist  only,  in  both  cases,  v.ere  properly  considered  festival 
days,  in  which  no  employment  further  than  was  necessary  to  prepare 
food,  was  permitted,  Exod.  12:  16.  Lev.  23:  7. 

At  the  return  of  the  three  great  festivals,  all  the  adult  Jews  made 
their  appearance,  either  at  the  tabernacle  or  temple,  with  presents, 
which  were  taken  from  the  second  tythes,  the  firstlings  of  the  second 
pi'oduct  of  the  flocks,  and  the  second  first-fruits.  They  offered  sacri- 
fices, feasted ;  and  with  songs,  music,  and  dances,  rejoiced  in  God,  as 
a  being,  wonderful  for  his  mercies. 

The  word  itself,  which  is  usually  employed  to  designate  festivals, 
viz.  ;n ,  if  its  original  signification  be  consulted,  is  an  intimation,  that 
dancing  was  practised  on  such  occasions,  Exod.  23:  17.  Lev.  23:  38. 
Num.  29:  39.  Deut.  12:  18.  14:  2G.  IG:  11—17.  2G:  11. 

§  354.    CoxcEuxixCr  the  Passover. 

The  festival  of  the  Passover  was  instituted,  for  the  purpose  of  pre- 
serving among  the  Hebrews  the  memory  of  their  liberation  from 
Egyptian  servitude,  and  of  the  safety  of  their  first-born  on  that  night. 
when  the  first-born  of  the  Egyptians  perished,  Exod.  xii.  It  wa> 
celebrated  for  seven  days,  viz.  from  the  15th  to  the  21st  of  the  month 
Abib  or  XiSAX  {April,)  Exod.  12:  1—28.  23:  15.  Lev.  23:  4—8. 
Num.  28:  IG— 25.  Deut.  IG:  1—8. 

During    tin;    whole    of   this    period,  the    peo[)le    ate    unleavened 


448        §  354.  CONCKUXIXG  Tin:  i-assovkh. 

bread.  It  was  for  this  vea.~on,  that  the  festival  is  sometimes  called 
the  feast  of  unleavened  bread,  n:i"?n  ;n,  ionr/)  rcJr  u^v(toir,  Exod. 
12:  18.  .13:' G,  7.  23:  15.  Lev.  23:  G.  Num.  28:  17.  If  in  Deut.  16: 
8,  only  six  days  of  unleavened  bread  are  mentioned,  tlie  reason  is, 
that  tlie  first  day,  being  considered  a  separate  festiv.-d,  is  not  included. 
On  the  eve  of  the  14th  d:iy,  the  leaven  uas  removed,  so  that  nothing 
might  be  seen  of  it  during  the  Aveek,  a  circumstance,  in  respect 
to  Avhich  the  Jews  are  very  scrupulous,  even  at  the  present  time, 
1  Cor.  5:  7. 

Hence  not  only  the  15th,  but  the  14th  also  of  the  month  Abib 
may  Avith  propriety,  as  it  is  in  some  instances,  in  the  Bible,  be  term- 
ed the  first  day  of  unleavened  bread,  since  the  leaven  was  removed 
on  the  14th  before  evening.  Josephus  has  accordingly  assigned 
eight  days,  Antiq.  II.  15,  1,  and  seven,  Antiq.  III.  10,  5.  IX.  13,  3, 
to  the  feast  of  the  Passover,  when  in  reality  there  were  but  seven. 
On  the  10th  day  of  the  month  Abib,  the  master  of  a  family  sepa- 
rated a  ram  or  a  goat  of  a  year  old,  (Exod.  12:  1 — G.)  which  he  slew 
on  the  14ih  day  between  the  tu-o  evenings,  tr_-zr\v  "p2,  before  the 
altar,  Deut.  IG:  2,  5,  6.  The  priest  sprinkled  the  blood  upon  the 
bottom  of  the  altar ;  but  in  Egypt,  when  the  event  occurred,  which 
was  the  origin  of  the  Passover,  the  blood  was  sprinkled  on  the  post 
of  the  door,  Exod.  12:  7. 

The  ram  or  the  kid,  which  was  properly  called  nss ,  xr-S , 
nuoya,  or  frotection,  was  roasted  whole,  with  two  spits  thrust 
through  it,  the  one  length-Avise,  the  other  transversely,  crossing 
the  longitudinal  one  near  the  fore  legs  ;  so  that  the  animal  was, 
in  a  manner  crucijied.  The  oven,  in  which  it  Avas  roasted,  is  the 
one  described  §  140.  no.  II.  Pesachim.  c.  3.  John  19:  3G.  comp. 
§142. 

Thus  roasted,  it  was  served  up  with  a  salad  of  wild,  and 
bitter  herbs,  C^")"!"?,  and  with  the  flesh  of  other  sacrifices,  which 
occur  in  Deut.  IG:  2 — 6,  under  the  word  ncs.  Xot  fewer  than 
ten,  nor  more  than  twenty  persons,  were  admitted  to  these  sacred 
feasts,  which  were  at  first  eaten  in  Egypt,  Avith  loins  girt  about, 
Avith  shoes  upon  the  feet,  and  Avith  all  the  preparations  for  an 
immediate  journey  ;  but  this  Avas  not  the  case  at  any  subsequent 
period.  The  command,  howe\er,  not  to  break  a  bone  of  the 
offerinir,  Avhich  Avas  given  in  consequence    of  the    people  going  in 


§  354.  COXCKUNING   THE    rASSOVEU.  449 

such  liaste  (as  they  might  otherwise  have  heen  dehiyed,)  Avas  ever 
afterwards  observed  among  the  Jews,  John  19:  36. 

The  ceremonies  practised  at  the  eating  of  the  Paschal  supper, 
appear  to  have  been  nearly  the  same  with  ihose,  which  are  practised 
among  the  Jews  at  the  present  day,  and  which  are  related  in  the 
Jewish  Book,  entitled  nos  br  rr^jn -,SD.  Compare  1  Cor.  11:21. 
These  ceremonies  were  exemplified,  in  part,  in  the  last  supper  of 
the  Saviour,  where  mention  is  made  of  the  bless^hip  on  the  bread 
and  wine,  which  is  prescribed  in  the  Book  just  referred  to,  Matt.  26: 
26. 

The  master  of  the  family,  after  the  Paschal  supper  is  prepared, 
breaks  the  bread,  having  first  blessed  it,  and  divides  it  to  all,  who 
are  seated  around  him,  so  that  each  one  may  receive  a  part,  who 
has  liberty,  if  he  chooses,  to  dip  it  before  eating  into  a  vessel  of 
sauce. 

The  third  cup  of  wine,  which  is  drunk  on  this  occasion,  is  properly 
termed  the  cup  of  benediciicni,  f^^"?"  C^is,  Matt.  26:  27.  1  Cor.  10: 
16.  After  this,  songs  of  praise  are  sung,  viz.  Psalms  115 — 118; 
after  which  another  cup  is  drunk,  Mark  14:  26,  and,  if  the  guests 
have  a  disposition  to  repeat  Psalms  120 — 137,  another  also.  The 
wine  is  mingled  witli  water.  j 

On  the  second  day  of  the  Passover,  i.  e.  on  the  16th  day  of  the 
month  Abib,  a  sheaf  of  barley  was  offered  up,  also  a  Iamb  of  a  year 
old  for  a  burnt  offering,  also  a  meal-offering  and  a  libation. 

This  ceremony  was  the  introduction  prescribed  by  Law,  to  the " 
harvest,  Lev.  23:  1 — 14.     On  every  day  of  the  Paschal  week,  there 
were  oflierings  more  than  usual,  and  victims  were  immolated  for  sin, 
Num.  28:  16—25. 

Note.  In  the  Latin  Church,  the  general  opinion  is,  that  the 
Saviour,  in  his  last  su[)per,  ate  the  Passover  supper ;  though  some 
suppose,  that  he  anticipated  the  usual  time  by  a  day,  i.  e.  they 
suppose,  that  he  followed  in  this  instance,  the  practice  of  the 
Sadducees,  who  calculated  the  return  of  the  New-moon  astro- 
nomically, which  would  bring  this  festival  a  day  earlier,  than  it 
svould  otherwise  happen;  an  opinion,  which  we  have  already 
shown  to  be  inadmissible.  We  would  now  merely  add,  in  refe- 
rence to  this  opinion,  that  all  the  arrangements  of  a  religious 
nature,  which    had   any  reference   to    the  Temple,  were   made   in 

38* 


450  §  3oG.    OF   THK    FKAST    OF    T.VIiKKNACLKS. 

accordance  \vitli  the  opinions,  that  prevailed  among  {\w  Pharisees ; 
and,  furthorniore,  tliat  the  discourse  in  Matt.  2G:  1 — 19.  Mark  14: 
12 — 18.  Luke  22:  7 — 14,  is  concerning  the  customary  day  of  the 
Passover. 

The  Greek  Church,  on  the  contrary,  contend,  that  the  last 
supper  of  the  Saviour  was  not  the  Paschal  supper,  and  that  in  insti- 
tutinjr  the  Eucharist,  he  made  use  of  leavened  bread.  Some  indivi- 
duals  in  the  Latin  Cliurch  agree  in  this  opinion,  excepting  that  they 
suppose  nnleavcued  bread  to  have  been  used  on  the  evening  of  the 
13th  day  of  the  month  Abiu,  and  that  consequently  the  Saviour,  in 
instituting  the  Eucharist  on  that  evening,  made  use  of  bread  of  that 
kind. 


§  355.  Concerning  the  Pentecost. 

An  enumeration  of  forty-nine  days  from  the  16th  of  Abib  or 
the  2d  day  of  the  Passover,  introduced  us  to  the  Pentecost,  nsviij- 
y.oan'p  i.  e.  the  fiftieth.  It  is  also  called  the  feast  of  Weeks, 
r."'":"i"n  ."n ,  from  the  circumstance  that  it  followed  a  succession  of 
seven  weeks,  Exod.  34:  22.  Lev.  23:  15,  16.  Num.  28:  26.  Deut.  16: 
10.  Acts  2:  1. 

It  was  a  festival  of  thanks  for  the  harvest,  and  is,  accordingly, 
called  "i"^^p  5n ,  the  feast  of  the  harvest.  And  it  was  for  the  same 
reason,  that  two  loaves  made  of  new  meal,  and  the  tenth  part  of  an 
epha  of  grain  were  offered,  as  the  first  fruits.  Lev.  23:  17.  Num.  28: 
26.  Hence  the  Pentecost  is  sometimes  called  the  day  of  the  first 
fruits,  1'y.l.Z'r,  Num.  28:  26.  There  were  likewise,  on  the  return 
of  this  festival,  many  holocausts,  besides  an  offering  for  sin.  Lev.  23: 
18—20.  Num.  28:  27— 31. 

In  the  days  of  the  Apostles,  as  we  are  expressly  informed  by 
Josephus  himself,  many  Jews  from  foreign  countries  came  to  Jeru- 
salem on  this  joyful  occasion,  Jewish  "War,  II.  3,  1.  comp.  Acts  2:  5 
—13. 

§  356.  Of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles. 

The  feast  of  Tabernacles,  rirsri  in  soozii  oy.tii'bjr,  Gyr^iomjla, 
was  celebrated  from  the  15th  to  the  23d  of  the  seventh  month, 
viz.  TiSHRi  (^October.)     The  23d  or  eighth  day  was  the  one,  which 


§  356.    OF    TIIK    FEAST    OF    TABrKXACLKS.  451 

was  most  particularly  distinguished,  as  a  festival,  Lev.  23:  34 — 42. 
Num.  29:  12,  35.  Dcut.  16:  12—15.  Neh.  8:  18.  2  JNIacc.  10:  6. 
Jobn  7:  2,  37. 

It  was  instituted  in  memory  of  the  journey  through  the  Arabian 
wilderness.  The  Jews,  therefore,  during  its  continuance,  dwelt  in 
booths,  as  they  did  in  their  journey  from  Egypt,  Lev.  23:  42,  43.  It 
was  also  a  festival  of  thanks  in  honor  of  the  vintage  and  the  gath- 
ering in  of  the  fruits,  and  was,  therefore,  called  the  feast  of  the  gath- 
ering t^sxn  art,  Exod.  23:  16.  34:  22. 

The  Hebrews  during  this  feast  carried  about  the  fruits  of  the 
choicest  trees,  or  as  the  later  Jews  interpret  the  words  -inn  'f^  "•"??> 
citrons,  also  the  branches  of  palms,  willows,  and  other  trees,  that 
bore  a  thick  foliage.  The  Caraites  suppose,  it  was  of  such  branches 
that  they  were  in  the  habit  of  constructing  tlieir  booths,  Lev.  23:  40, 
with  which,  however,  it  appears,  that  they  mingled  the  branches  of 
olives,  myrtles,  wild-olives,  etc.  Neh.  8:  15.  2  Mace.  10:  7.  Josephus, 
Antiquities,  XIV.  13,  5. 

The  Feast  of  tabernacles  was  a  season,  which  witnessed  the  most 
marked  and  decided  indications  of  joy.  Hence  it  is  denominated 
by  Josephus  (Antiq.  Wll.  4,  1.  XI.  5,  5,)  and  by  Philo  de  septex- 
AKio,  p.  1195,  the  greatest  fxtyiaitj,  and  by  the  Talmudists,  by  way 
of  distinction  jnn,  the  feast.  It  was  not  unknown  to  Plutarch,  Sf/m' 
pos.  L.  IV.  c.  5. 

More  public  sacrifices  were  directed  to  be  offered  on  this  festival, 
than  on  the  others,  as  will  be  seen  by  consulting  Num.  29:  12 — 39. 
comp.  Deut.  16:  14,  15.  Lev.  23:  38—40.  Num.  29:  39. 

To  these  ceremonies,  the  more  recent  Jews  have  added  a  number 
of  others. 

I.  They  undertake  to  assert,  (founding  their  opinion  in  this 
case  on  Isaiah  12:  3.)  the  existence  of  the  following  practice. 
The  priests  went  every  morning  during  the  eight  days  of  the  feast, 
and  drew  three  logs  of  water  in  a  golden  vessel  from  the  foun- 
tain of  Siloe.  They  then  carried  the  water  with  great  and  joyful 
solemnity  through  the  water-gate  to  the  temple,  and  poured  it  out 
to  the  South  "West  of  the  altar,  the  Levites,  in  the  mean-while, 
playing  on  instruments  of  music,  and  singing  the  Psalms  113 — 118. 
Some  of  the  Talmudists  assert,  that  this  ceremony  was  a  symbol 
of  rain,  others   of  joy,  others  of  the   effusion   of  the  Holy   Spirit. 


4.Vi  §  S")?.    OF    TIIK    DAY    or    I'lIOriTIATION. 

Compare  Jolm  7:  o7,  also  ■\Vc'tstein's  New  Testament,  Vol.  I.  888, 
889. 

II.  Another  ceremony,  if  \vc  may  believe  the  Jews,  to  whom  we 
have  referred,  was  this.  In  the  court  of  the  women,  lights  were 
burnt  tUiring  every  evening  of  the  feast,  in  four  candlesticks  of  gold, 
said  to  be  lifty  cubits  high  ;  Avhile  the  priests  and  Levites,  standing 
on  the  fifteen  steps  of  the  vmer  court,  sung  the  sonf/s  of  decrees,  viz. 
Psalms  120 — 134.  They  accompanied  these  songs  with  instruments, 
and  the  chief  men  of  the  nation  w-ere,  at  the  same  time,  dancing  in 
the  "vvomkn's  COURT,  with  burning  torches  in  their  hands,  while  thr, 
women  looked  on  from  a  retired  apartment,  that  was  surrounded  by  a 
sort  of  latticed  enclosure. 

Furthermore,  the  Jews,  during  every  day  of  the  feast,  holding  in 
the  left  hand  a  citron,  in  the  right,  a  bundle,  S^^b,  of  branches,  viz. 
one  branch  of  tlie  palm-tree,  and  two  branches  of  willov/  and  myr- 
tle, passed  around  the  altar  and  shouted  aloud  with  a  solemn  voice, 
nrr^'r'-n,  Hosanna,  Hosanna.  On  the  seventh  day,  this  ceremony 
was  repeated  seven  times  in  memory  of  the  conquest  of  Jericho. 
Hence  it  happens,  that  this  feast  is  called  the  great  Hosanna.  Com- 
pare 2  Mace.  10:  17. 

§  357.  Op  the  Day  of  Propitiation. 

The  fifth  day  before  the  Feast  of  tabernacles,  viz.  the  10th  day 
of  the  7th  month,  or  Tishri  [October)  was  the  day  of  atonement  or 
propitiation,  cinrBsn  c'li ,  Lev.  16:1 — 34.  Exodus  23:  26 — 30. 
Num.  29:  1 — 11.  It  was  a  day  of  fasting,  and  the  only  one  during 
the  whole  year,  on  which  food  was  interdicted  from  evening  to  eve- 
ning, Lev.  23:  27—29.  25:  9. 

The  high  priest  himself  conducted  the  sacred  services  of  this 
day,  and  the  ceremonies  now  to  be  mentioned,  which  differed 
from  those  on  other  occasions,  were  performed  by  him  alone. 
When  he  had  washed  himself  in  Avater,  put  on  his  white  linen 
hose  and  coat,  and  adjusted  his  girdle,  he  conducted  to  the  altar, 
with  the  sacerdotal  mitre  on  his  head,  a  bullock  destined  to  be 
slain  for  the  sins  of  himself  and  his  family ;  also  two  goats  for  the 
sins  of  the  people,  the  one  of  which  was  selected  by  lot  to  be 
sacrificed  to  God,  SnVrT'b  ;  the  other  was  permitted  to  make  an  un- 


§  357.    OF    THE    DAY    OF    rUOPITIATION.  453 

molested   escape,   iTXT:;?,    Lev.    IG:  G — 10.      Compare   the   Arabic 
wonl  jS^. 

Prescntlv  lie  slew  tlie  bullock  for  his  own  sins,  and  the  goat,  which 
Iiad  bet-n  selected  by  lot  for  that  j)urpose,  for  the  sins  of  the  pcojjle. 
lie  then  filled  a  censer  with  burning  coals  from  the  altar,  and  putting 
two  handfuls  of  incense  into  a  vase,  he  bore  them  into  the  sanctissi- 
ML'M  or  Holy  of  holies.  Having  here  poured  the  incense  upon  the 
coals,  he  returned,  took  the  blood  of  the  bullock  and  the  goat,  and 
went  again  into  the  3Tost  holy  place. 

"With  his  finger  he  first  sprinkled  the  blood  of  the  bullock,  and 
afterwards,  of  the  goat  u[X)n  the  lid  of  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant, 
and  seven  times  also  he  sprinkled  it  upon  the  floor  before  the 
Ark. 

lie  then  returned  from  the  Most  holy  into  the  Holy  jjlace  or  Sanc- 
tuary, and  besmeared  the  horns  of  the  golden  altar,  which  was  there 
placed,  with  the  blood  of  the  bullock  and  the  goat,  and  scattered  the 
blood  seven  times  over  the  surface  of  the  altar. 

This  was  done,  as  we  are  informed,  as  an  expiation  for  the  unclean- 
ness  and  the  sins  of  the  children  of  Israel,  Lev.  16:  11 — 19. 

The  high  priest  then,  going  out  into  the  court  of  the  Tabernacle, 
placed  both  hands  with  great  solemnity  on  the  head  of  the  scape- 
goat '^TNTrs ;  a  symbolic  representation,  that  the  animal  was  loaded 
with  tlie  sins  of  the  people.  It  was  then  delivered  to  a  man,  Avho 
led  it  away  into  the  wilderness,  and  let  it  go  free,  to  signify  the  libe- 
ration of  the  Israelites  from  the  punishment  due  to  their  sins.  But 
the  goat,  which  was  slain  for  the  sins  of  the  people,  and  the  bullock, 
slain  for  those  of  the  high  priest,  were  designed  to  signify,  that  they 
were  guilty,  and  that  they  merited  punishment ;  and  were  to  be 
burnt  whole,  beyond  the  limits  of  the  camp  or  the  city.  Lev.  16:  20 — 
22,  26—28. 

At  length  the  high  priest,  putting  off  his  white  vestments,  and  as- 
suming the  splendid  robes  of  his  office,  sacrificed  a  holocaust  for  him- 
self and  the  people,  and  then  offered  another  sin-offering.  Lev.  IG: 
23—25.  Num.  29:  7—11. 

The  Jews  assert,  that  the  high  priest  went  into  the  Holy  of 
holies  a  third  time  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  away  the  censer, 
but  this  was  not  necessary,  for  he  might  have  taken  it  away  when 
be  returned  the  second  time    with  the  blood.     That  he  went  into 


454  §  358.    CONCF.RMNG    OTIIKU    FASTS. 

the  s.vNCTissi.vr.M  only  ticice  is  expressly  asserted  by  Philo  de 
LEG  AT.  AD  Cailm.  The  assertion  in  Lev.  16:  34,  and  Exod.  30: 10, 
viz.  that  the  high  priest  entered  once  has  reference  merely  to  the 
one  day  in  the  year,  for  it  is  evident,  that  he  could  not  perform 
all  the  duties,  uhich  devolved  upon  him,  by  entering  once  only  on 
that  day. 

§  358.    CONCEKXING    OTHER    FaSTS. 

The  Hebrews,  in  the  earlier  periods  of  their  history,  were  in  the 
habit  o^  fasting,  whenever  they  had  met  with  any  adverse  occur- 
rences, Judg.  20:  26.  1  Sam.  7:  6.  31:  13.  2  Sam.  3:  35.  Isa.  58:  3 
— 12.  But  it  was  not  till  about  the  time  of  the  Cajjlivity,  that  they 
introduced  anniversary  fast  clays.  The  days,  to  which  we  allude, 
were,  as  follows : 

I.  The  17th  day  of  the  fourth  month,  viz.  Tammuz  or  July.  This 
fiist  was  instituted,  in  memory  of  the  capture  of  Jerusalem,  Jer.  52: 
6,  7.  Zech.  8:  19. 

II.  The  ninth  day  of  the  fifth  month,  Ab  or  August,  in  memoi-y 
of  the  burning  of  the  Temple,  Zech.  7:  3.  8:  19. 

III.  The  third  day  of  the  seventh  month,  Tishri  or  October,  in 
memory  of  the  death  of  Gedaliah,  Jer.  40:  4.  Zech.  7:  5.  8:  19. 

IV.  The  tenth  day  of  the  tenth  month,  Tebeth,  or  January,  in 
memory  of  the  commencement  of  the  attack  on  Jerusalem,  Zech, 
8:  19. 

The  propliet  Zechariah,  in  reference  to  inquiries  which  were 
made  of  him,  asserted,  that  these  mournful  occasions  were,  at  some 
future  time,  to  be  converted  into  festivals  of  joy,  but  the  Jews,  not- 
withstanding, have  ever  continued  to  observe  them,  as  fasts,  Zech. 
8:  19. 

Xote. — It  is  yet  a  matter  of  uncertainty,  what  the  meaning 
was  of  that  effusion  of  waters  on  the  fast-day,  which  is  mentioned 
in  1  Sam.  7:  6,  7.  Perhaps  it  Avas  done,  as  a  symbol,  (a  trace 
of  which  may  still  be  considered,  as  current  in  the  East,  in  the 
shape  of  certain  tropical  expressions.)  to  denote  that  fulness  or 
over-flowing  of  heart,  with  which  the  Jews  were  now  desirous 
of  giving  themselves  up  to  God.  Of  the  expressions,  to  which  we 
refer,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  say  in  this  connection,  "  that  the  offer- 


§  3G0.    FKSTIVAL  OF  TIIK  rUUlFICATIOX  OF   THE  TEMPLE.      455 

ing  of  wafer,''  etc.  is  used  tropically  to  denote  generosity,  or  a  free, 
liberal-minded  act  or  character. 


§  359.  Of  Tin:  Feast  of  Pukim. 

This  FESTIVAL  was  introduced  by  Mordecai  in  the  reign  of  Xer- 
xes, to  commemorate  the  deliverance  of  the  Jews  from  the  cruel 
designs  of  Haman.  It  was  celebrated  on  the  14th  or  15th  day  of 
the  last  month,  viz.  Adah  or  Mardi,  and  was  called  Purim,  a  Per- 
sian word,  which  signifies  lot ;  because  Haman  ascertained  in  this 
way,  (by  lot.)  the  day,  on  which  the  Jews  were  to  be  destroyed.  Est. 
3:  7.  9:26. 

It  was  also  called  for  reasons,  which  will  be  obvious  to  every  one, 
Mordecai's  day,  t]  MunSoyu'r/.i^  tai^Qd)  2  Mace.  15:  36. 

It  is  stated  by  the  Talniudists,  that  some  of  the  Jews  were 
opposed  to  the  celebration  of  this  festival,  which  will  be  easily  cred- 
ited, when  it  is  remembered,  that  it  resembled  the  festivals  of 
Bacchus. 

The  Book  of  Esther  Avas  read  in  the  synagogues  on  the  occasion, 
and  whenever  the  name  of  Haman  occurred,  all  clapped  their  hands, 
and  struck  with  their  fists  and  with  mallets  on  the  benches,  and  cried 
out,  '^ Let  /lis  memory peris/i" 

Anciently,  the  Jews,  on  the  return  of  this  festival,  were  in  the 
habit  of  erecting  crosses  on  their  houses,  in  memory  of  Haraan's 
crucifixion  ;  but  these  having  been  interdicted,  ( Cod.  Theodos.  Tit. 
12,  c.  2.)  they  substituted  some  other  sign  in  their  stead.  They  send 
messes  of  meat  to  each  other,  etc.,  and  spend  the  day  in  the  utmost 
conviviality. 

§  300.  Ox  THE   Festival  Encaenia,  otherwise   called   the 

FESTIVAL  OF  THE  PURIFICATION  OF  THE  TeMFLE. 

The  Temple  was  profaned  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes  in  the 
year  167,  and  was  purified  in  the  year  16-4  before  Christ.  Its  dedi- 
cation at  the  time  of  its  being  purified,  was  celebrated  eight  days 
with  many  sacrifices,  beginning  at  the  25th  of  the  month  Kislev 
or  December.  This  dedication  was  converted  into  an  anniversary, 
which  was  called  by  various  names,  viz.  encaenia,  fyy.utvuc  ;  the 
days   of  the   dedication   of  the    altar,   at    t'jut'nai   fyy.aiii6[wi>   lav 


450  §  SGI.  OF  THK  ji;ws  as  a  holy  I'lcorLE. 

x)vai((.aT}j{i(Of ;  ami  likewise  f/ic  purijicalion  of  the  temple,  y.a&w 
Qifffw^  70V  tf()ov,  1  Mace.  4:  52 — 59.  2  Mace.  10:  1 — 8.  John  10:  22. 
It  is  mentioned  by  Josephus.  Antiq.  XII.  7,  G,  7,  by  the  name  q:b}Ta, 
because  the  Jews  lighted  tlieir  houses  with  many  candles  on  those 
days,  as  indications  of  the  return  of  peace  and  joy.  Consult  Jose- 
phus  contra  Apion.  11.  39. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


OF    SACRED    PERSONS 


§  3G1.  Of  the  Jews,  considered  as  a  Holy  people. 

The  posterity  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  were  selected  and 
set  apart  to  preserve  and  ti'ansmit  the  true  religion.  They  were, 
in  this  way,  consecrated  to  God,  and  on  this  ground,  were  called 
Holy  D"'d"'il"? ,  and  were  considered  as  sustaining  the  relation  of 
priests  to  the  Supreme  Being,  and  as  being  entitled  to  be  called  a 
sacerdotal  nation  or  nation  of  priests.  Exodus  19:  G.  Lev.  11:  44,  45. 
19:  2.  20:  26.  Deut.  7:  G.  14:  2,  21.  2G:  19.  28:  9. 

Being  thus  set  apart  or  sanctified,  it  was  very  frequently  urged 
upon  them  to  maintain  a  purity  of  heart  and  conduct,  correspond- 
ing with  their  calling  and  the  title  which  they  bore,  and  as  they 
were  called  a  ITuly  people,  to  be  the  possessors  of  holiness.  [Ac- 
cordingly we  find  such  exhortations  addressed  to  them  as  the  follow- 
ing ;  sanctify  yourselves,  therefore,  and  he  ye  holy,  for  I  am  the 
Lord,  your  God.  And  ye  shall  keep  my  statutes,  and  do  them  ;  I 
am  the  Lord  tohich  sanctify  you y]  Lev.  19:  2.  20:  7,  8,  2G.  11:  45. 
Exod.  20:  20,  21,  etc. 

But  the  more  recent  Jews,  inflated  with  the  title  of  Holy  peo- 


§  362.    PERSONS    KMI'LOYKU    IN'    I?F.LIGIOrS    DUTIES.  457 

pie,  despised  and  hated  all  otiicr  nations,  and  denominated  them  pro- 
fane and  sinners,  Eph.  2:  14,  15.  1  Thess.  2:  15,  IG.  comp.  Tacitus, 
Hist.  Y.  5.  Matt.  9:  10,  11.  Luke  5:  8.  Gal.  2:  15—17. 

The  Holiness  of  the  Jewish  nation,  as  the  word  is  to  be  under- 
stood in  its  original  application,  i.  e.  their  separation  and  conse- 
cration to  the  worship  of  the  true  God,  was  a  thing,  that  continued 
or  was  perpetual,  although  it  was  often  the  case,  that  there  existed 
at  the  same  time  a  great  corruption  of  morals.  This  accounts  for 
the  fact,  that  the  Rabbins  sometimes  denominate  the  most  wicked 
of  the  Hebrew  kings  holy.  That  is  to  say,  they  give  such  a  sense 
to  the  terra,  as  to  make  the  words  holy  and  Israelite  mean  the  same 
thing. 

This  appellation  came  at  length  into  use  among  Christians,  who 
are  denominated  by  the  Apostles,  not  only  disciples,  naxyr,zai,  not 
only  hrethren,  ddtXcpo),  and  those  who  are  in  the  same  tcay,  i.  c.  par- 
takers in  the  same  religious  feelings,  but  are  likewise  frequently  de- 
nominated holy  or  saints,  ahoi,  Acts  9:  41.  2G:  10.  Rom.  1:  7.  8:  17. 
12:  13.  15:  25,  26.  16:  2  etc. 

§  362.    Of    Persons    officially   employed    ix    discharging 

RELIGIOUS    duties. 

We  have  spoken,  in  another  place,  of  the  Levites,  as  being  the 
servants  of  God  in  a  civil  or  political  capacity,  i.  e.  the  servants  of 
God,  considered,  as  the  king  or  ruler  of  the  state.  "We  shall  speak 
of  them  here,  as  his  servants  or  ministers  in  the  public  ordinances 
oi  religion.  The  Levites  were  a  class  of  persons,  substituted  in  the 
place  of  the  Jirst-horn,  who  were  originally  priests  by  birth,  but  in 
the  age  of  Moses  yielded  their  right  in  this  respect,  and  were  ever 
after  to  be  redeemed  from  serving  at  the  altar,  Num.  3:  5 — 13,  40 — 
51.  8:  16—19. 

From  this  tribe,  (that  of  Levi,)  Aaron  and  his  posterity  were 
consecrated  to  the  priesthood,  to  whom  a  nearer  access  was  given  to 
the  throne  of  God  in  the  Holy  of  holies,  which,  in  truth,  is  intimated 
in  the  usual  name  for  priests,  viz.  )riz ,  [a  word  which  is  applied  to 
men,  who  have  access  to  the  king,  for  instance  to  the  sons  of  David, 
2  Sam.  8:  18.  comp.  1  Chron.  18:  17,  etc.] 

The  rest  of  the  Levites  performed  those  religious  duties,  which 
were  of  an  inferior  kind,   but    for   the  more  menial  employments, 

39 


438      §  oT-.J.    THi;    frlCUVANTS    ALLOTTKI)    TO    THE    SANCTUAUY. 

such   a.s   Iiriiigiiig  water  and   sj)littiiig  wood,  they  were  allowed  ser« 
vant?,  wlio  were  assigned  for  llie  labors  of  the  Sanctuary. 

The  high  priest  sustained  the  highest  office  in  the  tribe,  and  rank- 
ed, as  the  head  both  of  priests  and  Levites.  Separate  duties  ■Nvere 
allotted  to  all  these,  viz.  to  the  menial  servants,  the  Levites,  the 
priests,  and  the  high  priest,  and  the  duties  of  one  were  not  allowed  to 
interfere  with  those  of  another. 


§  363.  Of  THE  Skuvaxts  -vvho  were  allotted  to  the 
Sanctcauy. 

"With  respect  to  the  servants,  who,  subsequently  to  the  time  of  IMo- 
ses,  were  employed  about  the  Sanctuary,  and  later  still  were  occupied 
in  performing  the  menial  offices,  connected  with  the  Tf^mple,  it  may 
be  remarked,  that  they  had  their  origin,  as  a  separate  class  in  the 
community,  from  a  religious  })ractice  among  the  Hebrews,  viz.  of  de- 
voting by  a  vow  themselves,  a  son,  or  a  servant  to  services  of  such  a 
kind.  It  was  in  reference  to  this  practice,  that  the  law  was  enacted, 
which  is  recorded  in  Lev.  27;  1 — 8,  and  which  fixed  the  price,  at 
which  a  person,  who  had  thus  devoted  himself,  might  be  '•edeemed. 

In  the  time  of  Joshua,  the  number  of  the  persons,  who  were  em- 
ployed in  the  capacity  of  servants  in  performing  the  religions  ceremo- 
nies, was  increased  by  the  accession  of  the  Gibeonites,  the  Beeroth- 
ites,  the  Kephirites,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Kirjath-jearim,  *\'ho  were 
compelled  to  labor  in  the  same  menial  occupations,  Josh.  9.  23 — 29. 
Their  number  was  inci'eased  likewise  in  the  age  of  David  ai?d  Solo- 
mon. 

After  the  Captivity  they  constituted  a  very  considerable  class  of  the 
people,  and  were  called,  (by  an  honorary  name,  that  Avas  anciently 
applied  to  the  Levites,)  Nethenims,  c*'rn3 ,  (the  same  with  =-:"r: ,) 
a  word,  which  signifies  given  or  devoted,  i.  e.  to  the  service  o^  the 
Temple  and  sanctuary,  Num.  3:  9.  8:  17,  19.  18:  6.  Their  employ- 
ment, however  it  may  have  been  esteemed  originally,  was  eventually 
considered  so  respectable,  that  we  find  them,  after  the  Captivity, 
mentioned  immediately  after  the  Levites,  and  as  it  would  seem, 
placed,  in  a  measure,  above  the  other  Israelites,  Ezra  2:  54,  58  8* 
20.  Neh.  10:29.  11:3. 


§  365.    OF    THE    DUTIES    OF    TUE    LEVITES.  459 


§  36-4.  Of  the  Consecration  of  the  Levites. 

Tlie  Levites  were  solemnly  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  Israel- 
ites, ami  qualified  for  their  official  duties  by  a  singular  rite. 

I.  Having  washed  and  shaved  the  whole  body,  they  brought  a 
bullock  with  a  meal-offering  and  oil  to  the  altar  for  a  holocaust,  and 
anotiier  bullock  for  a  sin-offering. 

II.  They  were  then  sprinkled  with  water  by  Moses. 

III.  The  leading  men  of  the  Israelites  laid  their  hands  upon  them, 
and  by  this  ceremony  substituted  them  in  their  own  place,  or  in  that 
of  their  first-born. 

IV.  The  Levites,  in  the  presence  of  the  priests,  prostrated  them- 
selves before  God  or  the  sacred  Tabernacle,  in  signification,  that  they 
offered  themselves  to  his  service. 

V.  Finally,  they  placed  their  hands  upon  the  bullocks,  and  then 
slew  them. 

With  these  ceremonies,  the  Levites  and  their  posterity  were 
set  apart  to  the  service  of  God,  of  the  priests,  and  of  the  taber- 
nacle. Num.  8:  5 — 22.  comp.  Acts  13:  2,  3.  They  were  not  obliged 
by  law  to  wear  any  particular  sort  of  dress.  There  was  this  ex- 
ception, however,  viz.  that  the  musicians  and  singers,  in  the 
time  of  David  and  Solomon,  and  also  those,  who  bore  the  ark  of 
the  Covenant,  were  clothed  in  a  robe  of  white  linen,  1  Chron.  15: 
27.  2  Chron.  5:  12.  comp.  Josephus,  Antiquities,  VIII.  3,  8.  XX. 
9.  G. 

§  365,  Of  the  Duties  of  the  Levites. 

It  was  the  duty  of  the  Levites  to  render  such  assistance  to 
the  priests  as  was  required,  to  keep  guard  around  the  tabernacle, 
and  subsequently  around  the  temple.  In  the  journey  through  the 
Arabian  wilderness,  it  fell  to  them  to  transport  the  different  parts 
of  the  tabernacle,  and  the  various  sacred  utensils,  that  pertained 
to  it.  It  was  their  duty,  furthermore,  to  see,  that  both  the  tab- 
ernacle and  the  temple  were  kept  clean,  and  to  prepare  sup- 
plies for  the  sanctuary,  such  as  wine,  oil,  incense,  etc.  They 
had  the  care  of  the  sacred  revenues,  and  subsequently  to  the 
time   of  David,   were   required  to  sing   in  the  temple  and  to  play 


4G0  §  36o.    OF    THK    DUTIES    OF    THE    LEVITES. 

Upon  instruuit'iits  ;  ami,  in  the  more  recent  perioas  of  the  Jewish 
state,  it  fell  to  tlieiu  likewise  to  slay  the  victims  for  the  altar,  in  as 
much  jis  the  Hebrews  having  for  a  time  discontinued  it,  had  become 
unskilful  in  the  performance  of  this  service.  There  were  also  cer- 
tain civil  offices,  which  they  were  required  to  perform,  but  these  do 
not  come  into  consideration  here. 

The  Levites,  in  consequence  of  their  descent  from  the  three  sons 
of  Levi,  viz.  Kohath,  Gershon,  and  Merari,  were  divided  into  three 
families.  These  families  bore  separate  and  distinct  parts  of  the  tab- 
ernacle and  of  the  furniture,  which  belonged  to  it,  during  the  march 
of  their  countrymen  through  the  Arabian  desert.  This  laborious  ser- 
vice was  exacted  from  them,  from  the  thirteenth  to  the  fiftieth  year 
of  their  age.  But  from  twenty-five  to  thirty,  and  subsequently  to 
the  fiftieth  year,  the  employments,  which  they  were  expected  to 
attend  to,  were  of  a  less  arduous  nature,  such  as  keeping  watch,  and 
the  like,  ^\m^.  3:  1— 3G.  4:  1,  30,  35,  42,  4G-49.  8:  23—26.  It 
api)ears,  that,  in  later  times,  they  commenced  the  performance  of  the 
less  difficult  duties  at  a  still  earlier  period,  viz.  at  twentu  years  of  age, 
1  Chron.  23:  24,  27.  2  Chron.  31:  17.  Ezra  3:  8. 

After  the  erection  of  the  temple  in  Palestine,  as  the  Levites  had 
much  less  to  do  than  previously  to  that  time,  David  divided  the 
thirty-eight  thousand  of  them  into  four  classes,  as  follows.  Twenty- 
four  thousand  were  assigned  as  assistants  to  the  priests,  four  thousand 
were  employed  as  porters,  four  thousand  were  musicians,  and  six 
thousand  judges  and  genealogists,  1  Chron.  23:  3 — 5,  24 — 32.  24: 
20—31.  2G:  1—28. 

The  musicians,  who  were  subjected  to  a  minor  division  into 
twenty-four  classes,  performed  the  services,  which  were  allotted  to 
them  alternately.  One  class  were  employed  a  week,  and  then  its 
place  was  occupied  by  another. 

The  stations,  that  were  guarded  by  the  men,  whose  business  it 
was  to  watch  the  temple,  were  not  all  occni)ied  by  the  same  number, 
some  being  guarded  by  six,  some  by  four,  and  others  by  two  persons 
only.  They  were  relieved  every  sabbath  day  by  others  taking  their 
place,  1  Chron.  2G:  17—19.  2  Chron.  23:  4.  2  Kings  11:5.  The 
different,  classes  and  ranks  of  Levites  had  their  appropriate  heads  or 
overseers. 


§  366.    OF    TIIK    PRIESTS.  461 


§  366.  Of  tiiic  PniESTS. 

Tlie  posterity  of  the  sons  of  Aaron,  viz.  Eleazar  and  Itliamar. 
(Lev.  10:  1 — 5.  1  Cliron.  24:  1,  2.)  had  so  increased  in  number  in 
the  time  of  David,  that  they  were  divided  into  twenty-four  clas- 
ses, which  officiated  a  week  at  a  time  alternately.  Sixteen  classes 
wei'e  of  the  fomily  of  Eleazar,  and  eight  of  the  family  of  Itha- 
niar. 

Each  class  obeyed  its  own  prefect  or  ruler.  The  class  Joja- 
RIB  was  the  first  in  order,  and  the  class  Abia  was  the  eighth,  1  IMacc. 
2:  1.  Luke  1:  2:  1  Chron.  24:  3 — 19.  This  division  of  the  priest- 
hood was  coiitinued  as  a  permanent  arrangement,  after  the  time 
of  David,  2  Chron.  8:  14.  31:  2.  35:  4,  5.  Indeed,  although  only 
four  classes  returned  from  the  Captivity,  the  distinction  between 
them  and  also  the  ancient  names  were  still  retained,  Ezra  2:  3G — 39. 
Nell.  7:  39 — 42.  12:  1.  Josephus,  de  vita  sua  §  1,  and  Antiquities, 
Vn.  14,  7. 

The  Jirst-horn  succeeded  Aaron  in  the  high  priesthood. 

Josephus  (Antiquities,  V.  11,  5.  VIII.  1,  3.)  asserts,  that  Eli,  the 
high  priest,  was  not  of  the  posterity  of  Eleazar,  the  first-born  of 
Aaron,  but  of  the  family  of  Ithamar,  and  that  Solomon  took  his  office 
away  from  Abiathar,  a  descendant  of  Ithamar,  and  conferred  it  upon 
Zadok,  who  descended  from  Eleazar,  1  Kings  2:  26,  27.  But  it  does 
not  appear,  whether  the  sources,  from  which  Josephus  drew  his  infor- 
mation, be  entirely  worthy  of  credit. 

After  the  Captivity,  the  posterity  of  Eleazar  succeeded  to  this 
office  by  hereditary  right,  till  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  who 
sold  it  to  the  highest  bidder. 

In  the  year  152  before  Christ,  Alexander,  the  king  of  Syria,  con- 
ferred the  office  of  high  priest  on  the  heroic  general  Jonathan,  who 
belonged  to  the  class  Jojarib,  1  Mace.  10:  18 — 20;  whose  brother 
Simon  was  afterwards  created  by  the  Jews  both  piince  and  high 
priest,  1  Mace.  14:  35 — 47. 

His  posterity,  who  at  the  same  time  sustained  the  office  of  kings, 
occupied  the  station  of  high  priest,  till  the  time  of  Ilerod,  who  took 
the  liberty  to  change  the  incumbents  in  that  office  at  his  pleasure ; 
a  liberty,  which  the  Romans  ever  after  exhibited  no  nstraint  in 
exercising. 

»9» 


462       §  .'3G7.  coxsKCRATjox  of  priksts  and  high  priest. 

A  r/<r-lii;:li  i)riest,  (one,  ^vllo  might  (ake  his  place  on  occa- 
sions,) is  not  nR'ntioncd  in  the  Scriptures  under  the  name  which 
is  assigned  to  such  a  personage  by  tlie  later  Jews,  viz.  ',53,  but  is 
made  known  to  us  by  the  phrase  n:r"2n  "n's  the  second  priest, 
Jer.  52:  24.  comp.  1  Kings  4:  4.  It  seems  quite  necessary  in  truth, 
when  it  is  recollected,  that  it  was  incumbent  on  the  high  priest  to 
enter,  on  the  day  of  propitiation,  into  the  IToIi/  of  holies,  and  to  per- 
form other  duties,  which  it  was  not  lawful  for  any  other  person  to 
perform,  that  some  one  should  be  duly  qualified  to  take  his  place  in 
case  of  unexpected  sickness  or  uncleanness,  Josephus,  Antiquities, 
XVII.  6,  4. 

§  SG7.  Thk  Consecration  of  the  Priest  and  of  the  IIigh- 

Ppjest. 

Aaron,  the  Hir/h  priest,  was  set  apart  to  his  office  by  the  same 
ceremonies,  with  which  his  sons,  the  priests,  were,  with  this  excep- 
tion, that  the  former  was  clothed  in  his  robes,  and  the  sacred  oil  was 
poured  upon  his  head,  Exod.  29:  5 — 9.  Lev.  8:  2.  The  other  cere- 
monies were  as  follows : 

The  priests,  all  of  them,  with  their  bodies  washed,  and  clad  in 
tlieir  approi)riate  dress,  assembled  before  the  altar ;  where  a  bullock, 
two  rams,  unleavened  bread,  and  wafers  of  two  kinds  in  baskets, 
were  in  readiness. 

When  they  had  placed  their  hands  upon  the  head  of  the  bul- 
lock, he  was  slain  by  ]Moses,  as  a  sin-offering.  He  besmeared  the 
horns  of  the  altar  with  the  blood,  poured  the  remainder  of  it 
around  its  base,  and  placed  the  parts,  which  were  to  compose 
the  sacrifice,  on  its  to[).  Tiie  remaining  i)arts  of  the  animal 
were  all  burnt  without  the  camp,  Exod.  29:  10 — 14.  Lev.  8:  2,  3, 
14—17. 

They,  in  like  manner,  placed  their  hands  on  the  head  of  one 
of  the  rams,  which  was  also  slain  by  Moses  for  a  whole  burnt  offer- 
ing, the  blood  was  sprinkled  around  the  altar,  and  the  parts  of  the 
ram  were  separated  and  burnt  upon  it.  Exodus  29:  15 — 18.  Lev.  8: 
18 — 21.  The  other  ram,  when  the  priests  had  lain  their  hands 
upon  him,  was  likewise  slain  by  Moses,  for  the  sacrifice  of  consecra- 
tion. He  besmeared  with  the  blood  the  tip  of  the  right  ear  of  the 
priests,    the    thumb   of  the   right  hand,   and  the   great  toe  of   the 


§  3G8.   DRESS    OF   TIIK    miF.STS.  .  4G3 

ri^lit  foot.  The  rest  of  tlie  blood  he  sprinkled  in  part  niton  the  bot- 
tom of  the  altar,  and  a  part  he  mingled  with  the  consecrated  oil,  and 
sprinkled  on  the  priests  and  their  garments. 

He  anointed  the  high  priest,  by  pouring  a  profusion  of  oil  upon  his 
head;  whence  he  is  called  n-rrn  the  anointed,  Lev.  4:  3,  5,  16.  C: 
15.  Ps.  133:  2.  Certain  parts  of  the  sacrifice,  viz.  the  fat,  the  kid- 
neys, the  haunches,  "tlie  caul  above  the  liver,"  and  the  right  shoul- 
der, also  one  cake  of  unleavened  bread,  a  cake  of  oiled  bread,  and  a 
wafer  were  placed  by  ^Moses  upon  the  hands  of  the  priests,  that  they 
might  offer  them  to  God. 

This  ceremony  was  called  "Jilliny/  the  hands;"  an  expression, 
which  accordingly  in  a  number  of  passages  means  the  same,  as  conse- 
crating. Consult  Exod.  32:  29.  Lev.  16:  32.  1  Chron.  29:  5.  All 
the  parts,  which  have  been  mentioned,  as  being  placed  in  the  hands 
of  the  priests,  were  at  last  burnt  upon  the  altar.  Of  the  remaining 
parts  of  the  animal  sacrificed,  the  breast  was  assigned  to  Moses,  but 
the  others,  together  with  the  unleavened  bread  and  wafers,  fell  to  the 
priests  and  were  eaten  in  the  sanctuary.  If  any  thing  remained, 
it  was  burnt  on  the  following  day,  Exod.  29:  19 — 34.  Lev.  8:  22 — 
36. 

This  ceremony,  which  continued  for  eight  days,  forever  sepa- 
rated the  priests  from  all  the  other  Israelites,  not  excepting  the 
Levites ;  so  that  there  was  subsequently  no  need  of  any  further 
consecration  either  for  themselves,  or  their  posterity,  Exod.  29: 
35 — 37.  Lev.  10:  7,  compare  Romans  1:  1.  Ephesians  3:  3.  Acts  13: 
2,  3. 

That  the  ceremonies  of  inauguration  or  consecration,  however, 
were  practised  at  every  new  accession  of  an  high  priest  to  his  office, 
seems  to  be  hinted  in  the  following  passages,  viz.  Exod.  29:  29.  Lev. 
16:  32.  21:  10.  Num.  20:  26—28.  35:  25. 

§  368.  CoxcicnxiNG  Tnt:  Dni:ss  of  the  Pkiests. 

It  was  not  customary  for  the  priests  to  wear  the  sacerdotal 
dress,  except  when  performing  their  official  duties,  Exod.  28:  4 — 
43.  Ezek.  42:  14.  44:  19.  The  description  of  the  dress  of  the 
priests,  which  is  given  in  the  twenty-eighth  chapter  of  Exodus,  is 
quite  defective,  as  many  things  are    passed  in  silence,  apparently 


4G4  §  ollS.    CONCKRNING    TIIK    DUKSS    OF    TIIK    PUIKSTS. 

for  the  rcasuii,  tli;it  they  were  at  that   time  sufficiently  uell  known, 
without  being  expressly  stated. 

Some  additional  information  is  communicated  to  us  by  Josephus, 
(Antiquities,  III.  7, 1 — 3.)  but  the  dress  of  the  priests,  as  he  describes 
it,  may  ha\e  been  in  some  respects  of  recent  origin.  It  was  as  fol- 
lows, 

I.  A  sort  of  hose,  made  of  cotton  or  linen,  ^'i"o}Z'z ,  which  was  fas- 
tened aroiHid  the  loins,  and  extended  down  so  as  to  cover  the  thighs, 
Lev.  G:  10.  Ezek.  44:  18. 

II.  A  tunic  of  cotton,  C"i  rjns,  which  extended  in  the  days  of  Jo- 
sephus, down  to  the  ankles.  It  was  furnished  with  sleeves,  and  was 
fabricated  all  of  one  piece,  without  being  sewn,  Exod.  28:  39,  41.  29: 
5.  Josephus,  Antiquities,  III.  7,  2.  comp.  John  19:  23. 

III.  The  girdle,  -.:^x .  According  to  Josephus,  it  was  a  hand's 
breadth  in  width,  woven  in  such  a  manner  as  to  exhibit  the  appear- 
ance of  serpents'  scales,  and  ornamented  with  embroidered  flowers  in 
purple,  dark  blue,  scarlet,  and  white.  It  was  worn  a  little  below  the 
breast,  encircled  the  body  twice,  and  was  tied  in  a  knot  before.  The 
extremities  of  the  girdle  hung  down  nearly  to  the  ankle.  The  priest 
when  engaged  in  his  sacred  functions,  in  order  to  prevent  his  being 
impeded  by  them,  threw  them  over  his  left  shoulder,  Exod.  39:  27 — 
29. 

IV.  The  mitre  or  turhmi,  Hrss-a ,  was  originally  acuminated  in  its 
shape,  was  lofty,  and  was  bound  upon  the  head,  Exod.  28:  8,  40.  29: 
9.  Lev.  8:  13.     See  §  126. 

In  the  time  of  Josephus,  the  shape  of  the  mitre  had  become  some- 
what altered ;  it  was  circular,  was  covered  with  a  piece  of  fine  linen, 
and  sat  so  closely  on  the  upper  part  of  the  liead,  for  it  did  not  cover 
the  whole  of  the  head,  that  it  would  not  fall  off",  when  the  body  was 
bent  down.     This  kind  of  mitre  was  called  in  Hebrew,  nsp.^i^  • 

The  Hebrew  priests,  like  those  of  Egypt  and  other  nations,  per- 
formed their  sacred  duties  with  naked  feet ;  a  symbol  of  reverence 
and  veneration,  Exod.  3:  5.  Josh.  5:  15. 


§  370.   DIIESS    OF   THE   UIGII   miEST.  465 


§  369.  Of  the  Duties  of  the  Priests. 

Not  only  a  descent  from  llie  family  of  Aaron,  (Ezra  2:  G2.  Neli. 
7:  61.  Life  of  Josepluis,  §  1.  Josephus  against  Apion,  1.  7.)  but  also 
a  freedom  from  all  bodily  defects,  was  requisite,  in  order  to  a  person's 
being  qualified  for  the  exercise  of  the  sacerdotal  office,  Lev.  21:  16, 
17. 

The  priests  were  commanded  to  abstain,  when  performing  the  sa- 
cred duties,  which  devolved  upon  them,  from  wine  and  every  ine- 
briating drink,  Lev.  10:  8 — 11. 

In  the  ages  immediately  succeeding  their  original  consecration  to 
God,  the  priests  entered  upon  their  office  at  thirty  years  of  age,  but  in 
later  periods,  at  twenty.  Num.  4:  3.  2  Chron.  31:  17. 

Each  class  assigned  by  lot  to  every  individual  of  the  class  his  du- 
ties for  the  day.  One,  for  instance,  burnt  incense,  another  on  the 
Sal^bath  day  changed  the  Shew-bread,  another  tended  the  fire  on  the 
altar  for  burnt-offerings,  etc,  Luke  1:  9. 

§  370.  Dress  of  the  High  Priest. 

Some  of  the  articles  of  dress,  which  were  worn  by  the  high  priest, 
were  very  simple  ;  for  we  are  informed,  (Lev.  16:  4,  23,)  that,  Avhen, 
on  the  day  of  propitiation,  he  entered  the  Holy  of  Jiolies,  he  was  clad 
with  a  tunic,  girdle,  mitre,  etc.,  made  wholly  of  linen. 

Other  articles  of  his  dress,  which  were  as  follows,  were  very  splen- 
did. 

I.  The  meil,  "?■:;•■:  (^mantle  ov  outer  garment).  This  garment  was 
likewise  worn  by  the  more  wealthy  of  the  laity.  (See  the  122d  sec- 
tion.) The  color  of  this  garment,  when  intended  for  the  high  priest, 
was  blue,  and  the  hem  at  the  bottom  was  embroidered  Avith  pome- 
granates in  purple  and  scarlet.  Between  the  pomegranates,  were 
suspended  small  bells  of  gold,  which  occasioned  a  tinkling  sound, 
when  the  wearer  of  the  mantle  walked,  Exod.  28:  31 — 35.  39:  5. 
comp.  the  Travels  of  Hasselquist,  p.  55,  73. 

IL  The  ErnoD,  --sx .  This  article  of  dress  was  worn  by  lay- 
men also,  as  well  as  by  the  high  priest.  (See  the  122d  section.) 
The  sacred  Ephod,  the  one  made  for  the  high  priest,  differed 
from  'tiie  otliers.  in   being  fabricated  of  cotton,  which  was  colored 


466  §  370.  DRKSS  OF  tiiic  iiigii  rjui:sT. 

with  crimson,  piiqjle,  iiiul  bliic,  and  in  being  ornamented  with  gold. 
In  the  time  of  Joseplius,  it  was  a  cubit  of  the  larger  size  in  length, 
and  was  furnished  with  sleeves.  Where  it  crossed  the  shoulders,  it 
was  adorned,  in  conformity  to  the  command  of  Moses,  with  two  onyx 
stones,  on  which  the  names  of  the  twelve  tribes,  (six  on  each.)  were 
engraved,  Exod.  28:  G,  7. 

III.  The  pectoual  or  uREASx-rLATK,  yrn .  It  was  square,  be- 
ing about  ten  inches  each  way,  and  Avas  made  double  in  such  a  way, 
as  to  form  inside  a  sort  of  bag  or  pouch,  Exod.  39:  0.  Tlie  external 
part  of  the  Pectoral  was  set  witli  lour  rows  of  precious  stones,  on 
which  were  seen  the  names  of  the  twelve  tribes.  In  the  Ephod,  (in 
which  there  was  a  square  space  left  open,  sufficiently  large  for  the 
admission  of  the  Pectoral,)  w^ere  four  rings  of  gold,  to  which  four 
others  at  the  four  corners  of  the  Pectoral  corresponded.  The  Pec- 
toral was  confined  to  the  Ephod  by  means  of  ribands  of  dark  blue, 
which  passed  through  these  rings;  and  was  suspended  from  the 
shoulders  by  chains  of  gold,  which  were  fastened  to  the  upper  cor- 
ners. It  was  confined  to  the  body  by  the  same  girdle,  which  went 
around  the  Ephod. 

Some  account  of  Urim  and  Tiiummiji. 

The  Urim  and  Tiiummim,  by  the  aid  of  which  the  hirjh  priest 
sought  responses  from  God,  was  deposited  in  the  Pectoral.  But  Avhat 
the  Urui  and  Thummim  was,  is,  nevertheless,  a  matter  of  uncer- 
tainty, and  has  been  the  source  of  various  conjectures  from  different 
learned  men. 

The  ornament,  called  Ali^iYtiu,  which  was  worn,  suspended  from 
the  neck,  by  the  presiding  judge  in  Egypt,  and  which  was  adorned 
with  gems,  (Biodor.  Sic.  I.  75.)  affords  no  light  on  the  subject. 

The  most  probable  opinion  is,  that  Urih  and  TiiUMMnr,  [a--]' N , 
D'^xsp'i,  light  and  justice,  Septuag.  dr'ilaaig  y.ul  ah]{tiia,']  was  a 
sacred  lot,  1  Sam.  14:  41,  42.  There  were  employed  perhaps,  in 
determining  this  lot,  three  precious  stones,  on  one  of  which  was  en- 
graven '|S ,  Tes ;  on  the  other,  sib ,  Ko ;  the  third  being  destitute 
of  any  inscription.  The  question  proposed,  therefore,  Avas  always 
to  be  put  in  such  a  way,  that  the  answer  might  be  direct,  either 
Yes  or  No,  provided  any  answer  was  given  at  all.  These  stones 
were  carried  in   the  purse  or  bag,  formed  by  the  lining  or  inte- 


§  370.  DUE3S  OF  Tin:  nir.ii  puikst.  4G7 

rior  of  the  Pectoral,  and  \vlien  the  question  was  proposed,  if  the 
high  priest  drew  out  the  stone,  which  exhibited  Tes,  the  answer  was 
ailirniative ;  if  the  one,  on  wliich  No  Avas  written,  the  answer  was 
negative;  if  the  third,  no  answer  was  to  be  given,  Josh.  7:  13 — 21. 
1  Sam.  14:  40 — 43.  28:  G.  The  remarks,  which  are  made  in  these 
passages  respecting  the  sacred  lot,  are  very  concise.  It  would  seem, 
from  the  expressions,  which  are  employed  in  Exod.  28:  30,  that  Urim 
and  Thummim  was  more  ancient,  than  the  time  of  Moses,  and  it 
appeai-s,  furthermore,  that  it  was  never  resorted  to,  subsequently  to 
the  time  of  David. 

IV.  The  mitrf,,  rsr.:-:.  The  mitre  of  the  high  priest  was 
the  same,  as  far  as  respected  its  form,  with  that  of  the  other  priests, 
Exod.  28:  4,  40.  29:  5.  There  might  perhaps  have  been  a  small 
difference  to  this  effect,  that  the  mitre  of  the  former  was  a  little 
higher,  than  that  of  the  others,  Exodus  39:  27,  28.  In  truth  this 
agrees  with  what  Josephus  states,  (Antiquities  III.  7,  6.)  viz.  that 
the  mitre  of  the  high  priest  was  surmounted  with  something,  which 
resembled  a  second  mitre,  the  color  of  which  was  purple  and  white 
intermixed. 

Over  the  forehead  of  the  high  priest,  a  plate  of  gold,  -l-tTH  s"^a 
was  fastened  to  the  mitre  by  a  blue  fillet.  It  was  inscribed  with 
tlie  words,  t^"~"'3  -"ijr,  holy  to  the  Lord ,  a  device,  which  conveyed 
the  symbolic  instruction,  that  the  high  priest  bore  the  iniquity  of 
those,  who  were  in  any  way  deficient  in  their  gifts  and  offerings, 
Exod.  28:  3G— 38.  29:  6.  39:  31. 

Josephus  informs  us,  that,  in  the  time  of  our  Saviour,  the  mitre 
ivas  encircled  witii  a  triple  crown  of  gold,  which  was  added  to  it 
by  the  Maccabean  priests,  who  were  priests  and  princes  at  the  same 
time. 


Note.  Remarks  of  Michaelis  on  Urim  and  Thummim. 

[ "  That  in  making  distributions  of  property,  and  in  cases  of 
disputes  relative  to  meitm  and  tintm,  recourse  was  liad  to  the  lot,  in 
default  of  any  other  means  of  decision,  will  naturally  be  supposed. 
The  whole  land  was  partitioned  by  lot ;  and  that,  in  after  times,  the 
lot  continued  to  be  used,  even  in  courts  of  justice,  we  see  from 
Prov.  IG:  33.  18:  18;  where  we  are  expressly  taught  to  remem- 
ber, that  it  is  Provideyice  which  maketh  the  choice,  and  that  there- 


468  §  -'^"l.  AVKKi:  riJiKsTs  and  lkvitf.s 

fore  wr  ()iijj;lit  to  Ix'  satisdi'il  witli  tiio  decision  of  tlio  lot,  as  the 
will  of  Goil.  It  \v;is  for  judic-ial  purposes,  in  a  particular  manner, 
that  the  sacred  lot,  called  Urim  and  Thiimmim  was  employed  ;  and 
on  this  account,  the  costly  embroidered  pouch,  in  which  the  priest 
carried  this  sacred  lot  on  his  breast,  was  called  the  judicial  orna- 
ment. 

'•  I  cannot  here  enter  into  a  i)hilological  and  aiiti(iuarian  inquiry 
concerning  Vrim  and  Tliininnim,  because  il  would  be  too  extensive, 
particularly  considering  how  much  it  has  already  been  the  subject  of 
controversy.  Those  who  wish  to  know  my  sentiments  upon  it,  in  a 
few  words,  will  find  them  in  my  Note  upon  Exod.  28:  30 ;  and  the 
passage  whence  I  have  principally  deduced  the  explanation  there 
given,  in  1  Sam.  14:  41,  of  the  Hebrew  original. 

"  But  was  this  sacred  lot  used  likewise  in  criminal  trials  ?  Yes  ; 
only  to  discover  the  guilty,  not  to  convict  them  :  for  in  the  only  two 
instances  of  its  use  in  such  cases,  which  occur  in  the  whole  Bible, 
viz.  in  Josh.  7:  14 — 18,  and  1  Sam.  14:  37 — 45,  we  find  the  confes- 
sions of  the  two  delinquents,  Achan  and  Jonathan,  annexed.  It 
apj)ears  also,  to  have  been  used  only  in  the  case  of  an  oath  being 
transgressed,  which  the  whole  people  had  taken,  or  the  leader  of  the 
host  in  their  name  ;  but  not  in  the  case  of  other  crimes ;  for  an  un- 
known murder,  for  example,  was  not  to  be  discovered  by  recourse  to 
the  sacred  lot."     Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  JNIoses,  Art.  304. 

§  371.    Ox  THE  QUESTION,  AVHETIIEU    PrIESTS  AKD  LeVITES  WERE 
PUBLIC  TEACHERS. 

The  priests  and  Levites,  while  the  government  continued  a  the- 
ocracy, were  ministers  both  to  the  church  and  the  state,  but  they 
were  not,  like  the  ))riests  under  the  Gospel,  teachers  of  the  people. 
Not  being  instructors  of  the  people  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the 
terms,  they  were  not  required  to  dwell  in  the  cities  and  villages  occu- 
pied by  the  rest  of  the  community,  but  dwelt  in  cities  of  their  own  ; 
a  circumstance  which  of  itself  proves,  that  they  were  not  public 
instructors. 

While  w'e  say,  they  were  not  teachers  of  the  people  in  the  ordi- 
nary sense  of  terms,  we  are  willing  to  admit,  that  they  were 
their  teachers  in  the  following  respect.  They  had  the  superin- 
tendence  of  the  ceremonies  and   regulations,   which  respected  the 


I  UBLIC    TKACIIKUS  ?  469 

in>titiitetl  mode  of  \vor>liip;  tlii-v  appointL-d  tlie  festival  days;  guard- 
ed against  saiTifices  being  offered  to  other  gods  tlian  Jehovah  ;  saw, 
that  1)0  unlawful  vietims  were  presented  and  no  illegal  ceremonies 
employe<l ;  determined  what  was  clean  and  what  was  unclean ;  and 
furthermore,  in  the  character  of  civil  judges,  decided  what  was  agree- 
able to  the  Lmc,  and  what  was  not. 

The  passages,  in  which  they  are  represented,  as  teaching  the  peo- 
ple, (for  instance,  Dent.  33:  10,  and  3Ial.  2:  6 — 0.)  have  reference  to 
such  duties,  as  have  now  been  hinted  at.  Compare  Micah  3;  11. 
Ilosea  4:  6,  and  2  Ch.ron.  15:  13. 

If  it  be  objected  to  the  ground,  which  we  take  on  this  question, 
that  king  Jehoshaphat  sent  out  on  a  certain  time  Levites  for  the  ex- 
press purpose  of  teaching  the  people  in  religion,  (2  Chron.  17:  7 — 9.) 
the  answer  is,  it  is  true ;  but  it  was  nevertheless,  an  extraordinary 
and  solitary  instance. 

After  the  Captivity,  we  do  indeed  find  them  once  called  upon  to 
render  into  the  Aramean  dialect  the  passages  of  the  Law,  which  had 
been  publicly  read  in  the  Hebrew,  but  we  do  not  find  them  address- 
ing the  people  themselves,  Xeh.  8:  7.  Respecting  those  who  sung 
Psalms  in  the  Temple,  it  may  be  remarked,  tluit  they  were  in  truth 
the  instruments  of  communicating  salutary  instruction  to  their  hearers, 
but  they  were  unlike  the  public  teachers  in  the  Church  at  the  present 
time. 

Furthermore,  the  priests,  by  the  sacred  ceremonies,  which  they 
performed,  revived  religious  principles  in  the  minds  of  the  people, 
but  this,  certainl}',  did  not  constitute  them  public  teachers  of  religion, 
in  the  customary,  sense  of  the  words. 

The  prophets  were  much  more  like  tiie  pastors  of  churches  or 
ministers  of  the  present  day,  but  still  they  differed  from  them  in  many 
respects.     For  instance, 

I.  They  were  the  immediate  messengers  from  God,  and  came  with 
a  more  exalted  authority. 

II.  They  had  the  liberty  of  expressing  their  sentiments  on  civiJ,  as 
well  as  on  religious  matters. 

III.  Their  communications  were  made  only  to  the  more  informed 
part  of  the  people. 

IV.  They  did  not  instruct  at  stated  periods,  but  were  teachers 
extruordinury,  who  taught  according  to  the  exigency  of  the  times. 

Those  prophets,  who  collected  assemblies  on   the   Sabbaths  and 
40 


470  §  372.  OFFicKRS  ix  the  .synagogues. 

New-moon-:,  jijiproaolioil  the  nearest  of  any  to  the  religious  teichers 
under  the  Chn^tiau  dispensation. 


§  372.     OlKICKUS    IX    THE    SVXAGOGUES. 

The  mode  of  conducting  religious  instruction  and  -worship  at  the 
present  day  in  Christian  chui'ches,  is  derived  for  the  most  part  from  the 
practices,  which  anciently  prevailed  in  Synagogues.  And  still  there 
were  no  regular  teachers  in  them,  uho  were  officiaUy  qualified,  to 
pronounce  discourses  before  the  people :  although  here  were  inter- 
preters, 1-5"n,  ',rj";rr,  who  rendered  into  the  vernacular  tongue, 
viz.  the  Hehraeo-ai-amean,  the  sections,  which  had  been  publicly  read 
in  the  Hebrew. 

.  The  Synar/ogiie  preacher, '{::~^ ,  whose  business  it  is  in  consequence 
of  his  office  to  address  the  people,  is  an  official  personage,  that  has 
been  introduced  in  later  times ;  at  least  we  iind  no  mention  of  such 
an  one  in  the  New  Testament.  On  the  contrary,  in  the  time  of 
Christ,  the  person,  who  read  the  section  for  the  Sabbath,  or  any  other 
person,  who  was  respectable  for  learning  and  had  a  readiness  of 
speech,  addressed  the  people,  Luke  4: 16—21.  Acts  13:  5, 15.  15:  21. 
Matt.  4:  23. 

The  other  persons,  who  Avere  employed  in  the  services  and  govern- 
ment of  the  synagogue,  in  addition  to  the  one,  who  read  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  the  person,  who  rendered  them  into  the  vernacular  tongue, 
were  as  follows, 

I.  T/ie  ruler  of  the  Synagogue,  doyiGwdycoyog,  r&ssn  'i"xn, 
who  presided  over  the  assembly,  and  invited  readers  and  speakers, 
unless  some  persons,  who  w^ere  acceptable,  voluntarily  offered 
themselves,  Mark  5:  22,  35—38.  Luke  8:  41.  13:  14,  15.  Acts  13: 
15. 

II.  T/ie  ciders  of  the  Synagogue,  ^'':;;^T,  nnsa^vzeQoi.  They 
appear  to  have  been  the  counsellors  of  the  Head  or  Ruler  of  the 
Synagogue,  and  were  chosen  from  among  the  most  powerful  and 
learned  of  the  people,  and  hence  called  aQXiovvaycoyoi,  Acts  13:  15. 
The  council  of  Elders  not  only  took  a  part  in  the  management  of  the 
internal  concerns  of  the  Synagogue,  but  also  punished  transgressors 
of  the  public  Laws,  either  by  turning  them  out  of  the  Synagogue,  or 
decreeing  the  punishment  of  thirty-nine  stripes,  John  12:  42.  IG:  2. 
2  Cor.  11:  24. 


§  372.    OFFICKKS    IS    riTE    SYXAGOGUKS.  471 

III.  I'/ie  collectors  of  alms,  r~~::  "s:::<.  diu/.oioi,  deacons.  Al- 
tlioiigh  everything:,  which  is  said  of  them  by  the  Jews,  was  not  true 
concerning  them  in  tlie  time  of  the  apostles,  tliere  can  be  no  doubt, 
that  there  were  such  oflioers  in  the  synagogues  at  that  time.  Acts  G: 
1  et  seq. 

IV.  Tlie  servants  of  the  Synagogue,  •,Tn ,  vnr^nizr^^,  Luke  4:  20 ; 
whose  business  it  was  to  reach  the  Book  of  the  Law  to  the  person, 
wlio  was  to  read  it,  and  to  receive  it  back  again,  and  to  perform 
other  services.  The  ceremonies,  which  prevail  in  the  Synagogues 
at  the  present  day,  in  presenting  the  Law,  were  not  observed  in  the 
time  of  our  Saviour. 

\.  The  messenger  or  legate  of  the  Synagogue,  n'"sa  n'^Vi^  . 
This  was  a  person  who  was  sent  from  Synagogues  abroad,  to  carry 
alms  to  Jerusalem,  Philipp.  2:  25.  1  Cor.  16:  1 — 4.  This  name, 
(messenger  of  the  Synagogue.)  was  applied  likewise  to  any  person, 
who  was  commissioned  by  a  Synagogue,  and  sent  forth  to  propagate 
religious  knowledge.  Acts  14:  4.  Rom.  IG:  7.  2  Cor.  8:  23.  The 
person  likewise  was  denominated  tlie  7nessenger  aj'j'iP.Os,  uyytlo^  t/;,* 
r/.y.).>;aiag,  etc.  who  was  selected  by  the  assembly  to  recite  for  them 
the  prayers ;  the  same  that  is  called  by  the  Jews  of  modern  times 
the  Synagogue-singer  or  cantilatou.  Rev.  2:  1,  8,  12,  18.  3:  1,  7, 
14.     Yitringa  de  syxagoga  vet.  Lib.  III.  P.  I.  c.  1,  et  2.  P.  II.  G. 

1o 
O. 

Note.  The  Jews  anciently  called  those  persons,  who,  from 
their  superior  erudition,  were  capable  of  teacliing  in  the  Synagogue, 
c^r;:";s,  shepherds  or  jyastors.  They  applied  the  same  term,  at  least 
in  more  recent  times,  to  the  elders  of  the  Synagogue,  and  also  to  the 
collectors  of  alms  or  deacons. 

The  ground  of  the  application  of  this  term  in  such  a  way,  is  as 
follows.  The  word  d:-3  is,  without  doubt,  derived  from  the  Greek 
word  nvnrog,  bread  or  a  fragment  of  bread,  and,  as  it  is  used  in  the 
Targums,  it  corresponds  to  the  Hebrew  verb  nrn  to  feed.  It  is  easy 
to  see,  therefore,  how  the  word  D:"Q  might  be  applied  to  persons, 
who  sustained  offices  in  the  Synagogue  in  the  same  way  tliat  r.v"^ 
is  applied  to  kings,  etc. 

In  the  time  of  Christ,  however,  learned  men  generally  were 
called  by  this  name,  (c"c:~3 ,)  pastors  ;  in  allusion  to  the  sentiment, 
which  prevailed  among  the  Stoics,  viz.  that  wise  or  learned  men 
alone  were  true  kings.     Comp.  Philo  de  Agricui.t  p  1.50. 


47: 


CHAPTER  Y. 
OF    SACRED    THINGS. 

§  373.  Ox  THE  QuiiSTiox,  What  is  a  Sacrifick? 

A  SACRIFICE  is  that,  -wliicli  is  offered  directly  to  God,  and  is  in 
some  Avay  destroyed  or  clianged,  which  is  done,  as  far  as  respects 
the  flesh  employed  in  the  sacrifice,  by  burning  if,  and  as  far  as  con- 
cerns the  libation,  by  jwurinff  it  out.  [*'  It  differs  from  an  oblation 
in  this ;  in  a  sacrifice,  there  must  be  a  I'eal  change  or  destruction 
of  the  thing  offered  ;  -whereas  an  oblation  is  but  a  simple  offering  or 
gift."  Calm  EX.] 

It  is,  accordingly,  to  be  understood,  that  neither  the  wood  neces- 
sary for  cherishing  the  fire  of  the  altar,  nor  any  presents,  which 
might  at  any  time  be  offered  for  the  use  of  the  temple  or  sanctuaiy, 
are  properly  called  sacrifices,  but  '^"^ ,  ri;n'3  and  lT:^"iri ,  words, 
which,  it  is  true,  are  in  some  instances  applied  to  sacrifices,  but 
which  are,  nevertheless,  of  broader  signification,  and  comprehend 
everything,  that  was  in  any  way  employed  in,  or  offered  for  sacred 
purposes. 

§  374.  On  the  Origin  of  Sacrifices. 

Sacrifices,  as  it  would  seem,  according  to  the  accounts  given 
us  in  Genesis,  were  coeval  with  the  existence  of  the  human  race, 
Gen.  4:  3—5.  8:  20.  12:  7.  13:  4.  15:  9—21.  22:  13.  Moses,  there- 
fore, merely  fixed  more  definitely,  than  had  hitherto  been  done, 
the  ceremonies,  which  wei-e  to  be  employed,  when  sacrifices,  which 
existed  among  all  ancient  nations,  were  offered.  (Compare  Lev. 
1:  2.) 

In  respect  to  the  0)-i(/in  of  sacrifccs,  whether  it  was  human  or 
divine,  it  must  be  admitted,  that  they  cannot  be  shown  by  clear 
and  decisive  arguments    to  have   arisen    originally  from  any  com« 


§  374.    ON    THE    ORIGIN-    OF    SACRIFICKS.  473 

munications  from  God  in  regard  to  them,  since  no  express  divine 
command  to  this  effect  is  recorded,  and  since  their  origin  can  perhaps 
be  explained,  by  a  reference  to  a  principle  of  gratitude,  which  would 
prompt  men  to  offer  to  God  a  portion  of  those  gifts,  which  they  had 
received. 

On  tlie  other  hand,  it  is  by  no  means  clear,  that  they  were  nol 
of  divine  origin,  since  the  accounts  in  the  fragmentary  docu- 
ments, which  compose  the  eleven  first  chapters  of  Genesis,  are  very 
concise,  and  it  is  possible,  that  the  divine  communications,  from 
which  they  may  have  originated,  are  omitted  in  those  accounts, 
the  more  so,  when  it  is  remembered,  that  God,  in  Gen.  15:  9,  com- 
mands sacrifice  to  be  offered,  and  in  other  jjlaces  approves  of 
this  religious  rite.  If  it  should  be  objected  that  in  some  pas- 
sages sacrifices  are  represented,  as  not  being  approved  of  God, 
viz.  in  Isa.  1:  11—18.  Jcr.  G:  20.  Hos.  G:  6.  Mai.  1:  10,  the  answer 
is,  that  the  discourse  in  those  passages  is  concerning  sacrifices, 
as  mere  rites,  or  efficacious  means  of  themselves,  without  taking 
into  consideration  the  state  of  the  mind.  Furthermore,  it  has  been 
clearly  shown  by  Ernesti,  ( Vindiciae  arUtrii  Divini  in  Iteligione 
constituenda,)  that  it  was  not  unworthy  of  God,  and  not  at  war 
with  the  equity  of  his  character,  to  introduce  arbitrary  religious 
exercises  or  ceremonies  of  such  a  nature,  that  human  leason  itself 
could  not  object  to  them  as  improper,  and  which  suited  the  infancy 
of  our  race. 

In  defence  of  the  opinion,  that  sacrifices  were  of  divine  original, 
we  observe  further,  that  the  supposition  is  hardly  a  reasonable  one, 
that  all  external  worship  should  have  been  left  to  the  mere  will  of  the 
earliest  of  our  race,  who  were  such  children  in  knowledge.  This  re- 
mark is  especially  true,  as  far  as  concerns  hloodn  sacrifccs,  or  the 
slaying  of  animals  in  sacrifice,  which  was  something  evidently  above 
the  invention  of  those  early  periods. 

It  is  not,  therefore,  improbable,  although  nothing  is  exprcsshj  said 
to  tliis  effect,  that  God  taught  our  first  parents  by  the  death  of 
animals,  whose  skins  were  used  as  clothing,  not  only  what  they 
themselves  deserved  on  account  of  their  sins,  but  also  gave  them  to 
understand,  that  animals  should  be  often  slain,  in  order  to  remind 
them  of  guilt  and  punishment.  Perhaps  the  idea  occurred  to  them 
of  itself,  when  first  called  upon  to  witness  the  sudden  and  violent 
death  of  animals. 

40* 


474         §  Dlo.    OK    THE    DIVISION'    OR    KINDS    OF    SACRIFICES. 

It',  Iiowfvcr,  these  views  be  incorrect,  if  it  were  the  fact,  that  sac- 
rifices were  of  merely  Itununi  ortcjiii,  tliey,  nevertheless,  had  a  mean- 
ing. They,  in  this  case,  resulted  from,  and  were  the  indications  of  a 
grateful  and  reverential  state  of  the  mind  towards  God,  and  were  the 
means  of  acknowledging  God  in  a  solemn  manner,  as  the  gi'eat  and 
universal  ruler,  and  as  the  source  and  sustainer  of  life,  as  well  as  all 
other  thiuirs. 


§  37.3.  Of  the  Division  or  Kinds  of  Sacrifices. 

The  only  sacrifices,  which  are  mentioned  previously  to  the  time 
of  Moses,  are  the  whole  burnt-offering,  the  thank-offering,  and  the 
sacrifice,  by  which  covenants  were  confirmed.  No  others  are  men- 
tioned, and  very  little  is  said  in  respect  to  the  ceremonies,  which  at- 
tended these. 

Nothing  is  said,  previously  to  that  period,  of  sacrifices  for  sins  and 
trespasses,  of  libations,  of  meal-offerings,  and  the  like. 

Moses  was  the  first  among  the  descendants  of  the  patriarchs, 
who  reduced  the  subject  of  sacrifices  to  some  system.  He  accom- 
modated those,  which  had  existed  from  the  days  of  the  fathers,  to  the 
circumstances  of  the  times,  in  which  he  lived,  and  increased  the 
number  of  the  ceremonies,  which  were  attendant  upon  them.  His 
object  in  thus  doing,  Avas,  to  prevent  the  Hebrews  from  being  led 
astray  by  the  superior  pomp  of  the  Gentiles  on  such  occasions, 
(who  had  already  made  sacrifices  a  systematic  part  of  their  worship ;) 
to  impress  their  minds  the  more  deeply,  by  a  repetition  of  public  re- 
ligions exercises,  with  ideas  of  a  religious  nature ;  to  excite  in  the 
people  a  spirit  of  gratitude  towards  God,  and  a  disposition  to  main- 
tain his  commands.  It  may  be  added,  that  the  new  relation,  which 
the  people  had  now  entered  into  by  accepting  God  for  their  king, 
required  an  augmentation  of  the  ceremonies,  and  an  increase  of  the 
splendor  of  their  religion. 

Some  of  the  sacrifices,  that  were  authorized  by  the  Mosaic  ritual, 
were  bloody,  (slain  victims;)  others  were  not;  the  latter  consisted  of 
cakes,  wafers,  meal,  and  libations  of  wine. 

The  bloody  sacrifices  were  some  of  them  expiatory,  and  some  of 
them  thank-offerings. 

The  expiatory  offerings  were  either  holocausts,  sacrifices  for 
sin,  or   trespass-offerings.      The   holocausts   and   sacrifices    for    sin 


§  376.    THE    PLACE    OF    SACKIFICES.  475 

were  to  be  ofTered  not  only  for  individuals,  but  for  the  whole  peo- 
ple. The  expiatory  sacrifices  secured  no  expiation  in  a  moral, 
but  merely  in  a  civil  point  of  view,  and  were  accepted  of  God  not 
in  his  character  of  moral,  but  political  ruler.  Sacrifices  of  this  kind 
were  slain  to  the  Korth  of  the  altar,  and  were  regarded,  as  most  holy. 
2-rn^.  ''r'71?*  The  pei-son,  who  brought  the  sacrifice,  if  it  were  an 
expiatory  one,  had  no  share  in  it  himself.  Lev.  G:  18,  22.  7:  ].  10: 
17.  14:  13. 

The  thank-offering  sacrifice  was  slain  to  the  South  of  the  altar, 
and  when  the  parts  which  were  to  be  burnt,  were  placed  upon 
the  fire,  and  the  portions,  which  pertained  to  them,  were  given  to 
the  priests,  the  rest  of  the  parts  were  allotted  to  the  person,  who 
brought  the  sacrifice ;  with  the  exception  to  be  made  in  the  case  of 
the  Jirst-born  of  animals,  which,  when  offered,  were  given  wholly  to 
the  priests. 

Note.  The  division  of  sacrifices,  which  was  made  by  the  old 
scholastic  theologians,  viz.  into  those  of  adoration,  supplication, 
thanks,  and  expiation,  is  not  found  in  the  laws  of  Moses. 

§  376.  The  Place  of  Sacrifices. 

Sacrifices,  according  to  the  laws  of  Moses,  could  not  be  offered, 
except  by  the  priests  ;  and  at  no  other  place,  than  on  the  altar  of  the 
tabei'nacle  or  the  temple.  Furthermore,  they  were  not  to  be  offered 
to  idols,  nor  with  any  superstitious  rites.  See  Lev.  17:  1 — 7.  Deut. 
12:  15,  16.  Without  these  precautionary  measures,  the  true  religion 
would  hardly  have  been  secure. 

If  a  different  arrangement  had  been  adopted,  if  the  priests  had 
been  scattered  about  to  various  altars,  without  being  subjected  to 
the  salutary  restraint,  which  would  I'esult  from  a  mutual  observation 
of  each  other,  they  would  no  doubt  some  of  them  have  willingly  con- 
sented to  the  worship  of  idols,  and  others,  in  their  separate  situation, 
would  not  have  been  in  a  condition  to  resist  the  wishes  of  the  multi- 
tude, had  those  wishes  been  wrong. 

The  necessity  of  sacrificing  at  one  altar,  (that  of  the  tabT?rna- 
cle  or  temple,)  is  frequently  and  emphatically  insisted  on,  Deut. 
12:  13,  14;  and  all  other  altars  are  disapproved,  Lev.  26:  30.  corap. 
Josh.    22:   0 — 34.      Notwithstanding   this,    it    appears,    that    subse- 


476  §  377.    OF    BLOODY    SACUIFICES. 

(liiciitly  lo  tlie  time  of  IMoses,  especially  in  tlie  days  of  the  kings, 
altars  were  multiplied,  but  they  fell  under  suspicions,  although 
some  of  them  were  perhaps  sacred  to  the  worship  of  the  true  God. 
It  is  nevertheless,  true,  that  prophets,  whose  characters  were  above 
all  suspicion,  sacrificed,  in  some  instances,  in  other  places,  than  the 
one  designated  by  the  laws,  1  Sam.  13:  8 — 14.  J6:  1 — 5.  1  Kings 
18:  21 — !(>. 


§  377.  Of  blooi:)Y  Sacrifices. 

The  victims,  which  alone  could  be  offered  in  sacrifice  were  ani- 
mals of  the  ox-kind,  slieep,  and  goais,  ixkri,  "ij^^n  ;  also  turtle-doves, 
and  yoKiifj  jngcons,  n--i",r,  nji-^  -Ja .  Lev.  1:  2.  5:  7.  12:  C — 8.  15: 
29.  Numbers  G:  10.  In  Lev.  14:  4 — 7,  the  young  pigeons  are 
spoken  of  under  the  Avord,  which  is  usually  applied  to  birds  gener- 

ally,=-r4- 

Some  of  these  animals  were  sacrificed  by  Abraham,  Genesis  15: 
9  ;  and  some  were  worshipped,  as  deities,  by  the  lilgyptians.  Exodus 
8:  22.  Lev.  17:  7.  Ilerod.  II.  41 — 46.  Wild  beasts  were  not  to  be 
sacrificed;  a  fact,  which  suggests  an  explanation  of  the  proverbial 
ex[)ressions,  '■'■  to  eat,  even  as  thou  eatest  the  roebuck  and  hart,"  Deut. 
12:  15,  22. 

The  animals  to  be  slain  for  the  holocaust  were  males,  with  the 
exception  of  the  turtle-doves  and  pigeons,  in  respect  to  which  there 
was  no  distinction  made  between  males  and  females.  In  sacrifices  for 
sin,  bullocks,  goats,  sheep,  and  turtle-doves  or  young  pigeons  were 
offered  according  to  the  ability  of  the  person,  who  offered  them,  and 
the  greater  or  less  aggravation  of  the  sin,  he  might  have  committed. 
In  sacrifices  for  trespass,  the  same  animals  were  employed,  with  the 
exception  of  bullocks. 

In  the  eucharistical  or  thank-offering  sacrifice,  sheep,  goats,  and 
bullocks  alone  were  slain,  turtle-doves,  and  young  pigeons  being 
excluded  from  them.  All  the  victims,  excepting  the  doves  and 
pi"-eons,  must  not  be  less  than  eight  days  old,  nor  more  than  three 
years.  The  sheep  and  the  goats  which  were  immolated,  were  com- 
monly a  year  old;  the  bullocks  three  years  old. 

All  animals,  that  had  any  defect,  the  blind,  lame,  emasculated, 
or  sick,  were  judged  unfit  to  be  sacrificed,  because  they  indicated 


§  378.    CERKMONIKS  AT  Till-:  OFFKUIXG  OT  SACRIFICES.        477 

a  mind  in  tlie  person,  who  brought  them,  not  sulliciently  reverential 
to  God,  Lev.  22:  20—24.  IMal.  1:  8. 


§  378.  Ceremonies  at  the  Offering  of  Sacrifices. 

The  ceremonies  on  such  occasions  Avcre  as  follows ; 

I.  The  person,  who  offered  the  victim,  presented  it  before 
God,  i.  e.  led  it  before  the  altar  in  the  court,  with  its  head  turned 
towards  the  door  of  the  sanctuary  rr.n'[  •':th  2i"prt,  "^223  N"^^" 
1V"2  "~~s,  TianuoTr^aai  tio  \}i(o,  Lev.  1:  3 — 9.  3;  1.  4:  14.  comp. 
Eom.  12:  L 

II.  The  offerer  placed  his  hand  upon  the  head  of  the  victim ; 
a  ceremonv,  which  was  practised  by  their  rulers  in  behalf  of  the 
people  generally,  when  the  latter  had  committed  any  sin,  which 
required  an  expiation  by  sacrifice.  This  ceremony,  however,  it  is 
proper  to  remark,  was  omitted  in  respect  to  the  turtle-doves,  and  the 
young  pigeons,  Num.  27:  18,  23.  Lev.  4:  15.  16:  21.  comp.  2  Chron. 
29:  23.  The  victim  by  imposition  of  hands  in  this  wa}-,  was  suhsfi- 
tuted  in  the  place  of  the  person,  who  brought  it  to  the  altar,  and 
suffered,  (such  was  the  symbolic  meaning  of  their  rite,)  that  punish- 
ment, which  said  pei*son  already  deserved  or  would  deserve,  in  case 
of  transgression.  That  such  was  the  meaning  of  this  rite,  viz.  suhsli- 
tuiton,  is  manifest,  not  only  in  the  case  of  him,  who  placed  his  hand 
upon  the  victim  and  confessed  his  sin,  or  trespass,  over  it ;  not  only 
in  respect  to  the  high  priest,  who  transferred  the  sins  of  the  people 
to  the  scape-goat  by  a  like  imposition  of  hands ;  but  the  ceremony 
evidently  possessed  the  same  significancy,  when  the  Israelites  placed 
their  hands  upon  the  Levites,  by  way  of  consecrating  them  to  their 
sacred  office. 

The  apostles  retained  the  custom  of  laying  on  hands  in  the  conse- 
cration of  ministers  to  the  service  of  the  church,  signifying  thereby 
the  separation  of  such  persons  from  the  mass  of  the  people,  and  their 
substitution  in  their  own  place. 

III.  The  victims,  which  were  sacrificed  for  the  people  gene- 
rally, were  slain  by  the  priests  and  Levites ;  those  which  ,were 
sacrificed  for  individuals,  were  slain  in  ancient  times  by  the  per- 
sons, who  brought  them,  but,  in  more  recent  periods,  by  the  Le- 
vites, Lev.  1:  5.  2  Chron.  29:  24,  34.  Ezek.  46:  24.  They  Avere 
slain  in  the  same  place,  where  they  stood,  when    hands  were  laid 


478     §  378.  CEnEMONiKS  at  thk  oi  Fi:ui.\f;  of  sacrh-ices. 

upon  thcin,  viz.  the  holocaust,  and  the  sacrifices  for  sin  and  trespass, 
to  the  North,  and  the  others,  to  the  South  of  the  altar. 

IV.  The  blood  of  the  victim  was  received  by  the  priest  in  a  vessel 
for  that  purpose,  called  p"'*;,  and  was  scattered  at  the  foot  and  on 
the  sides  of  the  altar.  The  blood  of  sin-olferings  was  likewise 
placed  upon  the  horns  of  the  altar,  and  if  they  were  ofiered  for  the 
whole  people  or  for  the  high  priest,  it  was  sprinkled  towards  the  veil 
of  the  holy  of  holies,  and,  on  the  day  of  propitiation,  on  the  lid  of  the 
ark,  and  likewise  on  the  floor  before  the  ark.  The  blood  was  also 
placed  upon  the  horns  of  the  altar  of  incense ;  a  ceremony,  which 
was  termed  by  the  more  ancient  Jews  -er  expiation,  but  by  those 
of  later  times,  n:''r;,  a  gift,  Lev.  4:  7.  8:  lo,  IG.  Zech.  9:  lo.  Num. 
18:  17. 

y.  Anciently,  the  jx-rson,  who  brought  the  victim,  when  he 
had  slain  it,  proceeded  further,  to  flay,  and  to  cut  it  in  pieces,  but, 
in  later  times,  this  M-as  done,  as  has  been  already  intimated,  by 
the  priests  and  Levites.  In  the  time  of  Josephus,  there  were  ta- 
bles of  marble,  and  columns  in  the  temple,  expressly  adapted  to 
all  the  purposes  of  slaying  and  sacrificing.  It  should  be  remark- 
ed here,  that  the  sacrifices  for  sin,  and  the  holocaust  for  the  peo- 
ple and  the  high  priest,  with  the  exception  of  those  parts  des- 
tined to  be  burnt  upon  the  altar,  were  burnt  whole,  (i.  e.  without 
being  cut  up  or  the  skin  being  taken  off,)  out  of  the  city,  in  the 
place  where  it  was  permitted,  and  was  the  practice  to  heap  ashes 
together. 

YI.  Some  victims  were  offered  to  God,  sometimes  before  and 
sometimes  after  being  slain,  with  certain  ceremonies  of  a  singular 
nature,  which  ceremonies  at  times  were  observed  also  at  the  pre- 
sentation of  the  sacred  loaves  and  wafers,  and  other  consecrated 
gifts.  One  of  the  ceremonies,  to  which  we  allude,  was  denomi- 
nated heaving,  nr'in  ""^"n ;  the  other  leaving,  ri£"ri  C;":n ;  [and 
the  offerings,  which  were  presented  in  this  way,  were,  accordingly, 
named  either  //eai'e-offerings  or  wore-offerings.)  Exod.  29:  24,  27, 
28.  Lev.  7:  30,  32,  34.  8:  27.  9:  21.  10:  15.  14:  12.  23:  20.  Num. 
5:  25. 

It  is  difficult  to  sa}'  precisely,  what  these  ceremonies  were,  or 
whether,  indeed,  there  was  any  difference  at  all  between  them, 
since  the  words,  which  express  them,  are  sometimes    interchanged 


37S.    CKUKMONIKS  AT  THE  OFFElilNG  OF  SACRIFICES.        479 


with  each  otlicr,  Exotl.  29:  2-i.  toinp.  Exod.  20:  27.  Exoil.  29:  28. 
comp.  Lev.  9:  21. 

It  is  mo^t  probable,  that  rrc^-r,  means  elevation,  and  that 
ns^rri,  on  the  contrary,  means  laying  down  or  placing  on  the  earth. 
But  as  what  was  elevated  must  have  been  let  down  again,  these 
words  may  have  been  reciprocally  used,  for  that  reason,  in  a  sense 
so  broad  as  to  express,  each  of  them,  at  times,  the  same  ceremony. 
The  ceremony  of  heaving  or  waving,  whatever  might  have  been  its 
precise  nature,  seems  to  have  signified,  that  the  gift  or  sacriflce  was 
thereby  presented,  and  was  expressive  likewise  of  a  desire  that  it 
miglit  be  acceptable  to  God. 

VII.  Meanwhile  the  priest  heaped  the  wood  upon  the  altar, 
placed  it  in  order,  and  set  it  on  tire.  Other  priests  presently 
brought,  and  placed  upon  the  burning  fuel,  the  parts  of  the  vic- 
tim, which  were  to  be  burnt,  viz.  the  lohole  of  the  burnt  offering, 
when  it  was  brought  by  an  individual,  but  in  case  it  was  a  burnt- 
offering  for  the  people  and  the  high  priest,  or  any  other  sacrifice, 
except  the  one  just  mentioned,  only  the  fat  which  covers  the  intes- 
tines, S"i;2r!-rj<  ns:":  "i";;x  sbnn;  the  fat,  which  is  above  the  in- 
testines, 2":;;3n-br  "irx  s"-nn ;  the  two  kidneys  with  the  fat  adlier- 
ing  to  them,  "zryzv  -rs  -^nn-rx";  n'l-'ssn ;  the  smaller  lobe  of  the 
liver,  (?)  n:3n  ?r  irx  n'r-T] ;  and  the  fat  tail  of  the  sheep,  (?) 
Ex.  29:  13,"  22.  Lev.'  o:  4,'  10,  lb.  4:  9.  7:  3,  4.  8:  2G.  9:  9,  10,  19. 
All  these  parts  of  the  sacrifice  were  prepared  with  pure  salt,  Exod. 
30:  2o.  Lev.  2:  13.  comp.  Mark  9:  49. 

VIII.  The  rest  of  the  flesh,  when  the  sacrifice  was  a  thank-offer- 
ing, was  given  back  to  the  offerer,  who  was  expected  to  make  a  feast 
of  it.  With  this  exception,  however,  that  the  right  shoulder,  which 
was  made  a  //eai-e-offering,  and  the  breast  which  was  made  a  icave- 
offering,  were  assigned  to  i\\Q  priests. 

When  the  sacrifices  were  sin  or  trespass  offerings,  and  were  not 
made  for  the  peo{»le,  as  a  collective  body,  nor  for  the  high  priest,  the 
flesh  belonged  to  the  priests,  who  ate  it  in  the  court  of  the  tabernacle 
or  temple,  Num.  18:  10,  11,  18.  Lev.  10:  14. 


480  §  370.  of  burnt  ofkkkixgs. 

§  379.  Of  Holocausts  or  -vvholk  Bui:xt-offi:rixgs. 

Holocausts,  nVsi",  riVis,  were  sacrifice?,  in  whicU  the  victims 
were  wholly  consumed.  They  were  expiatory,  were  more  ancient 
than  any  others,  and  were  for  that  reason,  held  in  special  honor. 
It  was  in  consideration  of  these  circumstances,  tliat  Moses  gave  pre- 
cepts in  regard  to  this  kind  of  sacrifices  frst,  Lev.  1:  3.  Philo  de 
VICT.  p.  838. 

HolocuKSts  might  be  offered  by  means  of  the  Hebrew  priests 
when  brought  by  tlie  heathen  or  those  who  had  originated  from 
another  nation,  such  persons  being  unable  to  offer  sin  or  tresjiass 
offerings,  since  this  sort  of  sacrifices  had  particular  reference  to  some 
neglect  or  violation  of  the  Mosaic  Law,  by  whose  authority  they  did 
not  acknowledge  themelves  bound. 

It  was  remarked  at  the  beginning  of  the  section,  that  holocausts 
were  expiatory,  and  we  accordingly  find,  that  they  were  offered, 
sometimes,  for  the  whole  people,  for  instance,  the  morning  and  the 
evening  sacrifices  ;  and  sometimes  by  an  individual  for  himself  alone, 
either  from  the  impulse  of  his  feelings,  or  in  fulfilment  of  a  vow,  Ps. 
51:  19.  66:  13,  14.  They  were  required  to  be  offered  under  certain 
combinations  of  circumstances,  pointed  out  in  the  INIosaic  laws,  viz. 
by  a  Xazarite,  who  had  been  unexpectedly  rendered  unclean,  or  who 
had  completed  the  days  of  his  separation.  Num.  6:  11 — 16  ;  by  those 
who  had  been  healed  of  leprosy ;  and  by  women  after  child-birth. 
Lev.  12:  6,  8. 

The  victims  immolated  at  a  holocaust  were  bullocks  of  three 
years  old,  goats  and  lambs  of  a  year  old,  turtle  doves,  and  young 
pigeons.  Not  only  the  parts,  which  were  expressly  destined  for  the 
altar,  but  also  the  other  parts  of  the  victims  were  burnt  as  was  sta- 
ted at  §  378.  V.  VII.  A  libation  of  wine  was  poured  out  upon  the 
altar.  It  was  the  practice  among  the  Gentile  nations,  (an  allusion 
to  which  occurs  in  Philip.  2:  17  and  2  Tim.  4:  6,)  to  pour  the  wine 
out  between  the  horns  of  the  victims,  which  they  immolated  to  their 
idols.  Tiie  priest  partially  wrung  or  cut  off  the  heads  of  the  turtle- 
doves and  young  pigeons,  S{)rinkled  the  blood  on  the  side  of  the 
altar,  plucked  out  the  feathers,  and  the  crop,  and  cast  them  to  the 
East  of  the  altar  into  the  place  for  the  reception  of  ashes,  and  placed 
the  remainder,  after  having  cleft  or  broken  the  wings,  upon  the  fire, 
Lev.  1:  3—17. 


§  380.    OF    SIX-OFFERIXGS.  481 


§  380.  Of  Six-Offerin-i;s. 

We  liave  already,  in  section  252,  spoken  of  the  distinction  between 
sins  and  trespasses,  and  the  sacrifices,  which  were  appropriate  to  each, 
as  far  as  the  subject  was  connected  with  the  civil  laws.  "We  shall, 
tiierefore,  be  concise,  and  merely  state  a  few  things  more,  which  have 
reference  to  the  ceremonies  on  such  occasions. 

The  victims,  selected  for  the  sin-offerings,  (which,  it  mav  be  re- 
marked here,  are  expressed  in  Hebrew  by  the  words,  which  usually 
signify  sins,  viz.  r-,N-jn ,  rx-jn ,)  were  different  according  to  the  dif- 
ferent situation  and  circumstances  of  the  person,  who  made  the  sacri- 
fice. A  biiUock  --2  ',z  -5 ,  was  immolated  for  the  high  priest,  and 
also  for  the  people,  and  a  goat  for  the  civil  magistrate. 

With  a  part  of  the  blood,  the  priests  besmeared  the  horns  of  the 
altar  of  burnt-offerings,  but  the  remainder  was  poured  down  at  its 
side.  Lev.  4:  22 — 26.  Persons  in  a  private  station  presented  for  a 
sin-oflering  a  kid  or  a  lamb,  but  the  ceremonies  were  the  same,  as 
just  mentioned.  Lev.  4:  27 — 35.  Other  particulars  are  stated  in  sec- 
tion 378. 

Sin-offerings  were  required ; 

L  Of  mothers  at  childbirth.  If  the  child  were  a  son,  it  was  forty. 
if  a  daughter,  eighty  days,  before  the  completion  of  the  time  of  her 
purification.  She  then  presented,  as  her  sin-offering,  a  turtle-dove 
and  a  young  pigeon,  also  a  lamb  for  a  burnt-offering  ;  and  in  case  of 
poverty,  another  dove  and  pigeon,  as  a  burnt-offering  instead  of  tlie 
lamb.  Lev.  12:  6,  8.  comp.  Luke  2:  24. 

II.  They  were  required  of  lepers,  when  healed,  who  generally 
offered  a  goat,  but  in  case  of  povertv  a  dove  or  young  pigeon.  Lev. 
14:  13,  19,  22,  30,  31. 

III.  Likewise  of  Xazarites  unexpectedly  contaminated,  viz.  a  dove 
or  a  young  pigeon,  Num.  6:  10,  11. 


41 


482  §  381.    OF    TRKSPASS-OFFERIKGS. 


§  381.    Of  Trespass-Offerixos. 

TuESPASS-OFFERlNGS,  r--'rN  C'::^^ ,  Avcre  not  re  qui  red  of  the 
people  as  a  body.  They  were  to  be  ollered  by  individuals,  wlio, 
through  ignorance,  mistake,  or  want  of  reflection,  had  neglected 
some  of  the  ceremonial  precepts  of  Moses,  or  some  of  those  natural 
laws,  which  had  been  introduced  into  his  code,  and  sanctioned  with 
the  jienalty  of  death  ;  and  who  were  subsequently  conscious  of  their 
error. 

In  Lev.  '):  17,  where  the  contrary  is  asserted,  (i.  e.  where  tres- 
passes arc  represented  as  errors  of  commission  instead  of  omissioji, 
which  is  understood  to  be  the  most  probable  distinction  in  the  Mo- 
saic laws  between  sins  and  trespasses,)  there  is  no  doubt,  that  the 
negative  particle  xb  is  transposed,  and  that  the  reading  should  be, 
nrb>n  nrx  nin-^  r,i:i"2  is"2  rnx  f^rrr  k-i.  The  trespasses,  which 
could  be  expiated  by  sacrifices,  ai'e  enumerated  in  Lev.  4:  1 — 16. 
5:  1—19. 

L  The  person,  who,  being  sworn  as  a  Vtilness,  concealed  the 
truth,  by  keeping  silent  ;  the  man,  who,  having  become  contami- 
nated without  knowing  it,  had  omitted  purification,  but  had  after- 
wards become  acquainted  with  the  fact ;  the  person,  who  had  rashly 
sworn  to  do  a  thing,  and  had  not  done  it;  all  these  delinquents 
offered  a  lamb  or  kid,  or,  in  case  of  poverty,  two  doves,  or  young 
pigeons,  the  one  for  a  trespass,  the  other  for  a  sin-oflering.  In  case 
the  person  was  unusually  poor,  he  was  required  to  offer  merely  the 
tenth  part  of  the  epliah  of  fine  meal  without  oil  or  frankincense,  Lev. 
5:  1—16. 

II.  Whoever  appropriated  to  himself  any  thing  consecrated, 
or  any  thing  that  was  promised,  or  found,  or  stolen,  or  deposited 
in  his  possession  for  keeping ;  whoever  swore  falsely,  or  omitted 
to  restore  the  goods,  that  belonged  to  another,  or  injured  him  in 
anv  other  way,  presented  for  his  trespass  a  ram,  which  had  been 
submitted  to  the  estimation  of  the  priest,  and  not  only  made  restitu- 
tion, but  allowed  an  additional  amount  of  a  fifth  part,  by  way  of  in- 
demnification. 

III.  He,  who  had  committed  fornication  with  a  betrothed  bond- 
maid, previously  to  her  being  redeemed  from  servitude,  offered  a  ram 
for  the  trespass,  Lev.  19:  20 — 22. 


§    383.    OK    COVENANT    SACRIFICES.  483 

IV.  Xazariles,  who  had  been  unexpectedly  rendered  unclean,  pre- 
sented a  lamb  of  a  year  old,  Num.  G:  11. 

V.  Finally,  lepers,  when  restored  to  health,  and  purified,  sacrificed 
a  rain.  Lev.  14:  10 — 14.  Tlie  ceremonies  were  the  same,  as  in  the 
sin  ofrerinj:s. 


§  382.  Peace  and  Tii.\-NK-Offerings,  -'i'l-,  nn-.n  '~~'. 

Sometimes  we  find  these  offerings,  in  addition  to  the  terms  at 
the  head  of  this  section,  expressed  by  the  word  C""zt  merely, 
Lev.  17:  8.  Num.  15:  3.  Bullocks,  heifers,  goats,  rams,  and  sheep 
were  the  only  animals  sacrificed  on  these  occasions,  as  already 
stated  in  §  378,  Lev.  3:  1 — 17.  7:  23 — 27.  These  sacrifices,  which 
were  offered,  n-i'.ro  as  an  indication  of  gratitude,  were  accompanied 
with  unleavened  cakes,  ria'2  rVsn,  covered  with  oil  by  pouring 
it  upon  them;  with  thin  cakes,  or  wafers,  likewise  unleavened, 
r'"S.'2  '^'p'P'^. ,  and  besmeared  with  oil ;  also  with  another  kind  of 
cakes,  made  of  fine  meal  and  kneaded  with  oil,  in  Hebrew  r:::^ 
r=2-;."2  rtz .  The  priest,  who  sprinkled  the  blood,  presented  one  of 
each  of  these  kind  of  cakes,  as  an  offering,  Leviticus  7:  11 — 14,  28 — 
35. 

The  remainder  of  the  animal  substance  and  of  the  cakes  was  con- 
verted by  the  person,  who  made  the  offering,  into  an  entertainment, 
to  which  widows,  orphans,  the  poor  slaves,  and  Levites  were 
invited.  What  was  not  eaten  on  the  day  of  the  offering  might 
be  reserved,  till  the  succeeding,  but  that,  which  remained  till  the 
third,  was  to  be  burnt,  (a  regulation,  which  was  made,  in  order  to 
prevent  the  omission  or  putting  off  this  season  of  benevolence 
and  joy.)  Lev.  7:  15 — 21.  Deut.  12:  18.  This  feast  could  be  cele- 
brated beyond  the  limits  of  the  tabernacle  or  temple,  but  not  beyond 
the  city. 

§  383.  Of  Covenant  Sacrifices. 

The  SACniriCES,  by  means  of  which  covenants  were  confirmed, 
were  not  a  separate  class  of  offerings,  but  belonged  rather  to  the 
peace  or  thank  offerings.  The  custom  of  confirming  covenants  in 
this  way,  (which  is  the  ground  of  our  giving  the  subject  a  separate 
consideration,  was   derived  from  -   ---acticG  among  the  Chaldeans. 


•l.'^4  §  383.  OF  covr.NAXT  sacuifices. 

Til.'  practice,  to  which  we  alhulL",  was  this.  Those,  who  were 
alioiit  to  confirm  an  agreement,  slew  and  divided  the  victims,  and 
phioed  the  parts  opposite  to  each  other.  Tiiey  then  passed  through 
the  parts  thus  divided,  Sc'iying  at  the  same  time,  "  Let  it  not  thus  be 
done  to  vs"  Ephrcm  Syrus,  T.  I.  p.  IGl. 

Such  a  conlirmation  of  his  covenant,  God  afforded  in  a  vision  to 
Aliiahani,  by  causing  a  flame  and  a  smoke  to  pass  between  the  parts 
of  the  victims,  Gen.  15:  8,  9,  17,  18.  And  by  this  ceremony,  the 
Hebrews  not  only  confirmed  their  covenant  with  God,  (Deut.  29:  11.) 
but  also  with  king  Zedekiah,  Jer.  34:  18,  19. 

There  can  hardly  be  a  doubt,  therefore,  that  other  covenants  on 
other  occasions  were  confirmed  in  like  manner,  Exod.  24:  4 — 8.  Josh. 
24:  25.  1  Sam.  11:  15.  1  Kings  1:  9  et  seq.  2  Chron.  29:  10.  34:  31, 
32.  Ps.  50:  5,  This  hypothesis,  viz.  its  being  a  customary  thing  to 
confirm  agreements,  etc.  by  sacrifices,  accounts  for  it,  that  in  2  Chron. 
6:  22,  mention  is  made  of  the  oath  before  the  altar,  i.  e.  before  the 
victims,  slain  upon  it. 

And  it  may  be  observed  furthermore,  that  this  was  the  practice 
not  only  in  Judea,  but  likewise  in  almost  all  the  other  nations  of 
antiquity,  of  which  we  have  a  proof  in  the  words  and  phrases,  used 
on  such  subjects. 

For  instance,  rii^a ,  a  covenant,  is  from  nna  to  dissect  or  cut  up, 
and  literally  means  a  dissection  or  cutting  up,  viz.  of  the  victims,  that 
were  sacrificed,  when  the  covenant  was  confirmed.  The  Latin 
focdus,  covenant,  in  like  manner,  according  to  the  etymology  given 
by  Servius,  (Aen.  viii.  G41.)  is  derived  {a  foedis  vulneribus  sacri- 
fcii.)  from  the  epithet,  which  was  used  to  express  the  appearance 
of  the  wounds  of  the  victims  then  slain.  This  statement  of  Servius 
accounts  for  certain  expressions,  which  w'ere  in  common  use  among 
the  Romans,  such  as  the  following,  foedm  icere,  perctdire,  ferirc, 
sancire.  The  Greeks  had  a  corresponding  phrase,  viz.  oQy.ia 
Ttuvtiv;  the  Hebrews  likewise,  viz.  n-^na  r'ns  to  cut,  i.  e.  to  con- 
firm, a  covenant  or  oath.  The  Hebrew  word  rrrs  to  swear  means 
originally  to  swear  by  seven  i.  e.  by  seven  victims.  Compare  Gen. 
21:''24. 

These  victims  were  symbols  of  the  punishment,  Avhich  was  to 
fall  ui)on  the  violator  of  the  covenant,  and  which  those,  who  passed 
through  the  victims,  imprecated  on  their  own  heads,  in  case  of  such 
violation. 


§  384.  ON  Tiii-:  MKAXiNo  or  sackificks. 


485 


In  that  "Teat  covenant,  which  God  made  with  the  Hebrews, 
(Exod.  24:  3 — 8,)  it  is  added,  that  Moses  sprinkled  with  the  blood 
of  the  victims  the  altar,  the  book  of  the  covenant,  and  the  whole 
people,  saving,  ''  2'his  is  the  hlood  of  the  covenant,  tchich  Jehovah 
tnnl-cs  tcith  ijou,  that  you  may  observe  all  His  commands."  This 
si^-nified  to  the  Hebrews,  that,  if  they  did  not  keep  his  commands, 
they  wonld  be  accounted  worthy  to  have  their  blood  scattered  in  the 
same  maimer. 


§  384.     O.V    THIi    MEANING    OF    SACRIFICES. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  is  sufficiently  clear,  what  signifi- 
cancy  or  meaning  v.e  ought  to  attach  to  sacrifices.  For,  if  it  were 
the  case,  that  the  Hebrews,  subsequently  to  the  time  of  Abraham, 
were  accustomed  to  indicate  in  an  emblematic  manner  the  punisli- 
ment  due  to  the  violators  of  a  covenant  by  the  sacrifices  of  said  cove- 
nant, there  can  be  no  doubt,  that  they  likewise  attached  a  symboli- 
cal or  emblematic  meaning  to  sacrifices  on  other  occasions.  For 
instance,  such  a  symbolic  meaning  was  conveyed  by  the  whole 
burnt  oflerings  or  holocausts,  which  v,-ere  understood  both  by  Noah 
and  Abraham,  from  what  God  himself  had  communicated  to  tliem, 
(Gen.  8:  20.  15:  9 — 18.)  to  be  a  confirmation,  on  the  part  of  God, 
of  his  promises.  In  Vegard  to  holocausts,  it  may  be  remarked, 
that  an  additional  significancy  was  attached  to  them  by  Moses,  who 
introduced  the  ceremony  of  imposition  of  hands,  which  was  a  sym- 
bolical indication,  that  punishment  was  due  to  the  person,  who  of- 
fered the  sacrifice,  in  case  he  failed  in  the  fulfilment  of  his  prom- 
ises. 

The  circumstance,  that  holocausts  were  symbols  in  confirmation 
of  divine  promises,  was  the  reason,  that  they  were  burnt  tchok\ 
and  that  they  were  held  in  such  particular  estimation,  in  as  much 
as  promises  were  at  the  foundation  of  the  whole  Jewish  polity. 
The  reason  also,  that  sacrifices  of  this  kind  might  be  ofiered  by 
Gentiles,  who  had  so  far  left  their  old  systems,  as  to  acknowledge 
the  true  God,  was  the  fact,  that,  in  offering  such  sacrifices,  they 
were  understood  to  make  correspondent  promises,  of  which  the 
sacrifices  were  a  confirmation.  They  possessed  likewise  an  erpid- 
lory  significancy,  because  they  indicated  that  God  would  be  firm 
41* 


48G  §  381.  ON  Tiin  mkanixg  of  sackificks. 

in  the  fiilfiliiu'iit   of  liis   part  of  hU  covenant,  uliatever  might  be  the 
(Iclinqueneies  of  men. 

Tlie  victims  for  sins  and  trespasses,  which  were  new  kinds  of 
expiations,  introduced  by  Moses,  signified  tlie  punishment,  which 
was  due  to  the  persons,  who  had  thus  erred,  and  showed,  at  the 
same  time,  that  God  would  not  fail  of  what  he  had  said  in  reference 
to  them. 

Finally,  those  sacrifices,  which  are  denominated  peace-offerings, 
and  eucharistical  offerings,  had  a  symbolic  meaning,  as  well  as  others  ; 
beino-  indications  of  the  punishment,  which  threatened  the  Hebrews, 
if  they  should  neglect  to  walk  in  that  religious  way,  which  they  had 
promised.  In  other  words,  the  meaning  of  them  was  as  much  as 
if  they  had  said :  "  It  sliall  not  he  so  with  us,  as  vrith  these  sacrifices, 
fo)-  u-e  ivill  adhere  to  ovr  j^iroviises:'  Hence,  being  confirmed  anew 
on  these  occasions,  in  their  resolutions,  they  felt  themselves  at  hberty 
to  indulge  in  conviviality. 

The  sacrifices,  therefore,  in  which  animals  were  slain,  were  all 
symbolical  or  had  a  meaning. 

The  divine  promises  were  confirmed  by  them,  and  the  Hebrews, 
on  the  other  hand,  imparted,  in  this  way,  new  sacredness  to  the  en- 
o-ao-ements,  which  they  had  made,  to  continue  true  to  their  religion ; 
and  were  thus  excited  to  new  desires  after  piety  of  feeling  and  recti- 
tude of  conduct. 

If  very  many  of  the  Hebrews  were  disposed  to  go  further  than 
this,  and  to  attribute  an  inherent  eflicacy  to  the  sacrifices  in  them- 
selves considered,  and  to  trust  in  the  multitude  of  victims  with 
whatever  mind  they  might  be  offered,  this  is  nothing  against  the 
truth  of  our  statement,  especially  as  this  error  is  very  frequently 
condemned,  and  in  very  decided  terms,  Ps.  50:  8 — 13.  40:  5,  6.  Isa. 
1:  11—15.  comp.  1  Sam.  15:  22.  IIos.  6:  6.  Mic.  G:  6,  8.  Mai.  2: 
1—0. 

That  these  symbolic  substitutions,  liowever,  of  victims  in 
place  of  transgressors,  prefigured  a  true  substitution  in  the  person 
of  Jesus  Christ,  seems  to  have  been  known  but  to  very  few  of  the 
prophets,  Isa.  liii.  Still  this  obscurity  in  respect  to  the  prospec- 
tive import  of  sacrifices  is  no  more  proof  against  the  actual  exist- 
ence of  such  an  import,  than  a  kindred  obscurity,  in  another  case 
is  against  the  existence  of  prophecies,  some  of  which  the  pro- 
phets themselves  confess    they  did  not  understand.      But.  although 


§  385.    OF    BLOODLESS    SACRIFICES.  487 

the  people  iliil  not  originally  un(krst;uKl  this  particular  meaning  of 
the  sacrifices,  they  were  prepared  to  perceive  it  at  last. 

Hence  the  death  of  violence,  which  Jesus  suffered,  is  every  where 
termed  in  the  New  Testament  a  SACRIFICE  ;  for  expressions  of  this 
kind  are  not  mere  illusions,  such  as  occur  in  Romans  12:  1.  15:  16. 
Philip.  2:  17.  2  Timothy  4:  G.  Hebrews  13:  15,  16;  but  they  indi- 
cate i\  real  sacrifice  in  the  person  of  Christ,  which  the  sacrifices  of 
the  Old  Testament  prefigured,  as  is  expressly  stated  in  Hebrews  9:  3 
—28.  10:  10—14,  18.  comp.  Matt.  26:  28.  Mark  14:  24.  Luke  22: 
20.  1  Cor.  11:  24,  25.  Heb.  12:  24.  1  Peter  1:  2.  comp.  Exod.  24:  8. 
John  1:  29,  36.  19:  36,  37.  1  Cor.  5:  7.  1  Pet.  2:  24.  comp.  Is.  53: 
5—12.  2  Cor.  5:  21.  Eoh.  5:  2.  Rom.  3:  23—25.  7:  25.  1  John  2:  2. 
4:  10. 


§  385.  Of  Bloodless  Sacrifices. 

Bloodless  sacrifices  consisted,  some  of  wine,  and  some  of  fine 
wheat  flour.  To  this  general  remark,  there  was  this  exception, 
that  the  sacrifice  of  this  sort  on  the  second  day  of  the  passover 
was  a  sheaf  of  iarley,  and  that  the  trespass-offering  of  a  suspected 
wife  was  of  barley-meal.  The  flour  was  offered  sometimes  u'ill>, 
and  sometimes  without  preparation.  It  was  salted,  sometimes  oil 
was  poured  upon  it ;  sometimes  it  was  kneaded  with  oil  and  after- 
Avards  besmeared  with  it,  and  by  some  persons  was  offered  with 
frankincense. 

Honey  and  leaven  were  not  used.  Lev.  2:  10,  12,  excepting, 
however,  in  the  two  leavened  cakes  on  the  feast  of  Pentecost,  and 
the  cakes  of  the  eucharistical  and  peace-offerings,  and,  indeed,  these 
were  not  to  be  placed  upon  the  altar.  Lev.  7:  13.  23:  17.  2:  11. 
The  sacrifices,  of  which  we  have  been  speaking,  accompanied  the 
bloody  sacrifices,  and  were  in  addition  to  them.  To  this  remark, 
there  are  the  following  exceptions. 

I.  T/ie  twelve  loaves  of  shew-bread  in  the  sanctuary,  which  wert 
changed  every  Sabbath,  which  were  esteemed  peculiarly  holy,  and 
were  to  be  eaten  by  the  priests,  either  in  the  tabernacle  or  the  tem- 
ple. Lev.  24:5—9.  1  Sam.  21:  3—6.  comp.  Mark  2:  26. 

II.  The  sheaf  of  barley,  offered  on  the  second  day  of  the  passover 
Lev.  23:  10. 


488  §  386.  ox  xnic  ruuiiiCAxiox  or  tiik  uxci.kan. 

HI.  Tlic  loaf,  wliic'li  on  tin;  dny  of  Pentecost,  was  otfered,  as  the 
first  fruits,  Lev.  23:  17—20. 

IV.  The  sin-offering,  consisting  of  Jlour  mereJg,  brouglit  by  a  poor 
man,  who  was  unable  to  bring  turtle-doves  or  young  jjigeons,  Levit. 
5:  1 — 4,  11 — 13.  In  all  other  cases,  the  cakes  and  the  flour  were 
considered,  as  a  part  of  the  sacrifice,  in  addition  to  the  victims,  wliioh 
were  slain.  To  the  hnllock  were  assigned  three  tenths  of  an  ephah 
of  the  finest  wheat  flour,  and  a  half  an  bin  of  oil;  to  the  ram  two- 
tenths  of  an  ephah  of  flour,  and  a  third  of  an  bin  of  oil ;  to  a  sheep 
or  lamb  a  tenth  part  of  an  ephah  of  flour,  and  a  fourth  part  of  an  bin 
of  oil.  Num.  15:  3—12.  28:  7—29. 

A  libation  of  wine  was  added,  the  same  in  quantity  with  the  oil, 
Num.  15:  3 — 12.  28:  7 — 29  ;  but  it  was  not  poured  out,  as  the  Rab- 
bins assert,  on  the  horns  of  the  altar,  but  around  about  it.  See  Jose- 
phus,  Antiquities,  III.  9,  4. 


§  38G.    Ox  THE  PUKIFICATIOX  OF  THE  UxCLEAX. 

UxCLEAXXESS,  with  the  exception  of  those,  which  were  expressly 
interdicted,  and  those,  by  means  of  which  the  high  priest  and  Naza- 
rites  were  contaminated,  from  whom  all  such  defilements  were  to  be 
removed,  were  not  accounted  sixs ;  but  the  neglect  of  purificcUion, 
when  uncleanness  had  happened,  was  an  error,  (technically  a  tres- 
pass or  a  SIX",)  which  resulted  in  exclusion  from  intercourse  with  the 
rest  of  the  peoi)le. 

The  most  of  the  instances  of  uncleanness  ceased  of  themselves 
after  the  expiration  of  a  certain  period  of  time,  provided  that  the 
unclean  person,  at  the  expiration  of  said  time,  washed  his  body  and 
his  clothes.  Bnt  in  other  instances,  unclean  persons  were  unable 
to  free  themselves  from  the  stain  of  their  defilement,  until  they  had 
first  gone  through  certain  ceremonies  of  purification,  pi-escrlbed  in  the 
ritual. 

For  instance,  a  person  who  had  been  rendered  unclean  by  the 
touch  of  a  dead  body,  of  a  sepulchre,  or  the  hones  of  a  dead  person, 
was  sprinkled  on  the  third  and  seventh  day,  by  a  clean  person  with 
hyssop,  dipped  in  water  mixed  with  the  ashes  of  a  red  heifer.  When 
this  was  done,  he  v.ashed  his  body  and  clothes,  and  on  the  seventh 
day  was  clean. 


§  387.    I'UUIFICATIOX    OF    LEPROUS    PERSONS.  489 

Tents,  houses,  and  furniture,  contaminated  by  the  dead,  were  to  be 
purified  in  the  saniq  way,  Num.  19:  11 — 21. 

Of  the  Bed  Heifer. 

The  ashoj  ot  the  heifer  here  mentioned  were  prepared  in  a  singu- 
lar mannei.  llie  animal,  which  was  to  be  one  of  a  red  or  rather 
yellowish  colui.  inclining  to  a  brown,  free  from  all  defect,  and  which 
had  never  subnntted  to  the  yoke,  was  led  to  the  priest.  She  was 
then  conducted  out  of  the  city  or  the  encampment,  as  the  case  might 
be,  by  sonic  other  person,  and  slain.  The  priest,  wlio  had  accompa- 
nied, dipped  his  linger  in  the  blood,  and  sprinkled  it  seven  times  to- 
wards tlie  Sauctiiary. 

Presently  tiie  heifer  was  burnt  whole  in  the  same  place,  the 
priest,  in  tlie  meanwhile,  heaping  upon  the  altar  piles  of  wood,  and 
throwing  into  it,  at  the  same  time,  hyssop  and  scarlet  thread.  The 
persons  who  performed  the  various  offices  of  leading  out,  slaying  and 
burning  the  heifer,  and  of  carrying  away  the  ashes,  also  the  priest, 
who  officiated,  were  unclean  until  the  evening,  Num.  19:  G,  8,  10,  21. 
There  seems  to  have  been  no  improper  superstition,  connected  with 
this  rite. 

§  387.    PURIFICATIOX    OF    LEPROUS    PERSONS. 

The  man,  who  had  been  healed  of  lepros}',  underwent  an  exami- 
nation from  a  priest,  beyond  the  limits  of  the  encampment,  while  the 
Israelites  were  in  the  wildei-ness,  but  subsequently,  without  the  boun- 
daries of  the  city.  Lev.  14:  1 — 7.  Matt.  8:  4.  Mark  1:  44.  If  found 
perfectly  restored,  he  obtained  another  man  to  bring  two  living  birds, 
(doves  or  young  pigeons,)  cedar  wood,  scarlet,  and  hyssop.  One  of 
the  birds  was  slain  and  the  blood  received  into  an  earthen  vessel, 
partly  filled  with  water. 

Into  this,  the  priest  dipped  the  other  bird  alive,  the  cedar 
wood,  the  scarlet,  and  hyssop ;  sprinkled  the  once  leprous  man 
seven  times;  and  let  the  living  bird  go  free,  as  a  symbol  of  his 
liberation  from  the  leprosy.  Lev.  14:  1 — 7.  (This  ceremony  was 
observed  likewise  in  the  purification  of  a  leprous  house,  Lev.  14: 
48 — .03.  The  subject  of  these  ceremonies,  having  then  washed 
his  body  and  his  clothes,  and  shaved  himself,  was  accounted  dean, 
but  was   not  permitted  to  enter  the  encampment  or  the  city,  until 


490  §  388.    OK  TiiK  rii;sT-i;oKN-. 

tlic  sc'VL-iilli  (lay  iVuiii  tliLs  (iiii.-.  On  lliat  day,  he  shaved  off  not  only 
the  lieai-il  and  eyc-hrows,  liul  the  hair  from  eveiy  part  of  the  body, 
washed  aiiain  liis  body  and  liis  clothes,  and  was  then  esteemed  per- 
fectly puriiied,  Lev.  1-1:  8,  9. 

He  brought  also  on  the  same  day  two  rams  of  a  year  old,  and  a 
sheep  oi'  the  same  age,  into  the  Tabernacle  or  Temple,  also  the 
customary  quantity  of  flour  overspread  with  oil,  and  a  Log  of  oil  in 
addition.  The  priest  then  presented  the  leper  and  the  animals  before 
God.  He  slew  one  ram,  as  a  trespass-otlering,  and  ottered  the  Log 
of  oil  to  God,  (per  f"S"n,)  as  a  icave-offcriiuj.  He  then  put  some 
of  the  blood  of  the  trespass-ottering  on  the  tip  of  the  right  ear  of  the 
recovered  leper,  on  the  thumb  of  his  right  hand,  and  the  great  toe 
of  his  right  foot. 

He  scattered  of  the  oil,  moreover,  which  was  poured  out  into  his 
palm,  seven  times  towards  the  Sanctuary  with  the  finger  of  his  right 
hand,  besmeared  with  it,  as  he  had  done  beibre  with  the  blood,  the 
thumb  of  the  right  hand  and  the  great  toe  of  the  leper's  right  foot, 
and  jioured  the  remainder  of  it  upon  his  head,  Lev.  14:  10 — 18.  He 
then  slew  the  sheep  for  a  sin-ottering  and  the  other  ram  for  a  burnt- 
otrering.  In  case  of  poverty,  two  turtle-doves  and  two  young  pigeons 
could  be  substituted  in  place  of  the  sheep  and  the  second  ram,  Lev. 
14:  10—32.  compare  Luke  17:  12—14.  Matt.  8:  2—4.  Mark  1:  40 
—44. 

§  388.  Of  the  First-bokx. 

The  first-borx,  c-niz3 ,  both  of  men  and  animals,  were  to  be 
consecrated  to  God.  The  first-born  children  were  to  be  presented 
before  the  Lord,  and  to  be  redeemed  according  to  the  estimation 
of  a  priest,  but  the  amount  of  the  sum  paid  in  this  redemption 
could  not  exceed  five  shekels.  They  could  not  be  redeemed  before 
the  age  of  a  month,  and,  ibr  the  most  part,  were  not  so,  till  the  cere- 
mony of  purilication  fur  child-birth,  ]S^mi.  IS:  14 — IG.  Exod.  13:  13. 
Luke  2:  22. 

The  first-born  of  cattle,  of  goats  and  sheep,  from  eight  days  to  a 
year  old,  were  to  be  offered  in  sacrifice,  and  the  parts  designated 
being  burnt,  the  remainder  was  left  to  the  priests,  Num.  18:  17, 
18.  Lev.  27:  2G.  Even  in  case  there  was  any  defect  in  the 
goats,  sheep,  or  bullocks,  so  that  they  could  not  be  legally  offered 


§389.    OF    THE   FIKST-FUUITS.  V   '-  491 


in  siicrifico,  tlioy  were,  nevertheless,  allotted  for  the  use  of  the  priests, 
the  same  as  before,  Dent.  15:  19 — 23. 

Tlie  first-born  of  other  animals,  of  which  in  Exod.  13:  13,  the  ass 
is  given  as  an  example,  were  to  be  slain,  although  tliey  could  not  be 
otl'f red  in  sacrifice,  uidess  they  were  redeemed  by  offering  a  lamb  in 
their  stead,  or  by  the  payment  of  a  certain  sum,  fixed  by  the  estima- 
tion of  the  priest,  said  estimation  being  increased  by  the  addition  of  a 
fiflli,  Lev.  27:  .13. 

If  they  were  not  redeemed,  they  were  sold,  and  the  price  was  given 
to  the  priests.  It  was  in  this  way,  that  the  Hebrews  exhibited  their 
gratitude  to  God,  who  preserved  their  first-born  in  Egypt  from  im- 
pending destruction,  Exod.  13:  2,  11 — 16.  Num.  3:  12,  13. 

In  respect  to  the  first-born  sons,  there  was  an  additional  reason  for 
the  regulations,  of  which  we  have  been  speaking ;  since  they  were  by 
birth  priests,  and  were  to  be  redeemed  from  serving  at  the  altar,  Num. 
3:  20—51. 

It  may  be  argued  from  Deut.  12:  G,  7.  14:  23.  15:  19,  23,  that 
there  was  what  may  be  called  an  after  Jirst-horn,  and  that  the  second- 
born  of  goats,  sheep,  and  the  ox-kind,  were  brought  to  the  Taber- 
nacle or  Temple,  and  converted  into  eucharistical  or  thanksgiving 
offerings,  which  could  not  be  done  with  the  first-born,  properly  so 
called.  But  it  was  permitted  to  the  owner,  if  there  were  blemishes  in 
them,  to  slay  them  at  home,  and  to  employ  them,  as  food,  in  the  usual 
way. 

§  389.  Of  the  Fiust-fkuits,  r-^rxn ,  TTnoizoysrvrjitazu. 

In  speaking  on  the  subject  of  first-fruits,  it  may  be  remarked  here, 
that  a  division  of  them  into  two  kinds  cannot  be  established  from  the 
passages  generally  supposed,  viz.  Num.  18:  12,  13.  Neh.  10:  3C — 38. 
This  alone  follows  from  them,  that  the  first-fruits  were  offered, 
(per  rr^^-ri ,)  as  a  heave-offering. 

The  first  sheaf  of  barley,  on  the  second  day  of  the  Passover,  and 
the  first  loaves  on  the  feast  of  the  Pentecost,  were  offered  in  the 
name  of  the  people.  But  individuals  also  were  bound  to  offer  the 
first-fruits  of  the  vine,  of  fruit  trees,  of  their  grain,  honey  and  wool, 
by  means  of  which  offerings  they  exhibited  that  gratitude,  which  was 
due  to  God  for  the  country  he  had  given  them,  Exod.  23:  19.  Lev. 
2: 12.  Num.  15: 17— 21!  18: 11—13.  Deut.  20: 1—11.    The  ofterings 


492  §  ''00.  01-  TYxnKS. 

ilius  made  bccaiiK'  the  iiroporty  of  the  priests,  Num.  18:  11 — 13. 
Deut.  18:  4. 

Some  suppose,  that  it  was  not  necessary  for  those  first-fruits,  wliich, 
before  being  presented,  underwent  some  previous  preparation,  such 
as  the  loaves  on  the  Pentecost,  to  be  brought  to  the  Temple,  but  that 
tiiey  could  be  offered  to  any  priest  in  any  place  ;  in  the  same  way, 
that  every  Hebrew  was  bound  to  offer  to  some  priest  the  shoulder 
"-:f ,  the  clieelcs  'i'"^"'?''  ^^^^  ^'i^'  maw  ni;? ,  i^ivaTnnv,  ojiasum,  of 
the  animals,  which  he  sacrificed  at  home.  Consult  Deut.  18:  3.  Jose- 
phus,  Antiquities,  IV.  4,  4,  and  riiilo  DE  Sacerdotum  IIONOUIHUS 
et  PRAEMiis,  p.  832. 

It  appears  from  Deut.  2G:  1 — 11,  that  what  are  denominated 
the  second  Jirst  fruits  were  appropriated  to  the  eucharistical  sacri- 
fices, and  were  consumed  in  the  feasts,  which  were  made  from 
them ;  and,  accordingly,  every  Hebrew^  was  commanded,  when  he 
brought  his  basket  to  the  Tabernacle  or  the  Temple,  to  set  it  down 
before  the  altar,  and  return  thanks  with  a  loud  voice  to  God, 
who  had  given  to  his  undeserving  countrymen  so  rich  an  inheri- 
tance. 

§  390.  Of  Tvtiies. 

Tytiies  are  very  ancient,  and  were  exacted  in  the  earliest  times, 
among  almost  all  nations,  Herod.  I.  5,  77.  Pausan.  Eliac.  I.  c.  10. 
Phocic.  c.  11.  Diod.  Sic.  XX.  14. 

Abraham  offered  the  tythes  of  his  spoils  to  Melchisedec,  priest  of 
the  most  high  God,  Gen.  14:  20.  Jacob  vowed  unto  God  the  tenth 
of  all  his  income ;  a  vow,  which  was  observed  both  by  himself  and 
his  posterity,  Gen.  28:  22. 

Tything  is  mentioned,  as  a  practice  well  known  and  of  ancient 
standing,  in  Deut.  12:  11,  17 — 19.  14:22,  23;  and  the  precepts, 
which  are  there  given  in  respect  to  it,  aim  at  this  j)oint  merely, 
viz.  that  the  tythes  should  be  presented  at  the  Tabernacle  for  a 
thank-offering,  with  the  excei)tion,  that,  on  every  third  year,  the 
people  might  make  a  feast  of  them  at  their  own  houses,  for  the  sei*- 
vants,  widows,  ori)hans,  the  poor,  and  the  Levites,  Deut.  14:  28,  29. 
2G:  12—15. 

But  before  the  tythes,  which  have  now  been  mentioned,  and 
which  were  denominated  the  second,  were'  taken  from  the  yearly 


§  301.  OF  TiiK  SACi:i:i>  on,.  -I'J.i 

increase,  there  was  another  taken  calleil  the  first,  Tohit  1:  7.  Tlie 
latter  belonged  to  God,  as  the  ruler  of  the  state,  and  was  assigned 
by  Ilini  as  a  sort  of"  salary,  to  the  Levites,  for  their  services  both 
sacred  and  civil.  Lev.  27:  30.  Num.  18:  20—24.  Deut.  14:  22,  23. 
Neh.  13:  5,  12.  The  tythe  of  the  fruits  of  the  earth  could  be 
i-edeemed  in  case  a  fifth  part  of  the  estimated  value  was  added  to  the 
whole  amount ;  in  as  much  as  the  redeemer  was  thereby  freed  from 
the  expense  of  transportation.  But  this  liberty  was  not  given  in 
respect  to  the  tythe  of  sheep,  goats,  and  cattle,  Lev.  27:  31. 

The  tenth  of  the  fruit  and  grain  was  easily  estimated.  In 
regard  to  animals,  the  ceremony  was  this.  They  passed  one  by  one 
before  a  servant  who  numbered  them,  and  designated  every  tenth 
one  by  a  rod,  which  he  held  in  his  hand.  If  another  was  after- 
wards substituted  in  place  of  the  one  then  designated,  they  both 
fell  to  the  Levites,  Leviticus  27:  32,  33.  comp.  Jer.  33:  13.  Ezek.  20: 
37,  38. 

The  Levites  made  a  subsequent  division  of  the  tythes,  and  gave  a 
tenth  of  them  to  the  priests,  Num.  18:  25 — 32.  Neh.  10:  28.  13: 
10—14.  JMal.  3:  8—10.  como.  Ileb.  7:  5,  7. 


§  391.  Of  tue  sacred  Oil. 

The  sacred  oil,  with  which  the  Tabernacle,  the  Ark  of  the 
Covenant,  the  golden  candlestick,  the  tabic,  the  altar  of  incense, 
the  altar  of  burnt  offerings,  the  laver,  and  all  the  sacred  utensils, 
and  indeed  the  priests  themselves  were  anointed,  Avas  composed  of 
an  hin  of  the  oil  of  olives,  of  the  richest  myrrh,  t:-::2  -iHn  "i": ;  of 
cassia,  n-p  of  cinnamon,  era  '{zyp_;  and  of  sweet  calamus  n:;? 
nba .  The  proportions  of  the  mixture  were  five  hundred  parts 
of  the  myrrh  and  cassia,  and  two  hundred  and  fifty  of  the  cinnamon 
and  calamus.  This  ointment,  wliich  could  not  be  applied  in  any 
other  way  than  those  mentioned  at  the  head  of  tliis  section  under 
penalty  of  excision  from  the  people,  conferred  an  honor  on  the  per- 
sons and  things  anointed  with  it.  Exod.  30:  20 — 33. 


42 


491  §  392.  or  oaths. 


§  392.  Of  Oath?.  r::-rr,  r-rrr. 

The  person,  who  confirmed  his  assertion  by  a  voluntary  oath, 
pronounced  tlic  same  with  liis  right  hand  elevated.  Sometimes 
the  swearer  omitted  the  imprecation,  as  if  he  were  afraid,  and 
shuddered  to  utter  it,  although  it  was  from  other  sources,  suffi- 
ciently well  understood,  Gen.  14:  22,  23.  Ps.  106:  2G.  80:  18.  Ezek. 
17:  18. 

Sometimes  the  imprecation  was  as  follows ;  "  This  mid  inore  than 
this  maij  God  do  to  me,"  2  Sam.  3:  9,  35.  iluth  1:  17.  1  Kings  2:  23. 
2  Kings  G:  31.  Sometimes  the  swearer  merely  said  ;  "Zd  God  be  a 
witness  ;  "  and  sometimes  affirmed  saying  ;  "  As  snrehj  as  God  liveth," 
Jer.  42:  5.  Ruth  3:  13.   1  Sam.  14:  45.  20:  3,  21. 

It  is  to  be  recollected,  that  the  remarks  which  have  now  been 
made,  apply  to  the  person,  who  uttered  4he  oath  himself  of  his  own 
accord.  "When  an  oath  was  exacted,  whether  by  a  judge  or  another, 
the  person,  who  exacted  it,  put  the  oath  in  form  ;  and  the  person,  to 
whom  it  was  put,  responded  by  saying,  ""X ,  ""^x ,  so  let  it  be  ;  or 
gave  his  response  in  other  expressions  of  like  import,  such  as  ah 
klnug,  Num.  5:  10—22.  Lev.  5:  1.  Prov.  29:  24.  1  Kings  22:  16. 
Deut.  27:  15—26. 

Sometimes  the  exacter  of  the  oath  merely  used  the  following 
adjuration,  viz.  I  adjure  you  by  the  liviny  God  to  ansicer,  tvhether  the 
thing  be  so  or  not.  And  the  person  sworn  accordingly  made  answer 
to  the  point  inquired  of.  Numbers  5:  22.  Matt.  26:  63.  It  should 
be  remarked  here,  thougl)  the  formulary  of  assent  on  the  part  of  the 
respondent  to  an  oath  was  frequently  amkx,  amex,  that  this  foimu- 
lary  did  not  always  imply  an  oath,  but,  in  some  instances,  was 
merely  a  protestation.  "We  see  from  the  nature  of  these  adjurations, 
why  the  Niphal  foi'm  of  the  verb  is  used,  viz.  VZ'-'.  ,  to  swear,  pro- 
perly to  be  sivorn. 

As  the  oath  was  an  appeal  to  God,  (Lev.  19:  12.  Beut.  6:  13,) 
the  taking  of  a  false  oath  was  deemed  a  heinous  crime,  and  perjury, 
accordingly,  was  forbidden  in  those  words,  thou  shalt  not  take  the  name 
of  the  Lord  thy  God  in  vain,  i.  e.  shalt  not  call  God  to  witness  in  pre- 
tended confirmation  of  a  falsehood,  Exod.  20:  6. 

It  was  a  common  thing  in  Egypt  in  the  time  of  Joseph,  to 
swear  by  tlie  life  of  the  kinrj.  Gen.  42:  15  ;  and  this  practice  pre- 


§  392.  OK  OATHS.  435 

vailed  sub.-cquently  among  the  Hebrews,  1  Sam.  25:  2G.  2  Sam.  11: 
11.   li:  10.  com  p.  Ts.  G3:  11. 

The  Hebrews  also  swore  by  cities  and  consecrated  jjlaces,  such  as 
Hebron,  Shilo,  and  Jerusalem.  A  person  sometimes  swore  by  him- 
self and  sometimes  by  the  life  of  the  person  before  whom  he  spoke, 
viz.  "3  bi/  myself]  r^~'^\  "^n  by  thee  or  by  thy  life,  1  Sam.  1:  2G.  2  Kings 
2:  2.  Gen.  43:  20.  44:  18.  Exod.  4:  10,  13.  Num.  12:  11.  Josh.  7:  8. 
Judg.  G:  13,  lo.  1  Kings  3:  17,  26. 

In  some  instances,  persons  adjured  others  by  the  beasts  of  the  field, 
(Canticles  2,  7.)  a  sort  of  adjuration,  which,  to  the  present  day,  makes 
its  appearance  in  the  writings  of  the  Arabian  poets.  Consult  the 
Koran,  i>ura  85:  1—3.  8G:.l,  11—13.  89:  1—4.  9:  1—4.  91:  1—8, 
etc. 

The  Jews,  in  the  time  of  Christ,  were  in  the  habit  of  swearing  by 
the  altar,  by  Jerusalem,  by  heaven,  by  the  earth,  by  themselves,  by 
their  heads,  by  the  ffold  of  the  Temple,  by  sacrifces,  etc.  Because  the 
name  of  God  was  not  mentioned  in  these  oaths,  they  considered  them, 
as  imposing  but  small  if  any  obligation,  Martialis,  Epigramat.  XL 
95.  And  we,  accordingly,  find,  that  the  Saviour  takes  occasion  to 
inveigh,  in  decided  terms,  against  such  arts  of  deception,  IMatt.  5:  33 
— 37.  23:  IG — 22.  It  is  against  oaths  of  this  kind,  and  these  alone, 
(not  against  an  oath  uttered  in  sincerity)  that  he  expresses  his  dis- 
pleasure, and  prohibits  them.  This  is  clear,  since  he  himself  con- 
sented to  take  upon  him  the  solemnity  of  an  oath,  Matt.  26:  63 ;  and 
since  Paul  himself,  in  more  than  one  instance,  utters  an  adjuration. 
Compare  Rom.  9:  1.  2  Cor.  1:  23. 

In  the  primitive  periods  of  their  history,  the  Hebrews  religiously 
observed  an  oath,  (Josh.  9:  14,  15.)  but  we  find,  that  in  later  times, 
they  were  often  accused  by  the  prophets  of  peijury.  After  the  Cap- 
tivity, the  Jews  became  again  celebrated  for  their  scrupulous  observ- 
ance of  what  they  had  sworn  to,  but  corruption  soon  increased  among 
them ;  they  revived  the  old  forms,  the  words  without  the  meaning 
and  acquired  among  all  nations  the  reputation  of  perjurers. 


496  §  393.  OF  vows. 


§393.  Of  Vows,  z-".-;:,  "^2. 

Yows,  which  were  not  of  divine  appointment,  but  originated  with 
men  themselves,  were  solemn  promises,  made  by  persons  to  conse- 
crate something  to  God,  or  to  do  something  in  his  service  and  to  his 
honor,  which,  without  such  promises,  they  did  not  feel  themselves 
bound  to  do.  The  design  of  these  vows  was,  in  some  cases,  to  ex- 
press the  thankfulness  of  tliosc,  who  made  them,  to  God  ;  in  others, 
to  obtain  favor  and  mercy  from  Him. 

The  earliest  vow.  of  which  we  have  any  account  in  the  8cri[)tures, 
is  that  of  Jacob,  mentioned  in  Genesis,,28:  22 ;  and  since  it  was  ob- 
served by  his  posterity,  it  was  of  no  little  use  in  preserving  the  true 
knowledge  of  God.  Other  vows,  it  may  well  be  su]ipo5ed,  cherished 
and  increased  pious  feelings. 

Moses,  for  religious  purposes,  confirmed  the  vows,  which  had  been 
made  in  ancient  times,  and  which  having  been  observed  in  subse- 
quent ages,  had  acquired  a  sort  of  prescriptive  authority.  But  the 
making  of  new  vows  by  individuals,  he  does  not  appear  to  have  en- 
couraged, although  he  insisted  on  a  scrupulous  fulfilment  of  them 
■when  made,  Deut.  23:  23,  24.  It  should  be  observed,  however,  that 
he  permitted,  in  certain  cases,  the  redemption  of  a  vow,  (Lev.  27: 1 — 
25,)  and  conferred  the  power  on  the  father  and  the  husband  of  an- 
nulling the  vows  of  a  daughter,  or  a  wife.  Num.  30:  2 — 17. 

Yows  were  uttered  audibly,  and  as  appears,  from  Num.  30:  3,  11, 
14,  were  confirmed  by  an  oath.  Compare  Deut.  24:  23.  Judg.  11; 
35,  3G.  Ps.  GG:  14.  Matt.  15:  5. 

Yows  were  cither  (1)  affirmative,  C"^';~3  strictly  so  called,  by  which 
property  of  vai-ious  kinds,  and  men  themselves  might  be  consecrated 
to  God  and  which  Avere  capable  of  redemption,  (with  the  exception 
of  what  was  devoted  by  the  vow,  called  in  Hebrew  D'ln  and  of  ani- 
mals proper  for  sacrifices ;)  or  (2)  neyatice,  by  which  abstinence  was 
promised  fi-om  certain  things  in  themselves  lawful,  and  which  were 
denominated  w2:  h'J  "5X ,  a  restraint  on  the  appetite.  The  principal 
among  the  last  class  of  vows  was  that  of  the  Nazarites. 


5  394.  OF   AFFIRMATIVE   VOWS.  497 


§  304.  Of  Affirmative  Vo^ws. 

By  Vows  of  tliis  kind,  not  only  property  of  various  descriptions,  as 
money,  lands,  houses,  and  animals  clean  and  unclean,  but  servants 
also,  sons,  and  the  person  himself,  who  made  the  vow,  might  be  con- 
secrated to  God.  These  are  all  mentioned  under  a  name  common  to 
any  sacred  gift,  viz.  -i^-jT ,  Joscphus,  Antiquities,  IV.  4,  4.  Mark  7: 
11. 

Animals,  which  were  fit  for  sacrifices,  and  which  were  devoted 
to  God  by  this  vow,  were  to  be  sacrificed,  but  those,  which  were 
excluded  from  the  altar,  were  to  be  sold  according  to  the  valuation 
of  a  priest ;  they  could  be  redeemed,  however,  by  the  additional  pay- 
ment of  a  fifth  part  of  the  valuation.  The  men  who  were  thus 
devoted,  became  servants  in  the  Tabernacle  or  Temple,  unless  they 
were  redeemed. 

Money,  lands,  and  houses,  which  had  been  made  the  subjects  of 
this  vow,  became  the  property  of  the  Tabernacle  or  the  Temple ; 
excepting  that  the  land  might  be  redeemed  before  the  year  of  Jubilee, 
Lev.  27:  1—24. 

Of  the  voio  called  Cherem. 

The  vow,  called  ="n  ,  i.  e.  the  accursed  thing,  was  not  introduced 
by  Moses  de  novo,  but  was  an  ancient  custom  which  he  thought  proper 
to  retain,  in  order  that  he  might  not  deprive  himself  of  the  good, 
which  at  times  might  be  expected  to  arise  from  giving  an  example 
of  formidable  severity,  Exod.  17:  14.  Num.  21:  2.  Deut.  2:  32,  34. 
3:  1—8.  13:  14,  15.  comp.  Judg.  20:  47,  48.  If  the  vow  of  Cherem 
were  uttered  in  respect  to  an  enemy,  it  implied  the  widest  destruc- 
tion, and  it  was  sacrilege  for  the  conquering  army  to  appropriate  to 
itself  any  of  the  plunder,  Josh.  G:  17 — 19.  7:  1,  20.  In  a  few 
instances,  it  appears,  that  the  flocks  and  some  other  of  the  spoils 
were  not  destroyed,  Deut.  2:  32,  34.  3:  1 — 8.  Josh.  8:  2.  By  the  vow 
of  Clierem,  otherwise  called  the  irrevocable  curse,  sometimes  fields, 
animals,  and  individuals  of  the  human  species  were  devoted.  It  was 
designed,  in  its  operation  upon  men,  to  bear  only  upon  the  wicked, 
who  were  thereby  made  an  example  to  others.  Compare  1  Sam. 
14:  24  et  sfq.     Jepliliia,  therefore,  in  slaying  his  daughter  in  confor- 

42* 


498        §  395.  OF  mcgativj:  vows,  tiiic  nazauitk,  etc. 

niily  wilh  Lis  r:i<li  vow,  vioUitL-d  at  Ic-ast  the  spirit  of  the  Mosaic 
Laws,  Jiulg.  11:30—30. 


§  395.  Of  Kegativk  Yoavs,  tiii:  Xazakite,  etc. 

A  NEGATIVE  VOAV,  as  lias  already  been  stated,  was  a  promise  to 
abstain  from  certain  things,  admissible  by  law.  Josephus  says,  (Jew- 
ish War,  11.  15,  1.)  that  in  his  day  there  were  many,  particularly 
those,  who  had  been  oppressed  by  sickness  or  by  adverse  fortunes, 
who  vowed  to  abstain  from  wine,  to  go  with  the  head  shaven,  and  to 
spend  the  time  in  prayer  for  thirty  days  previous  to  their  offering 
sacrifices.     Compare  Acts  18:  18. 

But  the  Xazaritc,  on  the  contrary,  ^owed  to  let  the  hair  grow, 
to  abstain  not  only  from  wine  and  all  inebriating  drink,  but  from 
\  inegar  likewise,  to  eat  no  clusters,  and  to  beware  of  any  contamina- 
tion from  corpses,  bones,  and  sepulchres.  In  some  instances,  the 
parents  bound  the  child  by  the  vow  of  a  Nazarite,  even  before  its 
birth.  This  was  the  case  in  respect  to  Samson  and  John  the  Baptist, 
Judg.  13:  2 — 5,  12 — 23.  Luke  1:  13 — 15.  This  vow  sometimes 
lasted  through  life,  but,  for  the  most  part  was  limited  in  its  operation 
to  a  definite  period.  The  customs  relative  to  the  Nazarite  pre- 
vailed before  the  days  of  Moses,  who  in  Lev.  25:  25,  borrowed  expres- 
sions from  them,  before  the  publication  of  his  law  on  the  subject  in 
Num.  vi. 

If  the  Nazarite,  Avhether  male  or  female,  (n"i73  n^'^T:,)  for 
the  vow  might  be  made  by  either,  was  unexpectedly  contaminated, 
he  was  to  be  purified,  not  only  in,  the  manner  already  men- 
tioned, but  was  required  to  shave  off  his  hair,  to  offer,  on  the 
teventh  day,  two  turtle  doves  or  two  young  pigeons,  the  ■■  for  a 
sin,  the  other  for  a  burnt-offering,  also  a  lamb  of  a  year  oil  for  a 
Trespass-offering,  and  to  commence  anew  his  Nazariteship,  Num.  G: 
9—12. 

"When  the  time  si)ecified  in  the  vow  was  completed,  he  offered 
a  ram  of  a  year  old  for  a  burnt-offering,  a  sheep  of  the  same 
age  for  a  sin-offering,  a  ram  for  a  thank-offering,  a  basket  of  un- 
leavened cakes,  some  of  which  were  kneaded  with  oil,  and  some 
covered  with  oil;  also  a  libation  of  wine.  His  hair  was  shaven 
off  before  the  gate  of  the  sanctuary,  and  cast  into  the  fire, 
where   the    thank-ofi'ering  was    burning.      ITe   ofiered,  as    a  wave- 


< 


§  39G.  OF  rnAYi-.us.  499 

offering  to  God,  the  slioiilders  of  the  tlKink-offeiing,  and  two  cakes, 
one  of  each  kind,  wliioli  were  both  given  to  the  priest. 

He  at  length  indulged  himself  once  more  in  drinking  wine  at 
the  feast,  which  was  prepared  from  the  thank-offering.  As,  in  some 
instances,  the  Xazarites  had  not  sufficient  property  to  enable  them 
to  meet  the  whole  expense  of  the  offerings,  other  persons,  who  pos- 
sessed more,  became  sharers  in  it,  and  in  this  way  were  made  par- 
ties to  the  TOW,  Bereshith  Rahba'dO.  Koheleth.  Rahba  7.  Acts  21: 
•23,  24. 

§  39  G.  Of  Pkayeus. 

Pravers  in  the  childhood  of  the  human  race,  were  nothing  more 
than  the  mere  unspoken  emotions,  which  were  naturally  inspired  by 
reverence  towards  God,  by  fear,  or  by  gratitude.  It  was  not,  till  a 
subsequent  period,  that  they  were  embodied  in  language,  and  that 
supplications  were  added  to  the  exercise  of  these  simple  emotions. 
Gen.  12:  8.  21:  33.  24:  20,  48.  2G:  25.  32:  9—12. 

Piloses  left  the  sul^ject  of  prayer  to  the  feelings  of  every  individual, 
and  made  no  arrangements  in  regard  to  it,  further  than  to  prescribe 
the  benediction  to  be  pronounced  by  the  priest,  Num.  G:  24,  25  ;  and 
a  formulary,  according  to  which  the  Hebrews,  in  their  presentation 
of  the  first  fruits,  were  to  return  thanks  to  God  for  the  possession  of 
the  land  of  Canaan,  Deut.  2G:  3—10,  13—15. 

Our  Lord's  prayer,  (Matt.  G:  9 — 13,)  is  a  selection  of  the  most 
devotional  and  appropriate  sentiments  from  the  Jewish  formularies, 
extant  in  his  time.  Compare  Vetstexii  Nov.  Test,  at  ]Matt.  G:  9 
— 13.  T.  I.  p.  323— 32G.  The  pious  Hebrews,  when  they  offered 
tlieir  sacrifices,  retui-ned  thanks  to  God  in  the  words  given  them  by 
!Moses,  and  thereby  kept  alive  in  their  bosoms  the  feelings  of  piety 
and  devotion. 

Hymns  were  sung  on  particular  occasions,  accompanied  with 
sacred  dances  and  instruments  of  music,  Exod.  xv.  Judg.  v.  Noth- 
ing is  said  of  anj'  other  public  devotional  exercises,  which  may  be 
called  prayers,  except  in  the  following  passages,  1  Kings  8:  14 — 21. 
23 — 53.  Ps.  72:  20.  Neh.  8:  G,  and  a  few  otiiers,  in  which  mention  is 
made  of  the  singing  of  Psalms  in  the  Temple. 

Individuals,  who  prayed  alone  in  private,  uttered  themselves 
aloud,  as  maybe  gathered  from  1  Sam.  1:  12 — 15,  compared  with 


OOO  §  300.    OF    I'KAYKKS. 

Luke  l.S:  10 — 1!.  The  IIel)re\vs  jjrayetl  in  the  altitude  of  staml- 
ing,  an  attiluclr,  wliidi  was  observed  in  tlie  Synagogue  and  in  tlie 
ancient  Christian  cliurch,  and  is  to  this  day  among  oriental  Chris- 
tians. It  appears,  that  they  sometimes  kneeled  likewise,  1  Kings  8: 
51.  2  Chron.  6:  13.  comji.  1  Kings  19:  18.  Dan.  G:  10.  Ezra  9:  5. 
Luke  22:  41.  Acts  7:  GO  ;  and  sometimes  prostrated  themselves  at 
full  length  on  the  ground,  Exod.  3-1:  8.  2  Chron,  29:  29.  Ps.  9.k  6. 
Matt.  2G:  39. 

Tiicy  raised  their  liands  to  heaven,  1  Kings  8:  2.  2  Chron.  '<>.  13. 
Isa.  1:  15  ;  and  sometimes  smote  upon  their  breasts,  Luke  18:  13. 

Elijah,  in  a  certain  instance,  inclined  his  body  so  much  when 
he  prayed,  tliat  his  head  touched  his  knees.  Probably  he  was  in  a 
sitting  posture  with  his  knees  bent,  1  Kings  18:  42.  The  Orientals 
of  the  present  day  do  not,  when  in  the  exercise  of  prayer,  confine 
themselves  to  one  position,  but  often  vary  it.  They  are  especially 
careful,  however,  when  at  prayers,  to  turn  the  face  in  a  particular 
direction ;  viz.  the  Jews  and  Christians  towards  Jerusalem,  and  the 
Mohammedans  towards  Mecca. 

Q    -•     CI 

The  Mohammedans  call  this  direction  id-o  kebla  or  the  front; 

the  Jews  call  it  (viz.  the  direction  towards  Jerusalem,)  nn'^n, 
"1'^5'n ,  i.  e.  the  hind  fart ;  because  the  Sanctuary,  towards  which 
they  turned  themselves,  was  in  the  western  or  hind  part  of  the  Tab- 
ernacle and  Temple.  Compare  1  Kings  8:  38.  42:  44,  48.  2  Chron. 
G:34,  38.  Dan.  G:  11,  14. 

The  KEBLA.  for  the  Mehestcmi  or  followers  of  Zoroaster,  i.  e.  the 
front  or  point  of  the  compass,  towards  which  they  turned  themselves 
when  they  worshipped,  was  the  East.     Compare  Ezek.  8:  16. 

Anciently  there  were  no  fixed  hours  for  prayer.  An  argument 
can  hardly  be  drawn  from  Ps.  57:  17,  that  three  definite  periods  in  a 
day  were  assigned  to  this  duty.  It  is  true,  however,  that  Daniel,  at  a 
somewhat  recent  period,  prayed  three  times  a  day,  without  doubt  at 
the  third,  sixth,  and  ninth  hours,  i.  e.  according  to  our  reckoning  at 
nine,  twelve,  and  three,  wliich  hours,  it  appears,  were  consecrated  tc 
prayer  in  the  time  of  the  Apostles,  Acts  2:  15.  3:  1.  10:  9. 


§397.  OF  Tiiic  -wousnir  ix  tuk  synagogues. 


501 


§  397.  Of  tuk  "\Vok?iiu>  ix  tiu:  Syxagogues. 

TVe  do  not  find  mention  made  of  public  \vorsliii)  in  the  Syna- 
gogues, except  on  the  Sabbath,  Matt.  12:  10.  Made  1:  21.  3:  1. 
6:2.  Luke  4:  IG,  32,  33.  6:  G.  13:10.  Acts  13:  14.  15:21.  16: 
13—25.  17:  2.  18:  4.  What  is  said  of  raufs  hiring  the  school  of 
one  Tyrannus  at  Ephesns  and  teaching  in  it  daily,  is  a  peculiar  in- 
stance, Acts  19:  9,  10.  Yet  there  can  be  no  doubt,  that  those 
Jews,  who  were  unable  to  go  to  Jerusalem,  attended  worship  on 
their  festival  days,  as  well  as  on  the  Sabbath,  in  their  own  Syna 
gogues. 

Individuals  sometimes  offered  their  private  prayers  in  the  Syna- 
t'Oirue.  When  an  assembly  was  collected  together  for  worship, 
the  services  began,  after  the  customary  greeting,  with  a  dvxology. 
A  section  was  then  read  from  the  Mosaic  Law.  Then  followed, 
after  the  singing  of  a  second  doxology,  the  reading  of  a  portion 
from  the  Trophets,  Acts  15:  21.  Luke  4:  16.  The  person,  whose 
duty  it  was  to  iierform  the  reading,  placed  upon  his  head,  as  is  done 
at  the  present  day,  a  covering  called  TctUith,  to  which  Paul  alludes, 
2  Cor.  3:  15.  The  sections,  which  had  been  read  in  the  Hebrew, 
were  rendered  by  an  interpreter  into  the  vernacular  tongue,  and  the 
reader  or  some  other  one  then  addressed  the  people,  Luke  4:  16. 
Acts  13:  15. 

It  was  on  such  occasions,  as  these,  that  Jesus,  and  afterwards 
the  Apostles,  taught  the  Gospel.  The  meeting,  as  far  as  the  reli- 
gious exercises  were  concerned,  was  ended  with  a  prayer,  to  which 
the  people  responded  amex,  when  a  collection  was  taken  for  the 
poor. 

The  customs,  which  prevail  at  the  present  day,  and  which  Vitringa 
has  treated  of,  (de  Svxagoga  veteui,  p.  946—1050.)  were  not  all 
of  them  practised  in  ancient  times.  The  readers,  for  instance,  were 
not  then,  as  they  are  at  the  present  day,  called  upon  to  perform,  but 
presented  themselves  voluntarily,  Luke  4:  16;  the  persons  also,  who 
addressed  the  people,  were  not  Rabbins,  expressly  appointed  for  that 
purpose,  but  were  either  invited  from  those  present,  or  offered  them- 
selves, Acts  13:  15.  Luke  4:  16. 

The  parts  to  be  publicly  read  likewise,  do  not  appear  to  have 
been   previously  pointed  out,  although   the  hooh   was   selected  by 


502  §  -197.  or  Tin;  wuKsiur  in  thi:  svnaooouks. 

the  i-iilei-  of  llic  Svii;igogiic,  Luke  4:  IG  ft  sccj.  Furtlicniioiv.  ili-,- 
forms  of  prayer,  that  arc  used  by  the  Jews  at  the  present  time,  do 
not  appeal-  to  have  been  in  existence,  in  the  time  of  Christ ;  un- 
less this  may  ])eriiaps  have  been  the  ciif-e  in  ]-esi)ect  to  the  sub- 
stance of  some  of  them,  especially  the  one  called  Kiti  Siima,  i~p 
r^'r ,  concerning  which  the  Talmudists,  at  a  very  early  period,  gave 
many  {)recepts  and  of  which  also  something  remains  to  be  said  by  us. 

The  name  is  borrowed  from  the  first  word,  which  occurs  in  the 
fourth  verse  of  the  sixth  chapter  of  Deuteronomy,  viz.  v^'::;  hv.i  this 
formulary  of  supplication  embraced  not  only  this  passage,  viz.  Deut. 
G:  4 — 9,  but  also  11:  13 — 21,  and  Kum.  15:  37 — 41  ;  in  which  pas- 
sages, it  is  inculcated  on  the  Hebrews,  to  retain  the  law  of  God  per- 
petually in  mind,  to  meditate  upon  it,  to  aj)ply  it  to  themselves,  and 
to  reduce  it  to  practice. 

It  Avas  a  precept  among  the  Eabbins,  that  every  Jew  was 
bound  in  duty,  having  first  furnished  himself  with  Phylacteries  and 
having  placed  the  Tallitli  on  his  head,  to  repeat  these  jjassages  on 
the  Sabbath,  and  on  INIonday  and  Thursday ;  in  the  morning, 
with  three,  and  in  the  evening  with  four  doxologies.  This  was  to 
be  done  in  the  Synagogue.  But  when  this  could  not  be  the  case, 
he  was  to  recite  the  passages,  wherever  he  might  be,  standing  either 
in  the  streets  or  the  public  square.  It  was  the  practice  among  the 
Pharisees  in  the  time  of  Christ  to  visit  the  corners  of  the  streets,  at 
the  hours  when  these  supplications  were  uttered,  so  that  it  might  be 
seen  from  more  than  one  direction,  with  how  much  devotion  they 
recited  the  passages  in  question,  Matt.  G:  5.  Yitringa  de  syxagoga, 
pp.  1051—1060. 

It  was  an  observation  among  the  Jews,  that  the  recitation  of  these 
passages  and  of  the  doxologies  excited  or  produced  in  their  minds 
the  kingdom  of  God  or  of  heaven.  (See  Wetstein's  New^  Testament 
at  Matt.  6:  5.  T.  I.  p.  25 G.)  The  meaning  of  this  remark,  as  is  evi- 
dent from  an  attentive  consideration  of  the  facts,  that  may  be  brought 
in  reference  to  it,  is  nothing  more  than  this,  that  these  exercises  ex- 
cited within  them  devotional  or  religious  feelings,  which  they  expressed 
by  the  phrase  kingdom  of  God  or  of  heaven. 

The  })hrases,  tho  kingdom  of  God,  and  the  kingdom  of  heaveri 
are  sometimes  used  in  the  New  Testament  for  the  gospel  dispensa- 
tion, or  the  reign  of  the  Messiah,  because  it  was  expected,  that 
religious    feelings,    practice,    and   joys    would    be   consummated    in 


§  309.  modi:  of  avoksiiip  practiskd  by  the  apostles.     503 

Him.     It  is  also  used  for  the  state  oi-  residence  of  the  blessed  after 
death  ;  because  Messiah's  kingdom  endures  beyond  the  grave,  and 
^•eceives  its  final  consummation  in  another  world. 

§  398.  The  Language  ix  "which  the  Service  -^n^as  rERFORMED 

IX    THE    SVXAGOGUES. 

The  object  of  the  erection  of  the  Synagogues  was  the  instruction 
of  tiie  people  in  moral  and  religious  truths,  which  evidently  could  not 
have  been  secured,  had  not  the  services  been  partly  at  least  in  the 
dialect,  understood  by  the  people  generally.  There  is  no  doubt, 
therefore,  that  the  prelections  in  Hebrew  were  rendered  by  an  inter- 
preter into  tlie  vernacular  tongue ;  and  this  is  the  statement  of  the 
Talmud  on  the  subject. 

In  the  Synagogues  of  the  Hellenists,  the  Alexandrine  Version  was 
read,  a5  Terlullian,  (Apol.  18.)  testifies.  Hence  very  many  of  the 
Talmudists  make  mention  of  this  version  in  very  honorable  terms. 
The  more  recent  of  them,  however,  observing,  that  the  Christians,  in 
their  attacks  on  the  Jews,  drew  their  most  efiicient  weapons  from 
this  version,  became  hostile  to  it,  and  strove  to  exclude  it  from  the 
Synagogues,  but  their  attempts  in  this  respect  were  defeated  by  the 
emperor  Justinian. 

The  doxologies  and  prayers  were  also,  for  the  reason  above 
given,  recited  in  the  language,  which  prevailed  among  the  peo- 
ple. Some  Hebrew  words,  it  is  true,  were  retained,  viz.  amen, 
'i^x.  Hallelujah,  r;;  '.p^n,  Sabaoth,  T'iiZJ,  which  are  retained 
in  common  use  at  tiie  present  day  in  Christian  churches,  and 
which  occur  also  in  the  New  Testament.  The  dialect  in  popu- 
lar use,  in  which  the  services  of  the  Jewish  Synagogues  were 
performed  was  the  Aramean.  As  instances,  see  Mark  15:  34, 
u.m,  i).co't\  ).a[(uu  ou^ayOavt,  aczz)  "^in^x  "'"nsi*  'rrpz-,  also 
Mark  7:  34,  eqqu&a,  the  same  with  the  Aramean  nrtrs,  be  thou 
opened. 

§  399.  Mode  of  "Worship  practised  by  the  Apostles. 

It  was  by  ministering  in  synagogues,  that  the  apostles  gathered  the 
first  churches.  They  retained  also  essentially  the  same  mode  of  wor- 
ship with  that  of  the  Synagogues,  excepting  that  the  Lord's  Supper 


504      §  399.   MODE    OF    -WORSIIIP    rUACTISKD    BY    TIIK    APOSTLES. 

was  made   an   additional    institution,  agivcaldy  to    the    example  of 
Clirist,  Acts  2:  42.    '20:  7—11.    1   Cor.  11:  17—34.     They  were  at 
length  excluded  from  the  Synagogues,  and  assembled  at  evening  at  ^ 
the  house  of  some  Christian,  which  was  lighted  for  the  purpose  with 
lamps.  Acts  20:  7,  11. 

The  Apostle  with  the  Elders,  wiien  engaged  in  pnhlic  worship 
took  a  position,  where  they  would  be  most  likely  to  be  heard  by  all. 
The  first  service  was  merely  a  salutation  or  blessing,  viz.  t/te  Lord  be 
with  you,  or  ^^^ace  he  loith  you.  Then  followed  the  doxologies  and 
prelections,  the  same  as  in  the  Synagogues.  The  Apostle  then 
addressed  the  people  on  the  suliject  of  religion,  and  urged  upon 
them  that  purity  of  life  which  it  required.  Pi-ayer  succeeded,  which 
was  followed  by  the  commemoration  of  the  Saviour's  death  in  the 
breaking  and  distribution  of  bread.  Tlie  meeting  was  ended  by  taking 
a  collection  for  the  poor,  especially  those  at  Jerusalem,  2  Cor.  9:  1 — 
15.  comp.  Justini  Apolog.  1. 

Those,  who  held  some  office  in  the  Church,  were  the  regularly 
qualified  instructors  in  these  religious  meetings  ;  and  yet  laymen  had 
liberty  to  address  their  brethren  on  these  occasions,  the  same  as  in 
the  Synagogues,  also  to  sing  hymns,  and  to  pray,  which,  in  truth, 
many  of  them  did,  especially  those  who  were  supernaturally  gifted, 
not  excepting  the  Avomen.  Those  females,  who  were  not  under  a 
supernatural  influence,  were  forbidden  by  the  Apostle  Paul  to  make 
an  address  on  such  occasions,  or  to  propose  questions,  and  it  was  en- 
joined on  those  who  did  speak,  not  to  lay  aside  their  veils,  1  Cor.  11: 
5.  14:34—40. 

The  reader  and  the  speaker  stood ;  the  others  sat ;  all  arose  in  the 
time  of  prayer.  "Whatever  was  stated  in  a  foreign  tongue,  was  imme- 
diately rendered  by  an  interpreter  into  the  speech  in  common  use. 
This  was  so  necessary,  that  Paul  enjoined  silence  on  a  person,  who 
was  even  endowed  with  supernatural  gifts,  provided  an  interpreter 
was  not  at  hand,  1  Cor.  14:  1 — 33. 

It  was  the  practice  among  the  Greek  Christians  to  uncover  their 
heads,  when  attending  divine  service,  1  Cor.  11:  11 — IG.  But  in  the 
East,  the  ancient  custom  of  worshipping  with  the  head  covered,  was 
retained.  Indeed,  it  is  the  jiractice  among  tlie  Oriental  Christians  to 
the  present  day,  not  to  uncover  their  heads  in  their  religious  meetings, 
except  when  they  receive  the  Eucharist. 


§  400.    OF    IDOL    DF.ITIES.  505 

Tlicir  str.ted  public  religious  meetings  were  held  by  the  Apostles 
on  tlie  first  day  of  the  Aveek,  i.  e.  Simday,  or,  as  it  is  called  in  the 
Apocalypse,  the  Lord's  day,  Kev.  1:  10.  Unless,  indeed,  we  are  to 
understand  from  what  is  said  in  Acts  20:  G,  7,  that  the  frst  day  of 
ihe  week  means  the  evening  of  Saturday,  at  which  time,  ( in  the  eve- 
ning,) the  Jews  began  to  reekon  their  days. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


CONCERNING    IDOLATRY 


§  400.  Of  Idol  deities. 

That  the  knowledge  of  the  existence  and  character  of  God, 
as  taught  in  the  Bible,  was  derived  from  divine  Revelation,  may, 
independently  of  other  considerations,  be  reasonably  inferred  from 
this,  viz.  that  men,  left  to  themselves,  do  not  appear  to  have  been 
able,  at  the  time  when  the  early  parts  of  the  Scriptures  were  writ 
ten  to  form  such  an  idea  of  the  Supreme  Being,  as  is  therein  com- 
municated. In  truth,  the  history  of  mankind  enables  us  to  assert 
with  confidence,  that  no  nation  whatever  of  itself  ever  attained  to 
such  a  sublime  idea. 

Even  the  Greek  philosophers,  after  having  wandered  in  the 
mazes  of  error  for  more  than  two  hundred  years,  acknowledged 
him  indeed,  as  the  framer  or  architect  of  the  world,  the  being, 
that  gave  to  it  its  form  and  symmetry,  but  did  not  acknowledge 
liim,  as  its  creator,  much  less  widen  the  range  of  their  thoughts  to 
the  conception  of  Him,  ns  the  creator  and  governor  of  the  uni- 
I'crse.     Furthermore,  they  do  not    appear    to    have    had    any  true 

43 


506  §  400.    OF    IDOL    DKITIKS. 

notion  of  lliin,  ns  th(>  I'lilcr  and  jiulgc  of  nu'n.  .■uid  wcix'  tlif.-  vi(;lims 
of  such  a  mental  blindnoss,  as  not  to  see  llic  vanity  and  nothingness 
of  all  othcT  deities. 

But  if  thcs(j  gifted  and  sci-utini/.ing  men,  wlio  so  well  under- 
stood so  many  things,  ])ertaining  to  the  natural  sciences,  did  not 
acknowledge  God.  as  the  Creator  and  Governor  of  the  universe, 
and  the  judge  of  the  human  race,  who  is  rei)rc5ented  as  such  in 
the  most  ancient  jjarts  of  the  Bible,  who  then  will  say,  that  Abra- 
ham, Noah,  Enoch,  and  Adam,  or  if  it  jilcase,  Samuel,  David, 
Asaph,  and  Nathan,  so  much  inferior  to  these  philosophers,  in 
point  of  scientific  knowledge,  could  icithout  the  intervention  of  Rev 
efa^io??,  have  possessed  that  full  and  pure  idea  of  a  God,  -which  we 
know  they  did  possess  ?  If  the  knowledge  of  God  had  been  a  mat- 
ter so  very  obvious  and  easy,  certainly  the  Hebrews,  at  least  after 
the  time  of  David,  would  not  have  failed  to  show  themselves  his  con- 
stant worshii)pers ;  at  least,  the  most  literary  of  the  Jews  in  the  time 
of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  would  not  have  laid  a  plan  to  introduce 
idolatry  again  among  their  countrymen.     Compare  Meiner's  HiSTO- 

RIA  DOCTRIXAE  DE  A'ERO  DeO,  1780. 

Those  persons,  v/ho  maintain,  that  the  primitive  worship  was 
that  of  animals  and  idols,  reason  A  TRiOPa  on  the  subject,  and  take 
it  for  granted,  that  men  always  ascend,  and  never  descend  in  know- 
ledge. But  this  position  is  refuted  by  all  liistory,  especially  that  of 
religion,  which  has  experienced  very  many  reverses,  and  often  seen 
its  Hebrew  votaries  relapsing  back  to  idolatry. 

A  relai)se  or  descent  of  this  kind  happened  previously  to  the 
deluge,  wlien  multitudes  rejected  the,  revealed  knowledge  of  God, 
and  the  divine  admonitions,  and  gave  themselves  up  to  every  sort  of 
wickedness.  Such  a  relapse  took  place  in  the  time  of  Abraham, 
■when  men,  becoming  the  dupes  of  superstition,  transformed  into 
deities,  and  worshipped,  animals,  the  earth,  the  sea,  winds,  rivers, 
fire,  stones,  plants,  tlie  sun,  moon,  and  stars ;  in  the  progress  of  time 
also,  they  deified  and  worshipped  abstract  qualities,  as  fiime,  concord, 
piety,  faith,  to  which  they  erected  altars.  See  Cicero  de  Nat.  Deor. 
L.  III.  1 G  —  23,  2-i.  DE  Leg.  II.  8.  They  also  worsliipped  physical 
evils,  as  fevers,  evil  fortune,  and  moral  ones,  as  imprudence,  defama- 
tion, etc.  Pliny,  Nat.  Hist.  II,  5. 

In  very  ancient  times  those  men,  who  excelled  others  in 
strength,  in  ])ower,  and  in  prudence,  and  who,  in  consequence,  be- 


§  400.  or  IDOL  DiuTiKs.  507 

came  tlie  instruments  of  great  good  or  of  great  evil,  were  reck- 
oned among  the  gods,  when  they  were  dead :  so  that  the  majority, 
if  not  the  whole,  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  deities  migrated  to  hea- 
ven from  among  the  children  of  men,  Ilerod.  I.  131,  144.  Cicero 
TuscuL.  QuAEST.  I.  12, 13.  DE  Nat.  Deou.  I.  42.  III.  15  —  23.  Diod. 
Sic.  V.  74  —  80.  Josephu?,  Antiq.  IX.  4,  5.  Hence  the  gods  are 
said  in  Scripture  to  be  dead,  an  expression,  which  is  also  ai)plied  to 
vain  idols,  that  were  destitute  of  life.  God  on  the  conirarv  is  call- 
ed the  living  God. 

In  a  more  recent  age,  although  the  study  of  philosoi)hy  flour- 
ished, the  most  wicked  of  heathen  kings  and  generals  while  yet 
living,  not  waiting  till  after  death  to  be  canonized,  obtained  tem- 
ples, and  procured  priests  to  adore  them  with  the  offering  r.p  of  sac- 
rifices. 

Many  nations  believed,  that  there  were  cruel  and  malignant  dei- 
ties. The  Egyptians  had  their  Typho,  and  the  Mehestani  their 
Ahrimunus  and  innumerable  other  demons  of  a  like  character,  that 
were  subject  to  him,  which,  however,  being  taught  by  Zoroaster, 
they  did  not  worship,  but  resisted.  The  good  deities  also  were 
frequently  enraged,  not  so  much  indeed  on  account  of  the  sins  and 
the  corruption  of  men,  as  through  a  failure  in  the  worship  they 
expected,  and  through  mere  petulance,  and  accordingly  persecuted 
some  men  without  any  cause,  as  may  be  seen  in  Homer.  (Con- 
sult Valerius  Max.  Lib.  I.  1.  p.  38  —  42.)  Hence  the  justice  of  Je- 
hovah is  often  celebrated  in  the  Bible. 

E^•ery  nation  and  city  had  its  own  gods,  (Pliny  II.  5.  comp. 
2  Kings  17:  24  —  34.  Jer.  2:,28,)  which  at  first  had  acquired  some 
celebrity  l)y  the  worsliip  of  some  particular  family  merely,  but 
were  at  length  Avorsiiipped  by  the  other  families  of  that  town  or 
nation,  yet  each  family  had  its  separate  household  or  tutelary  gods. 
!Xo  one  felt  himself  bound  to  worship  every  god,  but  paid  his  hon- 
ors, as  he  chose,  to  those  he  deemed  most  propitious  or  most  pow- 
erful. But  still  he  did  not  think  it  advisable  wholly  to  neglect  oth- 
er gods,  lest,  perchance,  thinking  themselves  contemned  by  such 
neglect,  they  should  revenge  themselves  by  sending  some  evil  ret- 
ribution. The  gods  of  those  states  and  cities,  which  had  become 
illustrious  by  wealth  at  home,  and  successful  war  abroad,  were 
accounted  great  and  powerful;  but  those,  on  the  other  hand,  of 
weak  and    con(iucred    nations,    were    considered    weak    and    in)po- 


.308  §  401.    ALTAUS,    STATUTES,    TEMPLES,    CnOVES. 

tent,  not  l^'ing  iiblc  to  defend  tlieir  own  votaries.  Hence  their  idols 
were  carried  uwuy  by  tlie  victors,  as  marks  of  the  triumjiii,  IIos.  10: 
5.  Is.  4G:  1.  Jer.  48:  7.  1   Kings  20:  23,  28. 

In  conformity  with  these  sentiments,  Cicero,  in  his  oration  for  Flac- 
cus  28,  exclaims,  in  respect  to  the  conquest  of  the  Jewish  nation, 
"  Quam  caret  diis  immorlalibits  essel,  docuit,  quod  est  victa,  (jiiod  elocata, 
quod  servata"  And  hence  in  the  Bible  Jehovah  is  so  ol'ten  repre- 
sented, as  all-powerfnl.  Their  deities,  in  the  estimation  of  tlie  hea- 
then, could  be  compelled  to  regard  the  prayers  of  their  supplicants 
by  certain  incantations ;  they  \;ere  thought,  moreover,  to  sleep,  to  rest, 
and  to  approach  to  the  sacrifices  offered  to  them,  as  to  a  banquet, 
Iliad  I,  423,  424,  609  —  Gil,  Lucian  de  sacrificiis,  1  Kings  18: 
27,  28.  These  deities  were  of  both  sexes,  lived  in  matrimony,  com- 
mitted adultery,  and  even  polluted  themselves  with  intercourse  with 
mortals. 

§  401.  Altars,  Statutes,  Temples,  Groves. 

To  the  false  deities,  of  which  we  have  spoken  in  tlie  preceding 
section,  were  ei'ected, 

I.  Altars,  Deut.  7:  5.  12:  2.  The  Mehestani  alone  had  nothing 
but  fire-hearths,  since  they  offered  to  the  superior  powers,  which 
they  worshiijped,  only  the  life  or  spirit  of  the  animal,  and  consumed 
the  body  themselves.  The  Greeks  erected  to  their  celestial  gods 
altars  (j^mno)  ri':3 ,)  of  twenty  cubits  in  height.  To  the  Earth,  the 
Sea,  and  to  Vesta,  they  erected  altars  of  less  altitude ;  and  to 
the  heroes,  whom  they  had  canonieed,  those,  which  were  still 
lower.  They  sacrificed  to  tlie  infernal  deities,  and  to  Xymphs, 
in  caves  and  various  subterranean  recesses.  (See  Potter's  Greek 
Antiquities,  Part.  I.  p.  4G7  —  472.) 

As  an  accompaniment  to  the  altars,  there  were  added ; 

U.  The  images  of  the  gods.  These  images  were  at  first  mis- 
shapen blocks  of  wood  or  stone,  the  remains  of  which  were  de- 
nominated in  latter  periods  Bethels,  (iatzvhu  ^aizvhm.  Tlie  stones 
were  mostly  small,  of  a  black  color,  sometimes  conical,  some- 
times cylindrical,  and  sometimes  round.  The  largest  of  them 
••vere  either  square  or  conical,  and  all  of  tliem  were  supposed 
(()  possess  an  inherent  efficacy  of  more  than  an  earthly  nature. 
Ihe  name  ^uizvha,  as  every  one   will  see,  originated  in  a  misap- 


§  401.    ALTAKS,    STATUTI-.S,    TlCMrLKS,    GROVKS.  509 

plication  of  the  Hebrew    bs  r-2.     See   Gen.  28:  17,  22,  and   Rain- 
baoh  on  Pptter's  Antiquities,  Part  I.  p.  4G3. 

In  the  progress  of  time,  it  became  the  practice  to  expend  much 
labor  and  art  upon  images,  some  of  wliich  were  made  of  colossal 
stature.  At  first  they  were  made  of  wood,  but  afterwa/ds  of  stone 
and  ivorv,  and  finally  of  metal.  But  those  made  of  wood  and  stone 
were  eitlier  covered  with  laminae  of  silver  and  gold,  or  were  clothed 
in  precious  vests,  Num.  33:  52.  Deut.  4:  28.  5:  8.  7:  5.  12:  3.  29: 
17.    Judg.  17:  4.    Jer.  10:  9. 

These  images  were  seen,  in  the  time  of  Moses,  in  the  form  of 
men,  women,  quadrupeds,  birds,  insects,  fishes,  the  sun,  moon,  and 
stars,  Exod.  20:  4,  5.  Deut.  4:  IG  — 18.  5:  8,  9.  Some  were  com- 
pound forms,  partly  human,  partly  animal ;  for  instance,  the  Egyp- 
tian Anubis,  which  had  the  head  of  a  dog,  the  Osiris,  which  had 
the  head  of  a  bird,  and  the  Dagon  of  the  Philistines,  Avhich,  with  a 
human  form  above,  terminated  below,  in  the  shape  of  a  fish.  The 
images  or  statues,  of  which  we  have  now  spoken,  were  believed  to 
be,  if  not  the  gods  themselves,  at  least  the  abodes,  into  which  they 
could  be  forced  by  certain  religious  ceremonies  and  incantations; 
and  hence  it  came  to  be  believed,  that  they  were  subject  to  the  or- 
dinary passions  of  men,  Curtius,  IV.  11.  DIodor.  Siculus  XVII.  40. 
Plin.  Natural  History,  XXXVIII. 

HI.  Idol  images  were  originally  protected  against  the  injuries 
of  the  weather  by  a  roof  supported  on  columns.  Afterwards  walls 
were  erected,  and  in  this  sway  arose  a  small  Temple.  In  progress  of 
time,  the  small  Temple  became  a  large  and  magnificent  one,  for  the 
most  part  square,  sometimes  oblong.  It  had  no  windows,  and  the 
columns,  on  which  the  roof  formerly  rested,  being  retained  as  an  or- 
nament, were  so  arranged,  and  increased  in  number,  as  to  form  a 
cloister  or  covered  walk  round  the  main  building.  Tiie  Temples 
were  divided  into  two  apartments,  the  Sanctuary  and  the  shrine,  and 
were  surrounded  with  a  large  open  court,  in  v.'hich  was  the  altar, 
and  in  which  the  people  assembled,  Stieglitz,  Archaeol.  der  Bau- 
kunstll.   1  —  14.  tab. 

Temples  were  made  the  repositories  of  treasures,  and  some 
of  them  in  oriental  countries  were  protected  in  ancient  times  by 
a  tower,  Judg.  9:  4,  40.  Altars  were  sometimes  erected  without 
reference  to  any  Temple,  and  the  names  of  the  deities,  to  which 
they   were     dedicated,  were    inscribed    upon    them.     There  were 

•43 


510  §  402.  SAcmncr.s,  imjaykks,  ikstivals,  ktc. 

ccrtiiin  altars  at  Atlieii?,  \vliic-h  bore  the  iiiscription,  uyruHnut-;  Os- 
du',  to  the  imhiown  gods,  Pausanias  ix  Atticis,  I.  1.  in  Eliacis  V 
11.  Diogenes  Laertius  I.  10,  3. 

Paul  (Acts  17:  23)  lias  given  this  inscription  in  the  singular 
nuniher,  viz.  uyrojaTcp  -OiO);  as  Jerome,  (Ei'ISt.  ad  Magx.  ei'SIC. 
KT  COMMKXT.  AD  TiT.  III.)  lias  remarked.  As  God  was  originally 
worshipped  by  his  creatures  under  the  open  sky,  it  afterwards 
came  to  be  the  case,  as  was  very  natural,  to  select  siiady  groves 
for  the  purpose  of  devotion.     Hence    it  eventually  happened,  that, 

liV.  Groves  were  planted  around  the  heathen  Temples,  espe- 
cially if"  the  deities  were  believed  to  patronize  immodesty  and  pros- 
litution,  Horace  Lib.  I.  Ode  12.  Hence  it  is  forbidden,  (Dent.  12: 
2.  IG;  21,)  to  plant  trees  near  the  Sanctuary,  and  the  Hebrews  are 
connnanded,  (Deut.  7:  5.  12:  3,)  to  cut  down  and  burn  the  groves 
of  the  Canaanites. 

V.  Priests  and  priestesses  performed  the  duties  of  these  Tem- 
jilcs.  Their  heads  were  bound  with  fillets.  The  victims  and  the 
altars  Avcre  adorned  in  the  same  manner.  The  priests  made 
known  to  the  people  what  services  were  to  be  performed  on  their 
part,  and  gave  responses,  Potter's  Antiquities,  Part  I.  p.  503.  Acts 
14:  13. 


§  402.  Sacrifices,  Prayers,  Festivals,  Purificatioxs, 
Mysteries. 

It  v.as  by  no  means  the  tendency  of  the  worship  of  tiiese  deities 
to  produce  in  their  votaries  moral  integrity  and  innocence  of  life. 
They  were  resorted  to,  and  supplications  were  offered,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  obtaining  some  exteimal  good  or  eliciting  some  response,  and 
it  was  for  these,  that  thanks  were  returned  to  them. 

The  Meiiestaxi  alone,  whose  idolatry  was  of  a  more  refined 
kind,  prayed  with  many  supplications  for  purity  of  tliought,  word 
and  deed,  but  what  this  purity  was,  we  are  not  told.  Like  other 
Gentiles,  they  mingled  with  their  worship  many  absurd  ceremo- 
nies, and  attributed  a  superstitious  efficacy  to  certain  forms  of 
[)rayer.  They  believed,  that  the  guilt  of  the  most  atrocious 
crimes  might  be  done  away  by  expiatory  sacrifices,  though  the 
moral  character,  at  the  same  time,  remained  the  same.  They 
even  made  tb ;;   commission   of  crimes   a   part   of  the   divine   wor- 


§  402.    SACRIFICES,    riJAYERS,    FESTIVALS,    ETC.  511 

ship,  and  it  is  no  wonder,  for  it  was  an  article  of  their  creed,  that 
their  gods  were  not  free  from  vice. 

The  principal  parts  of  idol  worship  were, 

I.'  Sacrijiccs,  viz.  victims,  salt  cakes,  libations,  honey,  and  m- 
cense.  It  was  necessary,  that  the  person  who  offered  them, 
should  he  washed,  be  clad  in  newly-washed  garments,  and  be  pure, 
i.  e.  have  abstained  from  sexual  intercourse.  The  victims  were 
different  according  to  the  different  deities ;  they  were  to  be  free 
from  all  defect,  and  omens  were  gathered  from  them  by  an  inspec- 
tion of  the  internal  parts,  especially  the  liver.  Not  only  animals, 
but  human  beings  also  were  immolated  by  almost  all  the  nations  to 
their  gods,  Eusebius,  Piiaep.  Evang.  L.  IV.  c.  IG.  p.  155  —  IGl. 
Pliny,  IIiST.  N^AT.  XXVIII.  3.  Diodor.  Siculus  V.  32. 

By  the  Canaanites  especially,  the  most  promising  of  their  off- 
spring were  sacrificed.  Lev.  18:  21.  20:  1—9.  Deut.  18:  9—14. 
Libations  of  wine  v/ere  poured  out  between  the  horns  of  the  vic- 
tim, Ovid,  Metamorphoses,  VII.  59.  3  ;  but  when  no  victims  were 
slain,  they  were  poured  upon  the  earth. 

II.  Prayers.  The  worshippers,  in  the  intervals  of  time  be- 
tween the  offering  of  the  successive  supphcations,  were  accustom- 
ed to  employ  themselves  in  kissing  or  embracing  the  hands  and 
knees  of  the  idols.  Great  care  was  taken,  in  respect  to  the  for- 
mularies of  supplication,  that  nothing  might  be  omitted  or  improp- 
erly uttered,  and  that  no  title  of  honor  should  be  passed  by,  for  any 
thing  of  this  kind  rendered  the  prayers,  to  which  the  persuasive 
power  was  attributed,  inefneacious,  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  XXVIII.  3. 
Valerius  INIaximus  XUI.  1.  5.  In  consequence  of  these  feelings 
on  the  subject,  their  prayers  were  uttered  syllable  for  syllable,  and 
both  syllables  and  words  were  often  repeated;  a  practice,  Avhicli  is 
condemned,  by  our  Saviour,  IMatt.  G:  7.  When  tliey  prayed,  they 
often  wounded  their  bodies,  or  shouted  and  leaped  around  the  al- 
tar, 1  Kings  18:  2G— 29.  Strabo.  p.  801.  Lucian  de  Salt.  Athe- 
naeus  Symi'Os.  Lib.  II.  1. 

III.  Festivals  were  celeljrated  by  the  heathen  in  honor  of 
their  false  deities;  on  which  occasions  sacrifices  were  offered, 
feasts  were  held,  there  were  various  sports  and  exercises ;  and  sol- 
emn processions,  in  representation  of  their  mythological  history, 
proceeded  through  the  streets.  To  the  Myslcries,  which  were 
celebrated  on    certain  of   these    festivals,    no  one    had    access,  but 


512  §  403.    COXCKHMNG    DIVINATIONS,    KTC. 

those,  Avlio  were  initiiitcd ;  mid  slill  it  docs  not  npi)car,  lliat  any 
more  correct  religious  notions  Avcre  taught  in  them,  than  on  oth- 
er occasions.  On  the  contrary,  Cicero,  (de  Nat.  Dkoku.m  Lib.  I. 
42.)  remarks,  that  they  were  occupied  rather  -with  an  explication 
of  the  nature  of  things,  than  of  the  science  of  his  gods  ;  but  he 
makes  a  fui-ther  remark,  however,  in  his  Tusculan  Questions,  Bk. 
II.  1,  that  the  doctrine  prevailed  in  them,  that  the  gods  Avere  for- 
merly men. 

IV.  Purtjications.  Tl'.ose  Avere  performed  Ijy  water,  blood, 
fire,"  sulphur,  and  among  the  Mehestani,  by  the  urine  of  oxen  also, 
by  which  all  impurity  was  taken  away,  and  as  they  believed  ex- 
piation could  be  made  for  any  crime  whatever,  Zend-Avesta,  P.  II. 
p.  340—342,  343—378.  P.  III.  p.  209—220. 

V.  A  part  of  the  worship  in  question  consisted  in  the  prostitu- 
tion of  females  and  boys  ;  and  in  Egypt  hcstiality  likewise  made  a 
part  of  it,  Ilerodot.  1.  93.  182.  199.  Valerius  Maxiraus  III.  6,  15. 
Athenaeus  Sympos.  XIII.  Strabo,  p.  272.  In  the  temple  of  Venus 
at  Corinth,  there  were  more  than  a  thousand  prostitutes,  Strabo, 
878.  comp.  1  Cor.  5:  9—11.  G:  9,  13,  18.  2  Cor.  12:  21. 

§  403.  Concerning  Divinations,  etc. 

In  the  early  ages  of  antiquity,  numerous  divinations  and  sleights 
of  hand  were  practised,  and  the  impostors,  who  understood  them, 
were  held  in  distinguished  honor. 

I.  As  early  as  the  time  of  Joseph,  there  appeared  in  Egypt 
persons  of  this  description,  called  n-si:"7n,  in  the  Egyptian  dia- 
lect CHEKTOJr,  i.  e.  worhers  of  miracles,  otherwise  called  hQnyQn[j{^ia- 
T£ig,  or  tl/ose  skilled  in  the  interpretation  of  hicrogly pineal  charac- 
ters. "We  find,  that,  in  the  history  of  the  patriarch  just  alluded 
to,  these  persons  were  held  in  much  honor,  as  interpreters  of 
dreams.  Gen.  41:  8,  and  in  the  history  of  Moses,  we  find  them 
making  attempts  at  miracles,  Exod.  7:  11 — 18.  Two  of  these 
workers  of  wonders,  the  Jews  agree  in  calling  Jannes  and  Jarn- 
hres,  2  Tim.  3:  8.  comp.  Jablonskii  orusc.  I.  401.  Eichhorn's  Re- 
pert.  XIII.  18.  The  astrologers,  who  are  mentioned,  Dan.  1:  20. 
2:  2,  10.  4:  4 — 6.  5:  11,  and  are  denominated  c-rii-ri,  do  not  ap- 
pear to  have  been  the  same  with  those  in  Egypt,  although  they 
professed  to  interpret  dreams.      Perhaps,  in  order  to  ascertain  the 


§403.    CON'CERNING    DIVINAIIONS,    KTC.  513 

true  meaning  of  tlie  term,  by  wliich  they  are  designated  in  these 
instances,  we  ought  to  compare  tlie   Chaldee  word  -'-'r    with  the 

Persian  word  J*JjcJwi»-  Diivrdamaxd,  i.  e.  one  shilled  in  science. 

IL  Xecromancers,  T'z'.ii,  zriv^:- ,  were  very  numerous.  It 
was  one  of  the  Laws  of  Moses,  that  persons  of  this  description 
should  be  put  to  death  by  stoning;  for  those,  who  attributed  to 
the  dead  a  knowledge  of  future  events,  which  belongs  to  God 
alone,  virtually  disclaimed  his  allegiance,  Lev.  20:  2G.  The  He- 
brew words  above  quoted  properly  signify  the  spirits  of  the  dead, 
and  are  applied  to  Necromancers  by  metonymy  ;  for  the  Arabic  Ain 

Vav  verb  ^^1  ,  which  is  the  root  of  2"X ,  means  to  return,  so  that  we 
may  consider  the  strict  meaning  of  tlie  derivative  to  be  a  spirit  return- 
ed, i.  e.  from  the  dead ;  Avhile  the  other  word  =":--■; ,  (from  "-;  to 
blow)  means  those  that  hnoic,  i.  e.  the  spirits  of  the  dead,  who  were 
supposed  to  reveal  the  events  of  the  future.  In  the  same  way,  the 
Greek  5«/mco>' is  derived  from  data,  the  Latin  disco.  Lev.  19:  31. 
20:  27.  beut.  18:  11.  1  Sam.  28:  3—10.  2  Kings.  21:  G.  23:  24. 
The  impostors,  who  bore  the  name  of  Necromancers,  and  who  were 
designated  in  the  Hebrew  by  the  words,  upon  which  we  have  now 
remarked,  pretended  that  they  were  able  by  their  incantations  to 
summon  back  departed  spirits  from  their  abodes ;  and  hence  we 
find,  that  they  are  coupled  in  the. same  passage  (Deut.  18:  11,)  with 
enchanters,  "i::n  "i^n.  Tlicy  themselves  uttered  the  communica- 
tions, which  they  pretended  to  receive  from  the  dead.  They  doled 
them  out  syllable  by  syllable,  sometimes  muttering  in  a  low  tone,  and 
sometimes  peeping  like  a  chicken.  Hence  they  are  denominated  in 
Isaiah  z-S'.;s^";i  -"■t^'^, ,  those  that  mutter  and  peep.  Is.  8:  19.  29:  4. 
The  ventriloquists,  ="::s ,  mentioned  in  Is.  9:  3,  do  not  appear  to 
have  been  essentially  different  from  these. 

III.  Other  sorts  of  diviners  were,  (1)  those,  who  drew  their 
auspices  from  the  clouds,  denominated  in  Hebrew  zriiv ,  "'.'.'vz  -, 
(2)  thosL',  wlio  founded  their  predictions  on  the  condition  of  the 
internal  parts  of  animals,  and  are  called  =-:3"p;  (3)  those,  who 
drew  their  omens  from  serpents,  called  c-^rr;:";  (4)  the  astroh- 
f/ers,  j)ropeily  so  called,  z^Z'i'z,  I'^z^zii.  The  latter  class  were 
at  a  late   period,  known   to   the   Romans  by  the  name  of  Chaldeans. 


514  §  403.    COXCKRNIXG    DIVINATIONS. 

The  Hebrew  Avonl>,  liowevcr,  wliicli  are  lound  not  only  in  the 
Books  of  Moses,  but  in  all  parts  of  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures, 
are  much  broader  in  signification,  than  the  term  used  by  the  Ro- 
mans. (5)  There  was  another  diss  of  persons,  who  pretended, 
that  they  could  render  serpents  innocuous  by  their  incantations. 
If  the  serpent  happened  to  bite,  notwithstanding  the  skill  of  the 
charmer,  they  said  he  was  deaf,  Ps.  58:  4,  5.  Jer.  8:  17.  Eccles.  10: 
11.  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  XVIII.  4.  XXVIII.  G.  These  persons,  who 
are  very  well  known  by  the  name  of  Psyllt,  are  found  at  the  present 
day  in  the  East. 

IV.  Omens  and  prodigies  were  noticed  by  all  nations,  especially 
by  the  Romans ;  hence  they  are  carefully  mentioned  by  their  his- 
torians. We  have  to  reckon  among  these  prodigies  not  only  mon- 
sters, comets,  eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon,  meteors,  showers  of 
blood  or  stones,  and  the  speeches  of  cows  and  oxen  ;  but  also  others, 
which  occurred  every  day,  as  the  flight  of  birds,  the  sneezing  of  men, 
cross  or  squinting  eyes,  a  ringing  in  the  ears,  words  spoken  in  one 
sense  and  understood  in  another,  the  casual  meeting  of  certain  men 
and  animals,  lor  instance  a  negro,  a  cat,  and  a  hare.  But  they  Avere 
none  of  them  supposed  to  be  attended  with  any  injurious  effect,  pro- 
vided they  were  not  seen,  Valerius  Max.  I,  4 — 7.  Suetonius  in  Au- 
GUSTO  §  92.  Pliny  XXVIII.  5,  7.  Arrianus,  Exricn.  Alexandri, 
Vn.  24.  Jer.  10:  2. 

There  was  also  a  sort  of  a  divination  or  lot  practised  among  the 
inhabitants  of  the  East,  by  means  of  arrows  of  different  colors,  to 
which  custom  one  may  notice  a  reference  in  the  signification  of  a 
number  of  Arabic  words,  IIos.  4:  12.  Ezek.  21:  21,  22.  (Compare 
Jerome's  Commentary  on  these  passages.)  Dreams  also  were  con- 
sidered in  all  places,  as  possessing  an  ominous  significancy,  Judg.  7: 
13,  15.  Deut.  13:  2,  3.  Jer.  23:  32.  Macrobius  de  Somnio  Scirio- 
Nis,  I.  3.  Valerius  Max.  I.  7. 

V.  Oracles  were  consulted  previously  to  any  transactions  of 
"•reat  moment,  especially  before  the  commencement  of  warlike 
expeditions,  but  not  without  the  presentation  of  gilts.  Croesus, 
before  engaging  in  war  with  Cyrus,  interrogated  almost  all  the 
Oracles,  but  received  nothing  but  ambiguous  responses.  Hero- 
dot.  I.  46—55.  90,  91.  Isa.  41:  21—24.  44:  7.  The  Oracle  of 
Beelzebub  was  in  the  city  of  Accaron.  He,  who  consulted  the 
Oracle,   was  first  obliged  to   purify   himself.      He   then  offered  up 


§  404.    STATE    OF    IDOL.VTKY    IN'    TIIK    TLMi;    OF    CHIIIST.      515 

sacrifices.  In  many  temples,  especially  those  of  Esculapius,  Isis, 
Osiris,  and  Ilorus,  he  slept  on  the  skin  of  the  victim  through  the 
night,  with  the  expectation  of  obtaining  some  information  by  a 
dream  respecting  the  means  and  medicines,  by  which  his  disease 
might  be  cured;  or  of  hearing  some  response  purporting  to  come 
from  the  Oracle,  but  produced  in  reality  by  the  deceitful  machi- 
nation of  the  priests.  Virgil,  accordingly,  uses  the  following  ex- 
pressions, '' Ft'Uibus  iticubuit  strati's,  somnosque  pelu-it"  Aeneid, 
VII.  59.  comp.  Plant  us  ix  Ccrcul.  Act.  1.  Sc.  1.  2.  GL  The  cures, 
that  took  place,  were  inscribed  on  tables  for  that  purpose,  and  pre- 
served in  the  temple,  in  order  that  the  priests  might  produce  them  in 
confirmation  and  proof  of  the  power  of  their  idol  deities,  Diodorus 
Sic.  1.  25.  Isa.  05:  4.  Amos  2:  8. 


§  404.  State  of  Idolatuv  in  tue  time  of  Christ. 

In  the  time  of  Christ,  many  of  the  practices,  marked  for  their 
enormity,  and  others  equally  distinguished  for  folly,  which  had 
prevailed  in  the  worship  of  the  heathen  deities,  had  gone  into 
general  desuetude,  although  they  were  not  wholly  abolished. 
That  the  cruel  enormities,  to  which  we  allude,  were  not  wholly 
done  away,  is  evident  from  the  fact,  that  at  Rome  as  late  as  the 
time  of  Xero  or  Vespasian,  a  Gi'eek,  a  Grecian  lady,  and  some 
others  of  the  enemies  of  the  Romans,  were  buried  alive  for  the 
purpose  of  appeasing  the  anger  of  the  gods.  The  victims,  offer- 
f.d  •  for  this  2>urpose,  were  called  y.a&dn^uTu,  Pliny  XXVIII.  3. 
Indeed  so  late  as  the  second  century,  human  beings  were  sometimes 
immolated  in  this  metroi)olis  of  the  world,  Eusebius,  praep.  evaxg. 
IV.  IG. 

The  heathen  Oracles  had,  in  a  measure,  lost  their  authority, 
'>ut  not  altogether,  and  the  old  deceptions  were  still  practised  in 
the  temples  of  Esculapius,  Isis,  Osiris,  and  Ilorus,  Strabo,  p.  801. 
Onicns  and  prodigies  were  also  accounted  of  less  weight  than  for- 
merly, but  they  still  continued  to  be  carefully  observed,  and  are  fre- 
quently mentioned  by  Livy,  Suetonius,  Tacitus,  and  Dion  Cfissius. 
^Manners  and  morals  grew  worse  and  worse.  Deities  increased  in 
number,  and  the  apotheosis  of  vicious  emperors  was  not  unfrequent. 
About  these  things,  the  Epicurean  sect  cared  nothing,  the  disciples 
of  the  Academy  did  not  pretend  to  aflirm  much  one  way  or  the 


."jIG  §  404.  STATIC    OK  IDOLATRY    IX    TIIK    TIMK    OK    CHRIST. 

other,  while  tho-^e  of  the  Porch  oxphiiued  the  wliole  on  their  sjs- 
tem  of  Pantheism.  Tlie  Philosophers  iiuh.'cd  disputed  witli  iiuich 
subtlety  respeetin;^  the  architect  of  the  univei'se,  but  they  knew 
nothing  about  the  Cukatou,  the  all-icise,  and  all-jjoiverfal  Judcje  of 
men.  . 

They  worshipi)ed  the  gods  themselves,  and  threw  no  obsta- 
cles in  the  way  of  others  rendering  them  the  same  worship;  but 
they  had  understanding  enough  at  the  same  time  on  the  subject  to 
condemn  the  vices,  which  had  been  attributed  to  them,  and  Vj 
give  them  an  allegorical  iiitcr[)retation.  They  still  left  to  llicm. 
the  government  of  the  world  and  of  men ;  but  they  exploded 
the  idea  of  the  existence  of  Tartarus  or  the  Infernal  Regions ; 
although  they  failed,  as  it  is  remarked  by  Polybius,  (Hist.  YI.  C.) 
to  substitute  any  thing  better  in  its  place.  The  doctrine,  which 
some  of  them  advanced,  respecting  the  existence  of  the  soul  after 
death,  they  found  themselves  unable  to  maintain  by  such  argu- 
ments, as  would  be  considered  proof;  and  they  overlooked  alto- 
gether the  subject  of  the  difference  of  allotment  to  the  good  and 
evil,  when  this  life  is  over,  Cicero,  Tusc.   Quaes.  Lib.  I.  11. 

The  good  principles,  which  some  advanced,  were  controvert- 
ed and  denied  by  others,  and  the  people,  not  being  in  a  condition 
to  pass  an  opinion  on  disputes  of  this  nature,  followed  the  author- 
ity of  the  priests.  If  indeed,  any  tenets  of  the  philosophers  obtained 
circulation  among  the  populace,  they  vrere  only  those  of  the  worst 
kind ;  such  as  the  simultaneous  death  of  the  soul  and  the  body,  and 
the  denial  of  a  divine  Providence,  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  Lib.  IL  2. 
VIL  5(3. 

As  respects  some  of  the  moral  duties,  the  philosophers  may 
have  made  some  advance,  as  to  correctness,  on  former  opinions; 
but  how  deficient  they  were  after  all,  will  be  seen,  when  it  is  re- 
marked, that  they  made  the  honor,  utility  and  propriety  of  ac- 
tions the  rule  of  their  moral  merit  or  demerit,  and  permitted  the 
practice  of  fornication,  the  prostitution  of  boys,  the  exposure  of 
children,  and  the  hatred  of  enemies.  The  Stoics  defended  the 
practice  of  suicide,  insisted  on  the  sternest  apathy,  and  joined  with 
the  Platonist  in  recommending  a  contemplative  life.  As  such  a 
life  did  not  suit  with  the  feelings  and  practice  of  the  great  bulk 
of  mankind,  the  philosophers  indulged  only  in  intercourse  with 
one  another.     But  even  if  they  had  been  unanimous,  in  teaching  a 


§  4L)5.  OF  i.MAnr.s  .aiadi:   i  :>i;  >Ari:i;i>  rL;Ki'().si;5.         517 

system  of  morals,  wliioli  iiiiirht  be  consiileretl  perfect,  tliere  would 
have  been  a  want  of  something  still :  there  would  have  been  a 
want  of  viotives,  of  incitements,  to  inlUience  them  and  their  disci- 
ples, to  put  it  into  practice.  Whence  Cicero  complains,  that  the 
doctrines  of  these  philosophers  Avere  rather  the  ostentation  of 
learning,  than  the  prompter  and  law  of  their  conduct,  tuscul 
QuAEST.  Lib.  II.  4. 

§  40.),  Of  Images  made  for  Sacked  Pcrdoses. 

Two  kinds  of  these  images  are  mentioned  in  the  Bil)le,  viz. 
those  of  Jehovah  and  those  of  false  deities ;  which  especially  in 
the  history  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  (2  Kings  10:  29.  13:  2,  11.  14: 
24,)  are  carefully  distinguished  from  each  other.  Both  were  in- 
terdicted to  the  Hebrews,  for  they  were  considered  as  being  in 
danger  of  attributing  some  inherent  eflBcacy  to  those  of  Jehovah, 
as  well  as  of  the  other  deities,  Exotl.  32:  4.  Deut.  13:  2,  3.  4:  12 
—20. 

The  images  of  Jehovah  were, 

I.  The  Caff,  mentioned  in  Exod.  32:  4,  5 ;  and  the  two  calves 
erected  by  Jeroboam  in  the  cities  of  Dan  and  Bethel.  They 
were  made  in  imitation  of  the  two  celebrated  living  bulls  in 
Egypt,  viz.  Apis  at  Memphis  and  Mnevis  at  Heliopolis.  These 
calves  are  said  to  be  gold  in  the  same  sense,  that  the  Table  and 
Altar  are  said  to  be  so,  i.  e.  covered  with  gold. 

n.  The  Ephod  of  Gideon.  This  certainly  was  not  the  sacer 
dotal  garment,  called  an  Ephod ;  for  such  a  garment  could  not 
Iiave  been  made  of  gold,  which  is  represented  to  have  been  the 
case  with  the  Ephod  in  question,  Judg.  G:  25 — 33.  8:  24 — 27.  It 
was  a  piece  of  wood,  sculptured  in  the  likeness  of  an  Ephod,  and 
covered  with  gold.  In  confirmation  of  this  view,  it  may  be  ob- 
served that  the  word  irnsx  is  usetl,  (Isa.  30:  22.)  for  a  covering  or 
superficies  of  gold. 

III.  The  image  of  ^Ficah  in  mount  Ephraim ;  which  is  express- 
ly said  to  be  an  image  of  Jehovah,  Judg.  17:  3 — 13.  18:  3,  G,  15 — 31. 

Idols,  properly  so  called,  occur  under  different  names,  which 
are  sometimes  interchanged  with  (jach  other.  The  words  h-zx: 
and  n;^-:ri ,  an  image  or  e^gy  are  general  terms,  which  are  appli- 
ed to  idols  an-i   elhgies  for  sacred  purposes  of  any  kind;  the   words 

44 


518  §   inn.    OF   TIU:   HOST    OR    ARMY    OK   ii>-:Avr.N. 

533  and  ?"'wC  nit'iin  pi-opcrly  a  sculptured  image ;  H^a":  may  mean 
any  inouumenl  ichatevcr ;  especially  one  lor  snpeistitious  purposes. 
The  word  ri=5"3  means  a  covering  of  silver  and  gold,  and  by 
synecdoche,     the    idol     itself,    Avhicli    is    thus     covered ;    the     terms 

"Z^V  and  "Z^v  from  the  Arabic  v_>.o^  to  cut  out  or  heu;  signify  an 
idol,  as  the  etymology  of  the  words  intimate,  which  is  hewn  out  or 
sculptured. 

Idols  are  sometimes  denominated  t-V^r..      The   word    does  not 

ai)pear  to  be  from  the  Arabic  J^  .  to  he  larc/e,  but  from  the 
Ilebi'cw  V;r.  (o  roll,  because  the  trunks  of  these  idols  could  be 
easil}'  rolled  ;  with  a  contemptuous  allusion,  at  the  same  time,  to 
the  round  and  voluble  excrements  of  certain  brute  animals.  "We 
also  find  other  contemptuous  names  for  idols,  viz.  "ird  an  uhomi- 
nation  and  Ci5"^>x ,  an  a])pellation  applied  to  idols,  on  account  of 
their  weakness.  Jehovah,  on  the  contrary,  is  termed  n"^2>?  the 
Mighty,  npt;::  "i^ax  the  Mighty  one  of  Jacob,  and  Vx^^"^  n"SX  the 
mighty  one  of  Israel  Gen.  49:  24.  Isa.  49:  26.  60:  16.  Ps.  132:  2,  5. 

§  40G.  Of  the  Host  or  Army  of  IIeavex. 

TJw  Host  of  Heaven,  -'[''C'i'n  sn-^,  Avhich  are  represented  as 
being  made  the  objects  of  worship,  are  the  stars.  As  early  as 
the  time  of  Moses,  we  find,  that  these  heavenly  bodies  were  not 
only  worshipped  themselves,  but  also  images  of  them,  Exod.  20: 
4.  Deut.  17:  3.  Hence,  througli  a  ftiilure  of  distinguishing  be- 
tween second  and  original  causes,  or  what  may  be  termed  the  pei-- 
mission  of  God  in  his  Providence  and  his  immediate  agency,  which 
is  common  among  Oriental  writers,  the  stars  are  said  in  Deut.  4: 
19,  to  be  distributed  among  the  nations,  as  objects  of  their  wor- 
ship, while  .God  has  selected  the  people  of  Israel  for  his  own, 
that  they  might  worship  Him.  The  Mehestani,  (the  disciples 
of  Zoroaster,)  not  only  worshii)ped  the  stars,  but  paid  their  hom- 
age likewise  to  the  innumerable  spirits,  with  which,  in  their 
opinion,  they  were  peopled.  These  spirits  they  believed  to  be 
their  guardian  defenders  against  the  evil  Ahrimanius  and  his  de- 
mons, Dan.  4:  23. 

Notwithstanding  tlie  worship  of  the  stars,  a  practice,  Avhich 
was    verv    Avidely    spread,    was    interdicted    to  the    Hebrews,    they 


§    107.    OF    Tilt    SUX    AND    THE    GOD    IJ.VAL.  519 

very  often,  e->[)ecially  during  the  seventy  years  immediately  pre- 
ceding the  Captivity,  adored  them,  erected  aUars,  and  burnt  in- 
cense to  them  in  their  houses,  1  Kings  22:  19.  2  Cliron.  18:  18.  33:  3. 
2  Kings  17:  IG.    21:3.    23:4,5.   Jer.  8:  2.    19:13.    Zeph.  1:  .5. 

XoTK.  The  phrase,  r"N;:i  ""i^??  JcJtovah  of  hosts,  or  rather 
when  fully  written,  r":s^:;  ""-■?•"'""■')  Jehovah,  the  Lor-d  of  hosts, 
which  occurs  first  in  the  book  of  Psalms  and  the  books  of  Samuel, 
is  not  to  be  rendered  the  God  of  the  stars  nor  the  God  of  the 
gods ;  for,  however  frequently  the  singular  x^".i  may  be  thus  used, 
it  is  certain  that  the  plural,  viz.  ri.ssA,  is  never  employed  in 
I'eforence  to  the  stars.  Xor  is  another  rendering,  which  is  some- 
times given,  viz.  the  God  of  armies,  a  correct  one.  It  is  true, 
that,  at  a  very  ancient  period,  the  Hebrews  were  denominated 
the  armies  or  host  of  Jehovah,  r'ir^  r'isru :  but  we  never  find, 
at  the  early  period  to  which  we  allude,  the  converse  of  these  ex- 
pressions, viz,  r'lxsii  !n"H^  the  God  of  armies.  "We  prefer,  there- 
fore, the  rendering  of  the  Septuagint,  which  translates  the  phi-ase 
in  question,  nuvzoy.odTcon,  the  ruler  of  all  thinps  or  the  omnipotent. 
Indeed  both  the  singular  H'Z'^  and  the  plural  r'"X2:i ,  which  are 
from  the  verb  X^'.i  to  arise,  are  applied  to  ever}thing,  which 
arises  or  raakes  its  appearance  either  in  earth  or  heaven,  Gen. 
2:  1. 

§  407.  Of  the  Sux  and  the  god  Baal. 

The  Sim,  -'"^'iln,  as  an  object  of  worship,  is  always  mentioned 
by  Moses,  in  connection  with  the  moon  and  stars,  to  all  of  which, 
as  it  would  seera  from  his  ^presentations,  effigies  or  images  were 
erected,  Exod.  20:  4.  Deut.  4:  19.  17:  13.  The  sect  of  the  Ara- 
bians, called  Xahataeans,  erected  altars  to  the  Sun,  on  the  tops  of 
houses,  and  worshipped  him  with  libations  and  with  the  burning 
of  incense,  Strabo,  p.  784.  comp.  Jer.  19:  13.  Zeph.  1:  o.  We 
find  that  a  city  was  consecrated  to  the  Sun  in  Egypt,  in  the  time 
of  Joseph,  and  that  men  of  distinguished  rank  were  set  apart  to 
his  service.  Gen.  41:  45,  50.  4G:  20.  The  city  to  which  we  al- 
lude, viz.  Heliopolis,  (in  Hebrew  "(-s  and  Vj*-)  '^^fis  a  place  of  note, 
so  late  as  the  time  of  Jeremiah,  (see  chap.  43:  13.)  in  consequence 
of   the  ohelisls,  rrr  r-2  r'-zu-c,  which  were  erected    in  honor  of 


520  §  lo?.  OF  Tin:  sin  and  tiik,  god  ijaal. 

that  Imniiiarv.  One  of  these  obi.'lisks  i;*  slill  rciiiaiiiiiiL'  ui»on  its 
base;  tlie  others  arc  prostrated  and  broken,  Xiebuhr's  Travels,  I. 
98,  99.  Strabo,  p.  80.3.  AbdoUatif  in  Jalm's  Arabic  Chrestumathj, 
p.  139  et  seq. 

It  is  tlicsc  monuments  of  superstition,  (ohelis/iS.)  ahhough  per- 
haps smaller  in  size,  wliieh  are  meant  by  the  word  n-r^n,  and 
which  although  they  were  interdicted  by  Moses,  (Lev.  26:  30,) 
were,  notwithstanding,  at  a  subsequent  period  erected  by  his  coun- 
trymen, Isa.  17:  8.  27:  9.    Ezek.  6:  4,  6.  2  Chron.  14:  a. 

We  learn  from  2  Chron.  34:  4 — 7,  that  these  obelisks  were 
erected  on  the  altars  of  Baal;  they  were  of  course  consecrated 
to  tlie  Sun,  since  Baal,  especially  when  it  is  read  in  connection 
with  Astarte  or  Ashtaroth,  i.  e.  the  moon,  means  the  sun,  for  in- 
stance in  Judg.  2:  13.  10:  G.  1  Sam.  7:  4.  12:  10,  also  in  2  Kings 
23:  5,  where  the  expressions  d":";?  hv^,  the  sun  Baal,  are  coupled  to- 
gether. J3aal  Gad  15  bt"3,  moreover,  which  is  mentioned,  Josh.  11: 
17.  12:  7.  13:  5,  is  evidently  the  same  with  the  Ciit/  of  the  sun, 
which  formerly  existed  in  Syria,  and  was  called  by  the  Greeks 
IIeliopolis  ;  where  at  this  day  amid  its  ruins,  which  now  bear  the 
name  of  Baalbek,  are  found  the  remains  of  a  most  magnificent 
temple. 

B'lal  Samen,  a  deity  of  the  Phenicians,  eulogized  in  tlie  frag 
ments  of  Sanconiathon,  is  no  other  than  t^^'i  h:^^  the  Lord  of 
heaven,  i.  e.  the  su;i.  It  is  stated  by  Macrobius,  (Saturnal.  I.  23.) 
that  the  Sun  in  his  character  of  deity  was  represented,  in  the 
cities  named  IIeliopolis  both  in  Syria  and  Egypt,  by  the  image  of 
an  unbearded  youth.  His  right  hand,  like  that  of  a  charioteer,  Avas 
in  an  elevated  posture,  and  sustained  a  whip  ;  his  left  hand  grasped 
the  thunderbolt.  This  idolatrous  effigy  was  covered  throughout 
with  gold. 

The  hieroglypliical  characters,  which  can  be  traced  on  the 
obelisks,  of  which  we  have  already  spoken,  and  likewise  on  the 
remains  of  other  ancient  monuments  in  Egypt,  are  denominated, 
in  the  writings  of  Moses,  n^sb'?  "nx ,  also  n'T'sr": ;  and  are  forbid- 
den by  him,  on  account  of  their  having  been  made  objects  of  super- 
stitious worship.  Lev.  2G:  1.    Num.  33:  52.  comp.  Ezek.  8:  7 — 13 

There  is  no  doubt,  that  the  men,  mentioned  in  Ez.ek.  8:  7 — 13 
worshipped  hieroglypliical  representations. 

The   Mehestani   considered   the    Sun   to   be   the  eye  of  Ormuz, 


§  408.    OK    OTHKU    BAALS    OK    15AAI.1.M.  521 

and  next  to  the  Ainscliaspnmls,  the  frreatest  of  all  tlic  diviiiities; 
indeed  tliey  supposed  him  to  be  the  body  or  residence  of  one  of  tlieni, 
Zend  Avesta,  P.  II.  p.  231.  They  described  the  chariot  of  the  sun, 
as  being  of  a  white  color,  and  wreatlied  garlands  of  flowei's.  The 
sacred  horses  were  white  also,  of  the  Ni<ean  breed,  and  four  in  num- 
ber. The  tongue  of  the  chariot,  to  which  they  were  iiistened,  was 
covered  with  gold,  Xenophou,  CniorAiCD.  VIII.  3,  G.  Zend  Avesta, 
P.  II.  p.  2G4. 

AmoM  and  ^lanasses,  the  predecessors  of  king  Josiah,  who  lived 
between  G99 — G42  before  Christ,  and  consequently  before  the  time 
of  Zoroaster,  placed  a  chariot  of  this  kind  before  the  gate  of  the 
Temple  at  Jerusalem  :  which  was  burnt  by  the  order  of  Josiah,  their 

•successor,  2  Kings  23:  11.  Such  was  the  religious  veneration  of  the 
Meheslani  for  the  sun,  that  they  did  not  pray  without  turning  their 
face  towards  him.     They  saluted  his  rising   beams   with  songs  of 

.praise,  holding  in  their  hands,  at  the  same  time,  a  BAiiso^r,  i.  e.  a  bun- 
dle of  branches,  taken  from  the  pomegranate  tree,  the  tamarisk,  and 
the  palm.  Comp.  Ezek.  8:  IG,  17. 

§  408.  Of  othi-k  Baals  ou  Baalijl 

The  word  Baal,  hvz ,  properly  signifies  a  master,  lord,  or  hus- 
band. It  sometimes  occurred,  in  the  popular  mode  of  speech,  for 
Jehovah  himself,  IIos.  2:  IG.  But  it  is  in  general  the  name  of  the 
sun,  as  a[)pcared  in  the  preceding  section,  or  of  other  false  dei- 
ties ;  and  we  accordingly  find  it  in  the  plural  form,  viz.  Baalim, 
C-brr,  Judg.  2:  11.  3:  7.  8:  33.  10:  G,  10.  1  Sam.  7:  4.  12:  10,  etc. 
Comp.  1  Cor.  8:  5.  Many  cities  were  distinguished  by  bearing  the 
name  of  some  idol  deity,  that  was  thus  called ;  for  instance,  Baal- 
Phrazim  not  far  from  Jerusalem ;  Baal-llivzoY  in  the  tribe  of 
Ephraim  ;  i?ao/-Thamar  in  that  of  Benjamin  ;  iJactZ-Hcrmon  beyond 
the  Jordan. 

"Who  the  Baals  were,  from  whom  these  cities  were  named, 
and  what  was  their  character,  cannot  now  in  all  instances  be  deter- 
mined. i?ao/-Zephon,  -("S::  brs ,  however,  mentioned  in  Exodus 
14:  2,  situated  on  the  boundaries  of  Egypt,  derived  its  atlditional 
name  from  Typhon.  The  letter  Tsade  is  changed  into  Tav ;  in 
the  same  way  that  -r::  becomes  Tams  by  a  change  of  the  same 
letters.  The  place  in  question  seems  to  have  been  no  other  than 
44* 


')22  §  408.    OF    OTIIKU    BAAI.S    OK    HAALnt. 

IIiToopoli.-,  wlicre  Typlion  is  said  to  have  bef.-n  struck  ck'ad  with 
lijrlitiiiii^r-  Tliis  Baal  then  was  Typlion.  As  respects  the  otliers, 
ahhou;j:h  they  are  involvetl  in  obscurity,  we  may  perhaps  come  to  the 
followinii  conchisions. 

I.  li(t(il-Vco\;  ~r3  b^"2.  This  was  a  god  of  the  Moabites. 
The  men  lioimd  their  temples  with  garlands  in  his  honor;  and 
it  was  at  ihc  -hriiie  of  this  corrupt  deity,  that  the  INIoabitish  women, 
in  order  to  do  him  reverence,  parted  with  their  virtue,  Numbers  25: 
1 — 9.  Baal-Peor  then  was  another  Priapus.  The  name  ~r3 ,  to 
open,  seems  to  be  an  allusion  to  the  corrupt  practices,  which  were 
patronized  by  him.  An  account  of  the  exceeding  abominations, 
which  prevailed  at  the  shrines  of  those  deities,  who,  like  Priapus, 
were  the  patrons  of  carnal  gratification,  may  be  seen  in  Augustine's' 
book  Di:  civiTATE  DEI  IV.  10.  VI.  9.  VII.  21,  corap.  Bayer's  Ad- 

DITAMliXTA     AD     SeLDEXI     SyNTAGMA    V.    DE    DIIS    StRIS    p.    235. 

Whether  the  idol  of  the  Moabites,  called  'C''Z'2  Chamosh  or  Citemosh, 
(Xuin.  21:  29.  Jer.  48:  7,  13.)  be  the  same  with  Baal-Peor  cannot 
now  be  fully  determined. 

II.  rii2  hvz  Bacd-Berilli,  i.  e.  the  lord  of  the  Covenant.  The 
Shechemites.  it  apjjcars,  built  a  Temple  to  this  god,  Judg.  8:  33.  9: 
4.  He  was  the  tutelary  god  of  Covenants,  answering  in  a  certain 
sense  to  the  Jupiter  fidus  of  the  Romans. 

III.  Baul-Zehub,  213T  hvz.  This  god  had  a  Temple  of  some 
note  in  the  city  of  Ekron,  2  Kings  1:  2.  He  was  the  tutelary  deity, 
that  protected  the  people  from  the  infestations  of  gnats.  The  inhab- 
itants of  01ym[)ia  and  Elis  had,  in  like  manner,  their  Uis"  utio- 
fivo^' ;  The  Trojans  their  Apollo  ai^iiiOio-:,  so  called  fi'om  his  having 
destroyed  7m'ce ;  the  inhabitants  of  Mount  Oeta  their  Hercules 
xonronicor,  to  ])i-otect  them  from  the  locusts ;  and  the  Erythreans 
their  Hercules  <,7t'xroro>',  who  destroyed  vermin,  Pausanias  in  Eliac. 
pr.  c.  14.  J).  ')o.  Strabo  p.  Gl3.  But,  as  ihe  gods,  which  have  now 
been  mentioned,  did  not,  by  any  means,  assume  the  form  of  the 
animals  or  insects,  from  which  they  were  supposed  to  defend  the  peo- 
ple, we  have  good  reason  for  supposing,  that  Baal-Zebub,  although 
we  ai'c  unable  to  say  precisely  what  his  form  was,  did  not  take 
the  shape  of  a  gnat.  Baal-Zebub  is  not  to  be  confounded  with 
Baal-Zebul,  ^£i).^t^ovl,  (he  lord  of  the  dwelling,  habitation,  or  region, 
(viz.  of  the  air  or  visible  firmament.)  of  whom  we  have  spoken  in 
another  place. 


§  40S.    OK    OTIIKU    HAALS    OU    BAAI.I.M.  523 

IV.  The  Bddl  of  Jezebel ;  i.  e.  the  Uaal,  \\\\om  Jezebel,  tlu  wife 
of  kin<T  Ahab  ami  ilatigliter  of  Ethbaal,  king  of  tlie  Sidonians,  intro- 
duced into  the  kingdom  of  Israel  and  clothed  with  so  great  authority, 
and  whom  tiuir  daughter  Athaliah,  the  wife  of  Jehoram,  introduced 
to  ?o  "reat  authority  in  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  that  he  had  both  at 
Samaria  and  Jerusalem,  temples,  altars,  and  priests.  This  deity  was 
evidently  the  Hercules  of  the  Phenicians.  (See  1  Kings  IG:  31.  18: 
10—29.  21:5—15,23—25.  2  Kings  10:  18— 27.  8:18.  11:18. 
2  Chron.  23:  17.)  This  Hercules,  (for  there  were  no,  less  than  six 
of  tliat  nam(>,  Cicero  DE  NAT.  DEOU.  HI.  IG.)  was  worshipped  chiefly 
at  T}  re  in  a  very  ancient  temple,  at  Tarlessus  in  S])ain.  It  was  in 
honor  of  this  god,  that  the  Carthaginians,  for  a  long  time,  annually 
sent  the  tenth  of  their  income  to  Tyre,  Arrian  i>e  exp*d.  Alexan- 
DKi  II.  IG.  Herodotus  II.  44.  com  p.  2  Mace.  4:  18—20.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Asteria.  The  account  of  the 
Baal  of  Jezebel  and  Athaliah  agrees  with  that  of  this  Hercules; 
since  the  representation  of  Scripture  (1  Kings  19:  18,)  is  the  same 
with  that  of  Diodorus  Siculus  XX.  14.  viz.  that  human  sacrifices 
were  not  offered  to  him,  and  with  that  of  Cicero  ix  Verreji  Lib.  IV. 
43,  viz.  that  the  Tyrian  Hercules  was  worshipped  by  kissing.  This 
mode  of  adoration,  however,  was  not  withheld  irom  other  deities,  IIos. 
13:  2.  Job  31:  26,  27. 

V.  Bel.  br .  Tliis  word  appears  to  be  contracted  from  hvz 
or  ;rr;  and  the  deity  signified  by  it  is  probably  the  heathen  god, 
called  by  Cicero  the  Indian  Hercules.  (See  Nat.  Deouuji  HI.  16.) 
Herodotus  (I.  181 — 183.)  gives  a  description  of  a  magnificent 
temple,  erected  to  this  god  in  Babylon.  It  resembled  in  its  con- 
struction seven  towers  built  one  upon  another.  In  the  upper  tower 
or  story  was  the  shrine  or  the  most  sacred  part  of  the  temple,  which 
was  furnished  with  a  bed  and  table  of  gold.  A  female  dwelt  here 
during  the  night,  at  which  time  the  god  Baal  was  supposed  to  pay  his 
visitations  to  it.  In  the  lower  story,  there  was  a  very  large  image, 
also  a  table  and  a  throne  of  gold,  the  weight  of  which,  as  the  priests 
informed  Herodotus,  was  eight  hundred  talents. 

In  the  open  court,  there  was  an  altar  of  gold,  upon  which  milk 
only  was  offered,  and  another  upon  which  frankincense  and  sheep 
were  offered.  Herodotus  was  informed,  that  Xerxes  took  away  from 
tiiis  temple  a  goMen  statue  twelve  cubits  high.  The  temple  was  still 
standing  in  the  time  of  Strabo. 


52-i  §  400.    TIIK    .MOON    AS    AN    OBJECT    OF    WORSUIP. 


§409.   Of  Astakti:,  Ashtakoth  or  thi:  ]Moon  as  an  objkct 
OF  WoKsiiir. 

As  iIr'  Sim  wns  railed  the  lord  or  tlu;  king,  so  the  niuoii  was  called 
[hit  (jiii'cn  of  li(  avcii,  C";":rr;  r:^" ;  to  wliom  the  Hebrews  (.Icr.  7: 
18.  44:  17,  11'.)  oll'ered  cv//.Y',s-  -":"?,  poured  out  libations,  and  biuMit 
incense.  It  is  this  queen,  that  is  termed,  (1  Kings  11:  5,  oo.  2  Kings 
23:  l.'i,  14.)  -the  rjoddess  of  the  Zccloniaus,  also  r.^rrJ;'  As/ituret/i, 
and  in  .iiidg.  2:  13.  10:  G.  1  8am.  7:  3,  4.  12:  10,  is  named  r-i"'~rv 
Asia  rut /i. 

The  jNIoon,  as  an  object  of  worship,  being  connected  with  Jxial  or 
the  sun,  she'^s  thence  called  [iiuAU^  a  word  answering  to  Nn5;"2, 
Eusebins,  FKAFr.  evang.  I.  10.  Ilesychins  on  the  word  p'/;Pa'>/^i,', 
SeUlen  de  diis  Syris,  Syntagm.  II.  p.  245,  246. 

As  the  word  riT^x ,  which  properly  means  groves,  occurs  in 
Judg.  3:  7,  for  n^ri"ir,and  in  Judg.  2:  13,  is  found  in  connection 
with  JJaalini,  tin;  conclusion  is  a  veiy  clear  one,  that  (jrovcs  were 
consecrated  to  this  goddess  ;  and  she  is,  accordingly,  denominated 
(2  Kings  21:  7.  23:  G,  7.)  nyrs  bs3 ,  the  image  or  idol  of  the  groves, 
and  likewise  n~'^"Nt  merely.  AVherever,  therefore,  a  grove,  or 
Ashtaroth  is  mentioned  in  connection  with  Baal,  Eaalim,  or  the 
Host  of  heaven,  we  have  reason  for  concluding,  that  reference  is  had 
to  the  moon,  as  an  object  of  worship,  Judg.  G:  23^28.  1  Kings 
IG:  33.  2  Kings  13:  G.  18:  4.  It  is  the  moon,  otherwise  called  Ash- 
taroth, wliich  appears  to  be  meant  in  1  Kings  15:  13.  IS:  19.  2  Chron. 
15:  IG,  by  the  word  r^rs";,  i.  e.  fear  or  terror  ;  in  the  same  way  that 
"ins,  (Gen.  31:  42.)  and  the  Aramean  word  Nrbr.'i,  both  of  which 
mean  fear,  are  put  for  the  object  of  fear  or  reverence,  viz.  (he  Deity. 

The  Avorship  of  this  goddess,  as  well  as  o^  the  god  Baal,  was  com- 
mon in  Palestine  before  its  occupation  by  Moses.  Hence  the  com- 
mand to  cut  down  the  groves,  Exod.  34:  13.  Deut.  7:  5. 

The  Greeks  and  Romans  were  acquainted  with  the  goddess  in 
question  under  the  name  of  Astarte,  and  sometimes  made  her,  in 
their  representations,  the  sinne  with  Juno,  and  at  other  times, 
the  same  Avith  Diana  or  Venus ;  but  Lucian,  or  whoever  wrote 
the  book  concerning  the  Syrian  goddess,  considers  her  to  be  the 
moon,  and  says,  that  a  very  celebrated  temple  Avas  erected  for 
her  worship  in   Phenicia.     Perhaps  there  were  many  Astartcs,  as 


^ 


§410.    OF    TAMJllZ    AND    ADONIS.   ''**>.i^^^ -.  -  aSA"  ' 

there  were  many  Baals.  The  tuniplf  wlik-li  lleroilotus  (I.  lOo.) 
found  at  Askalon,  and  which  he  reckons  among  the  fanes  of  Venus, 
was  undoubtedly  a  temple  of  Astarte  or  Ashtarotli,  1  Sam.  30:  10. 
The  fact  of  groves  being  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  goddess  is 
in  itself  a  circumstance,  calcuhUed  to  excite  a  suspicion,  that  her  wor- 
ship was  impure ;  and  in  2  Kings  23:  6,  7,  we  have  a  very  clear  inti- 
mation indeed,  that  such  was  the  case.  Compare  IIos.  4:  13,  14.  Isa. 
57:  7.  Ezek.  G:  13. 

Sanconiathon,  or  if  it  be  preferred,  Philo  Biblius  remarks  in- 
deed in  Eusebius  (Praep.  evaxg.  1. 10,)  that  Astarte  was  the  Venus 
of  the  Phenicians ;  and  adds  further,  that  the  effigy  of  the  goddess 
was  the  liead  of  an  ox  with  horns  probably  in  resemblance  of  the 
crescent.  This  statement  throws  some  light  on  the  expressions 
U^yy^  r'r.T-vv  Jshtaroth  of  horns,  Gen.  14:  5.  Deut.  1:  4.  Tlie 
Syrians  also  called  Venus  r':-r'::v ,  which  is  merely  a  word  altered 
from  -^"r.'i'r. 

The  Arabians,  before  the  time  of  INIohammed  worshipped  the 
planet  Venus,  or  the  morning  and  evening  star  so  called.  Tiiis 
accounts  for  their  making  Venus's  day  or  Friday  a  festival,  although 
there  is  no  command  respecting  it  in  the  Koran.  But  the  7Jioon  like- 
wise was  worshipped  by  them,  and  made  a  separate  object  of  their 
adoration,  as  may  very  well  be  inferred  from  their  propensity  to  make 
images  of  the  moon,  which  is  mentioned  Judg.  8:  21 — 26.  These 
images  were  crescents,  hung  upon  the  necks  of  the  camels.  Compare 
Selden  de  diis  Syeis,  Syntagma,  II.  p.  291. 

§  410.  Of  Tammuz  ajn'd  Adonis. 

In  progress  of  time,  various  fables  were  invented  relative  to  the 
Sun  and  Moon  in  their  character  of  deities,  one  of  which  was  the 
story  of  Adonis.  The  name  of  Adonis,  ^:"-!i<  i.  e.  mt/  lord,  is  in  itself 
an  intimation,  that  the  Sun  is  implied  under  it.  Tlie  stories  concern- 
ing him,  though  not  always  consistent  with  themselves,  agree  in 
this,  that  he  was  an  oliject  of  love  to  Venus,  Astarte,  or  the  Moon, 
that  he  was  afterwards  slain  by  a  boar,  and  that  it  was  at  length 
permitted  him,  to  spend  his  time  alternately  and  at  equal  intervals, 
as  a  sJiade,  in  the  realms  of  Proserpine,  and  in  his  original  form,  on 
the  earth.  (Compare  the  large  German  edition  of  this  work,  P.  III. 
§  133.) 


52G  §  411.  MOLoc,  Mor.ix,  malco.m.  mii.com. 

The  Egyplians  had  a  fahlo,  that  their  god  Osiris  was  sliiit  up  in  a 
box  by  T}phon,  and  thruwn  into  the  Nile,  was  found  by  Isis  at 
Byblos  in  Syria,  was  finally  sUiin  by  Typhon,  his  body  cut  to  pieces 
and  liis  limbs  scattered  in  every  direction.  Isis,  however,  collected 
his  limbs  together  and  buried  them.  These  stories,  respecting  Osiris 
and  Adonis,  although  quite  dissimilar,  were  at  last  connected  together. 
For  in  Syria  the  women  spent  the  anniversary  of  Adonis's  death  in 
much  grief,  while  the  Egyptian  women  spent  that  of  Osiris  in  the 
same  manner,  and  in  both  cases  the  period  of  mourning  was  followed 
by  a  festival  of  joy ;  in  Syria  for  Adonis  returned  to  life,  and  in 
Egypt  for  the  limbs  of  the  dismembered  Osiris  collected  and  buried. 
The  Egyptians  were  in  the  habit  on  this  occasion  of  writing  an  epis- 
tle, enclosing  it  in  a  box  of  the  Papyrus,  and  throwing  it  into  the  sea. 
The  account,  enclosed  therein,  which  was  said  to  be  wafted  by  water 
to  Byblos,  concerned  the  discovery  and  burial  of  the  limbs  of  Osiris, 
but  the  inhabitants  of  Byblos  interpreted  it  of  the  restoration  of 
Adonis  to  life. 

In  Syria  this  festival  was  held  in  the  month  Tammuz  or  Jidy,  at 
which  time  the  torrent  of  Adonis,  having  contracted  a  I'ed  color  from 
the  earth,  was  thought  to  be  tinged  with  the  blood  of  Adonis,  and 
at  that  time  the  grief  of  the  women  began.  "When  this  color  in 
the  water  was  no  longer  perceivable,  the  return  of  Adonis  to  life  was 
announced,  and  sorrow  was  converted  into  joy.  The  women  when 
they  mourned  for  Adonis  were  expected  to  shave  their  heads;  in 
failure  of  which  they  were  bound  to  prostitute  themselves  to  some 
stranger,  and  pay  the  price  to  the  temple  of  Venus.  This  is  the  fes- 
tival which  is  spoken  of  in  Ezekiel  8:  14,  for  Adonis  in  Syriac  is 
called  Tammuz. 


§  411.  MoLoc,  MoLEC,  Malcom,  Milcom. 

Planets  were  worshipped  under  the  name  r'b-f: ;  for  we  find 
them  in  2  Kings  23:  5,  spoken  of  in  connection  with  the  sun  and 
moon,  and  the  horses  and  chariots,  which  were  assigned  to  the 
Sun  by  the  Mehestani.  So  that  there  is  no  doubt,  that  the  seven 
planets  are  meant ;  which,  in  the  Zend  Avesta,  P.  III.  Dun-De- 
hesli  §  5.  p.  G6,  are  represented  as  being  stationed  for  guards  or 
watches. 

Of   thc.e   planets,  Saturn,  more  than  any  others,  was  made  an 


§  411.    MOLOC,    MOLKC,    JIAI.COM,    MILCO.Af.  527 

object  of  ^\■ol•^hip  ;  in  reganl  to  whom  a  inytliologlcal  story  was  preva- 
lent, that  he  devoured  his  own  offspring ;  a  circumstance,  of  which 
indeed  we  have  an  intimation  in  the  custom  of  ottering  to  Iiini  chil- 
dren in  sacrilices,  which  existed  among  tlic  Canaanites,  Phenicians, 
and  Carthaginians,  among  which  nations  he  was  known  under  the  va- 
rious names  of  Moloc,  Molec,  Malcom,  and  ^lilcom,  Eusebius,  Praep. 
EVANG.  IV.  c.  IG. 

Tliis  monster  of  a  deity  was  represented  by  a  statue  of  brass,  with 
arms  extended,  but  declining  towards  the  earth.  The  children  to  be 
offered  to  the  god  were  placed  upon  his  arms,  and  as  their  declination 
was  considerable,  the  victims  readily  rolled  off  from  them  into  a  fur- 
nace placed  below,  and  glowing  with  fire,  Diodorus  Sic.  XX.  14. 
The  offering  up  of  children  in  this  manner  was  very  early  forbidden 
by  Moses,  but  they  were  sacrificed  after  this  time,  notwithstanding 
his  injunctions  on  the  subject  by  Ahaz  and  by  Manasseh. 

The  word  "I'^rn  to  cause  to  2)ass  through,  and  the  phrase  .l"xz  ~'^;^n 
to  cause  to  jxiss  through  the  Jire,  are  used  in  respect  to  human  sacri- 
fices in  Dent.  12:  31.  18:  10.  2  Kings  16:  3.  21:  G.  2  Chron.  28:  3. 
33:  G.  These  words  are  not  to  be;  considered,  as  meaning  in  these 
instances  literally  to  pass  through,  and  that  alone.  They  are  rather 
synonymous  with  r-r  to  burn,  and  nr:  to  immolate  with  which  they 
are  interchanged,  as  may  be  seen  by  an  examination  of  Jcr.  7:  31. 
19:  5.  Ezek.  IG:  20,  21.  Ps.  lOG:  38. 

In  the  later  periods  of  the  Jewish  kingdom,  this  idol  was  erected  in 
the  valley  south  of  Jerusalem,  viz.  z'tn  't>  or  "z'tr.  -2  ■:. ,  tu  t/ie  vaUei/ 
of  Ilianom,  and  in  the  part  of  said  valley  called  Tophet,  rs'n,  so 
named  from  the  (/n<??js  r'n,  S"Sn  which  were  beaten  to  prevent  the 
groans  and  cries  of  children  sacrificed,  from  being  heard,  Jer.  7:  31,  32. 
19:  G— 14.  Isa.  30:  33.  2  Kings  23: 10.  The  place  was  so  abhorrent 
to  the  minds  of  the  more  recent  Jews,  that  they  applied  the  name  Ge 
Hinnom  or  Gehenna  to  the  place  of  torments  in  a  future  life.  The 
word  Gkuenna  is  used  in  this  way,  (viz.  for  the  {dace  of  punishment 
beyond  the  grave,)  very  frequently  in  Oriental  writers,  as  far  as  In- 
dia.    Compare  Wetstein's  New  Testani'Mit  at  ^latt.  ;3:  22. 


528  §  413.    OF    TKUAI'III.M. 

§  412.     CON'CKKMNO    CllirX    AND    RlCMl'IIAX. 

The  god  Cnir.v,  "",  avIio^^o  small  Tubcrnacles,  (resembling  per- 
liaps  the  small  shrines  of  Diana  mentioned  Aets  19:  24,)  were  secretly 
carried  abont  with  them  by  the  Hebrews  in  their  journey  through  the 
Araliian  Avilderness,  (Amos  5:  2G,)  were  no  other  than  Saturn.  As 
a  coniirmation  of  this,  Ave  observe,  that  the  Arabic  and  Persian  word 

for  Saturn  is  ^le-^.^;  the  Syriac  is  "i-n:  ,  llie  Chaldaic  is  l^'S, 
which  mGixus Just;  for  the  reign  of  Saturn  was  celebrated  for  the  ex- 
ercise of  justice. 

The  Alexandrine  interpreter  has  rendered  the  Ilebi-ew  word 
C/min  by  the  word  Psnqur,  J'tcfar,  Patcfur,  which  in  the  Coptic 
dialect,  is  the  name  for  Saturn,  Delia  Yalle's  Travels,  P.  I.  p.  12.3. 
The  Prophet  Amos  calls  this  god  both  a  star  and  a  king  ;  as  in  fact 
Saturn  was  both  a  planet,  and  a  king  or  idol-deity,  who  was  otherwise 
called  MoLFX,  Moloc,  Milcom,  and  Malcom.  This  double  char- 
acter of  Saturn,  as  a  star  in  heaven  and  a  monarch  on  earth,  may 
perhaps  be  recognized  in  the  Hebrew  words  T\~^:'-:'.  and  Ti"."?'^']? 
Annamelech  and  Adrammelech,  (2  Kings  17:  31,)  since  it  appears, 
that  both  of  the  deities  thus  named  were  worshipped  by  the  offering 
up  to  them  of  human  sacrifices. 

The  Egyptians  consecrated  to  Saturn  the  seventh  day  of  the  week ; 
hence  Saturn  is  denominated  by  the  Jcaas,  "^nsr,  "^xri^r.  A  Caaba 
is  said  to  have  been  formerly  consecrated  to  him  at  Mecca,  Pocoke, 
Specimen  Hist.  Akab.  p.  140. 

§  413.  Of  Terapiiim,  n-^s^rn. 

That  Terai)him  were  images,  sculptured  in  imitation  of  the  human 
form,  is  evident  from  1  Sam.  19:  13;  and  that  they  were  household 
gods  is  clear  also  from  Gen.  31:  19,  34,  35.  1  Sam.  19:  13—17. 
2  Kings  23:  24.  It  appears  from  Ezekiel  (ch.  21:  21,)  that  responses 
were  sought  from  them,  the  same  as  from  Oracles.  Compare  Zech. 
10:  2.  Judg.  17:  5.  18:  5,  6,  14 — 20.  llosea  3:  4.  This  is  confirmed 
by  1  Sam.  15:  23,  where  Teraphim  are  spoken  of  in  connection  with 
the  arts  of  divination. 

The  etymology  of  the  word  coincides  with  the  statement,  for 
r-n  according  to  Bar  Bahlul  means  an  inquirer,  one  who  asks. 
The  name  of  this  idol,  when  we  consider,  that  it  was  first  brought 
from    Mesopotamia,  Gen.  31:  19,  is    derived    more    naturally  from 


§  414.    OF    DAGON'.  529 

ri'^'n ,  a  Syriac  word,  than  from  tlie  Arabic  ^jj  Greek  zQvqaoj, 
which  is  the  derivation,  proposed  by  Michaelis,  who  would  make  the 
Teraphim  the  same  as  the  Sileni. 

He  rests  his  hypothesis  chiefly  on  Leviticus  17:  7.  The  word 
cin^rb  hairy,  which  is  there  u<ed,  he  sujiposes,  is  not  to  be  ren- 
dered goats,  which  in  other  places  are  denominated  S"""  ^'y.:'':^ , 
but  Sii-KNi,  i.  e.  apes  or  Sa/i/rs,  and  for  this  reason  more  especially, 
that  the  Hebrews,  as  is  evident  from  other  sources,  would  not  of 
course  have  sacrificed  he-goats  to  she-goats.  But  granting  that  the 
word  in  question  should  be  rendered  in  the  way  he  proposes,  still  its 
identity  with  Teraphim  is  something,  which  is  by  no  means  evident. 
On  the  contrary,  it  is  evident, 

I.  That  in  the  district  of  Mendusium  in  Egypt,  both  she-goats  and 
he-goats  were  considered  sacred,  and  that  a  certain  species  of  the  he- 
goat  was  worshipped  with  divine  honors,  Ilerodot.  II.  46.  Strabo,  p. 
802.  comp.  Jublonsky  Pantheon  Egypti,  p.  279. 

II.  In  Leviticus  17:  3,  it  is  not  said,  that  the  Hebrews  sacrificed 
she-goats  to  the  -""!"b ,  as  Michaelis  seems  to  imagine ;  nor  is  this 
passage  to  be  compared  necessarily  with  17:  7,  where  there  is  nothing 
said  about  she-goats,  as  sacrifices. 

HI.  Goats  do  not  only  appear  under  the  unqualified  Hebrew 
word  C^'i^'b,  in  Lev.  16:  9,  18,  20,  as  Michaelis  himself  has  admit- 
ted, but  also  in  Lev.  4:  24.  9:  15.  2  Chron.  11:  15.  Dan.  8:  21. 

IV.  That  Teraphim  were  found  only  among  barren  women,  which 
is  maintained  by  Michaelis,  and  brought  in  favor  of  his  argument,  is 
refuted  by  many  passages,  which  have  been  already  adduced.  Fur- 
ther, the  Teraphim  mentioned  Gen.  31:  19,  34,  did  not  belong  to  the 
unfruitful  Rachel,  but  to  Laban,  Michal  is  the  only  barren  woman 
mentioned,  as  possessing  Teraphim,  1  Sam.  19:  13. 

§  414.  Dagon. 

The  sculptured  image  or  representation  of  Dagon  V"'^  (from  it 
a  Jish)  exhibited,  as  may  still  be  seen  on  ancient  coins,  the  appear- 
ance of  a  woman  above,  but  of  a  fish  below.  (Compare  the  original 
German  edition  of  tiiis  AVork  P.  IH.  tab.  XH.  Xo.  HI.)  This  figure 
of  the  idol  agrees  quite  well  witli  what  is  said  of  it  in  1  Sam.  5:  4,  5, 
comj).  Zepli.  1:  9;  since  it  lost  in  its  fall  upon  the  ground  the  head 
and  hands;  and  only  the  stump,  •,"""  or Jish,  was  remaining. 
45 


530  §  414.  OF  PAG  ox. 

Dagon  was  the  god  of  the  rhihsliiics  Jiulg.  10:  23 — 20.  1  Sam. 
5:  1 — 5.  1  Mace.  10:  83.  Temples  were  erected  in  honor  of  this 
deity  at  Gaza,  at  Azotus,  at  Ascalon,  as  is  clear  both  from  Diodor. 
Sic.  IT.  4.  Herodotus  I.  105,  and  from  ancient  coins ;  (see  Michaelis 
altc  Or.  Bihl  YI.  Th.  S.  80 — 99,)  and  jK'rliaps  in  some  other  cities 
of  the  riiili.-tines,  who  formerly  emigrated  from  Egypt,  where  cer- 
tain fislies  were  worshipped  with  divine  honors.  This  deity  is  not 
to  be  confounded  with  the  Ashtaroth,  in  whose  temple  ilie  Philistines 
(1  Sam.  31:  10)  deposited  the  armor  of  Saul.  It  is  true,  that  in 
the  parallel  passage  in  1  Cliron.  10:  10,  the  Hebrew  is  rn^n'^x  n"'?, 
the  temple  of  their  god,  but,  though  tlie  noun  be  maseulinc!,  it  may  be 
ap[)lied  to  Ashtaroth,  i.  e.  Ashtaroth  may  be  considered  as  being 
merait  here,  since  the  Hebrew  has  no  separate  termination  in  this 
instance  for  the  feminine. 

Dagon  was  also  of  the  feminine  gender,  and  Ilei-odotus,  who 
savs,  slie  was  worshipped  at  Ascalon,  compares  her  to  Venus,  I.  105. 
This  idol  is  likewise  called  Derketo,  Athara,  and  Atargatis,  Strabo, 
pp.  748,  785.  Lucian  de  Dica  Svka.  That  the  name  Derketo  is 
Syriac,  the  termination  to  is  itself  an  indication.  Indeed  Diodorus 
Siculus  (1.  4,)  expressly  says,  that  the  goddess  worshipped  at  Ascalon 
was  called  by  the  Syrians,  Derleio. 

The  origin  of  the  name  was  this.  A  very  large  temple  was 
erected  to  her  at  Mabug  or  Ilierapolis  in  Syria,  where  she  was 
worshipped,  and  where  her  statue  was  a  female  form  throughout. 
Within  tliis  temple  was  a  chasm  or  fissure  in  the  earth,  (yuGfiu,) 
into  which  tlie  worshippers  on  certain  days  poured  water.  Hence 
the  goddess  was  denominated  by  the  Syrians  i<r"~P ,  i.  e.  a  Jissure, 
which  at  length  appeared  under  the  altered  form  of  Derketo,  Jacob 
Surug  IX  AssEMAXi  BiBLiOTii.  Orif.xt.  T.  I.  pp.  327,  328,  and 
T.  II.  IX  ixDiCE  Geograph. 

The  mythological  story  in  respect  to  Derketo,  is,  that  slie  fell  in 
love  with  a  youth  througli  the  arts  of  Venus,  and  tliat  tlie  fruit  of 
their  embraces  was  Semiramis,  who  being  exposed,  but  ibund  and 
educated  by  shepherds,  afterwards  became  queen  of  Assyria,  while 
Derketo  herself  was  transformed  into  a  fish. 

It  is  stated,  however,  in  the  woi-k  already  alluded  to.  (Lucian 
DE  Dea  Si'RA,)  that  many  supposed  the  Temple,  erected  at  Hiera- 
polis,  belonged  to  Juno,  and  that  it  was  built  by  Deucalion  after 
Lis   escape  from   the   waters  of  the  Hood,  in  memory  of  the  fact, 


§  415.  OF  OTiuai  nr.rrir.s.  531 

that  the  waters  of  the  deluge  had  escaped  through  that  aperture  in 
the  earth,  already  spoken  of,  over  which  the  Temple  was  built. 
Something  in  corroboration  of  tliis  view  of  the  subject  may  be 
inferred  from  the  representations  on  the  coins  of  the  city  of  Ascalon, 
which  e.\hil)it  on  one  side  a  figure  of  Derketo,  and  on  the  other, 
a  ship  with  seven,  eight,  or  nine  men.  So  that  the  mythology 
of  the  goddess  in  question,  which  is  sufficiently  wonderful,  ap- 
pears to  have  been  founded  partly  on  the  traditionary  accounts 
of  the  Deluge,  and  partly  on  the  opinions  which  were  prevalent 
among  the  ancients  respecting  either  the  mermaid,  or  that  animal 
of  the  ocean  denominated  by  Linnitus  Tuichecus  maxatus,  {sea- 
coic).  Compare  Donat.  in  Scheuchzer's  Physica  sacra,  P.  11.  p. 
281. 


§  415.  Of  other  Deities. 

Tlie  character  of  some  of  the  heathen  deities  mentioned  in  the 
Bible,  for  instance  Apollo,  Diana,  Castor  and  Pollux,  may  be  learnt 
from  the  records  of  profane  antiquity ;  but  in  regard  to  that  of  some 
others,  we  are  left  in  great  ignorance  ;  for  instance, 

I.  Shedim,  n--r,  Deut.  32:17.  Ps.  106:37.  It  appears,  that 
children  were  sacrificed  to  the  deities  thus  named;  that  they  Avere 
considered  to  be  of  an  angry  nature,  and  inimical  to  the  human 
race ;  and  that  the  object  of  the  homage  rendered  to  them,  was 
to  avert  calamities.  The  name  C-i/r  may  signify  either  lord  or 
ma'fer,  or  any  thing  that  is  black ;  it  being  derived  from  an  Arabic 

Aln  Vav  verb,  viz.  4>L«  to  he  hlach,  or  to  be  master.  If  it  had  been 
derived  from  nnr ,  it  would  have  been  pointed  "cr^p^  or  C-r.  The 
Mehestani  named  one  of  the  evil  spirits  Sued  ;  but  it  was  at  length 
clianged  into  light  by  Orrauz,  i.  e.  made  a  good  spirit,  and  was  con- 
fined to  the  planet  Venus,  Zend  Avesta,  P.  III.  Bun-Dehesh  p.  6G. 
It  might  be  said,  if  any  one  chose  to  take  that  ground,  that  the  per- 
sons, who  introduced  the  present  system  of  punctuation  into  the 
Hebrew  text,  pointed  the  word,  in  reference  to  the  Shed  of  the 
Mehestani,  =-r  instead  of  =-^r  or  ="Tr ;  or  tliat  the  Mehestani,  in 
the  recent  book  of  Bun-Dcliesh,  had  borrowed  the  name  from  the 
Hebrew.  The  Syriac  word  XTr  appears  to  be  adopted  from  the 
Hebrew. 


532  §41").  <H-    (ITIIKK    DKITIKS. 

II.  ><'kh(),  ■-: ,  ls;i.  Jt>:  1,  (I  (h'itij  of  Bitht/hn,  worshipped  by  the 
Chaklcans  properly  so  eallcd,  the  name  of  wliich  is  found  in  the  first 
sylhible  of  the  proper  Chaldaio  word  ^-jx:-!:^::  rSEBUCHADNKZZAR. 
Perhaps  the  term  maybe  exphiinedbya  comparison  of  the  Slavonian 
word  KEBO  heaven  ;  since  the  last  syllable  of  the  word  i:i  Tszar,  is 
still  found  in  the  Russian  language. 

III.  Gad  and  Mexi,  ~ir«  and  ■^:"S  Isa.  Go:  11.  The  Hebrews  set 
tables  in  honor  of  the  deities,  and  furnished  them  with  food  and  beve- 
rage. Jerome,  in  his  remarks  on  the  passage  here  quoted,  observes, 
that  it  was  the  custom  so  late  as  his  time  in  all  cities,  especially  in 
Egvpt,  to  set  tables,  and  furnish  them  with  various  luxurious  articles 
of  food,  and  with  goblets  containing  a  mixture  of  new  wine,  on  the 
last  day  of  the  month  and  of  the  year,  and  that  the  people  drew 
omens  from  them  in  respect  to  the  fruitfulness  of  the  year ;  but  in 
honor  of  what  god  these  things  were  done,  he  does  not  state.  Perhaps 
na  is  the  goddess  of  fortzme,  for  this  word  in  the  Syriac  dialect  means 

fortune,  and  i:*;  is  fate,  from  n:^,  to  number,  to  define,  or  perhaps  the 
idol  known  under  the  Arabic  word  P*-^  j  ^vhich  was  formerly  wor- 
shipped by  the  tribes  Hudeil  and  Choraa  between  Mecca  and  Medina, 

Golius'  Arabic  Lexicon,  coh  2270. 

IV.  Ri.MMOx,  "i'lra-i ,  an  idol  of  the  Assyrians,  2  Ivings  o:  18,  per- 
haps the  tutelary  deity  of  pomegranates  ;  NiSROC,  "rp'^J ,  a  god  of  the 
Assyrians,  2  Kings  19:  37.  Isa.  37:  38  ;  and  the  deities  of  the  colonies 
sent  by  the  king  of  Assyria  into  Samaria,  viz.  Nergal  ^r>"'3 ,  AsiiniA, 
n-^i'ix,  Nibchaz,  tn::,  and  Tartar,  pnnri,  2  Kings  17:  30,  31,  are 
altogether  unknown. 

Y.  Nanaea,  vavaiu,  otherwise  called  AxAis,  Axaitis,  Aneitis, 
and  Tanais,  a  goddess,  to  whom  a  very  sjjlendid  temple  was  conse- 
crated in  Elymais,  2  JNIacc.  1:  13,  14,  compare  1  Mace.  G:  1,  2.  The 
worship,  rendered  by  the  Mehestani  to  this  goddess  was  the  prostitu- 
tion of  virgins ;  so  that  she  seems  to  have  agreed  in  character  very 
much  with  the  Babylonish  deity  Mylitta,  N-"V"'^  in  whose  honor 
every  woman  of  Babylon  was  bound  once  during  her  life,  to  commit 
prostitution,  Ilerodot.  I.  199,  comp.  Strabo,  p.  512,  532,  533,  539. 


I  X  1) 

EX 

O! 

^    PASSAGES    ILLUSTK.- 

Genesis.             | 

ITKl),    OU 

ALI.UUr.l) 

TO,  IN*  xni 
Gene 

S    WORK. 

Genesis. 

sis. 

Chap 

verse. 

Section. 

Clmp.     Terse. 

.Section.       Cluip.    verse. 

Section. 

1- 

-11. 

164,  374 

6. 

3—8 

304          12 

6 

297  note 

1. 

30G 

6,7 

304 

7 

327,  374 

1 

34G  VL 

9 

9  9 

7,8 

81,  304 

27,28 

150,  151 

15,  16 

104  I. 

8 

396 

29 

13G 

17 

306 

10-15 

163 

2. 

1 

40  G  note 

7. 

2,8 

136 

10,  20 

44 

1—3 

34G,  347 

4,10 

102,  104 

11-13 

152 

2 

304 

4,10 

346  V. 

13 

303 

2,3 

34G  yi. 

11 

100  III. 

15 

31 

3 

349 

8. 

4 

ibid. 

13 

4 

374 

8 

1G4 

10,12 

102,  304 

4,14,18  297 

8—20 

301 

10,12 

346  V. 

4,18 

304,  327 

15 

54 

11 

71 

7 

297  note 

IG 

136 

20 

304,  327 

8 

304 

22,24 

151 

20 

374 

18 

76 

24 

160 

20 

384 

14 

170  1. 

3. 

8 

21 

21 

304 

1-16 

81 

8 

101  V. 

22 

21 

1-16 

104  III. 

17—19 

54 

9. 

3—6 

136 

3 

19 

18,  21 

42 

6 

257,  264 

4 

19,295 

24 

90 

14,  15 

278 

5 

409 

24 

276  1. 

21 

66,81 

6 

27  1. 

4. 

2 

54 

25 

169 

8 

290 

2,19,20  42 

25-29 

90 

10 

19 

3,4 

304 

10 

1 

99 

11,12 

298 

3—5 

374 

1-30 

104  m. 

14 

170  V. 

G— 16 

304 

4,5 

107 

14 

171,  284 

19 

151 

5-10,  etc.    4 

14, 15 

269,  290 

21 

92 

9 

52 

14-16 

291 

21 

941. 

23 

141. 

14-24 

304 

21 

95  1. 

11. 

1-9 

81 

18 

66 

21 

[)6note.V. 

2 

42 

18,19 

231 

21—23 

80 

3 

32,39 

18-20 

306 

23 

90 

4-6 

304 

20 

308,  304 

2C 

301 

5-7 

ibid. 

20 

390 

29 

151 

10-32 

303 

22,  23 

392 

5. 

11—32 

303 

12 

3 

214 

23 

118 

22,24 

147 

3 

326  I. 

23 

123 

24 

203 

4-15 

104  III. 

23 

173 

29 

301 

5 

107 

15 

1 

271 

G. 

1 

301 

5,  6,  8,  9  297 

3 

168  IV 

3 

301,302 

6 

ibid. 

3 

170  V. 

534 


IXDKX    OF    rASSAGKS    ILl.USTnATKD. 


Genesis. 

Genesis. 

Genesis. 

Chtip.     vei>e. 

?<M-;iou. 

Chap.    Terse. 

Portion.       Chn 

p.    verse. 

SiTtion. 

15. 

7,13- 

21  297 

18 

19 

306          23 

16 

107, 115 

8-20 

304 

20 

19 

17  • 

206 

8,9,17, 

18  383 

19 

1 

44,  180 

19 

205 

0 

374,  377 

1-3 

174 

20 

85 

9-18 

384 

1-9 

149 

24 

2 

44,171 

9-21 

374 

2-10 

149 

10,  64 

49 

10 

81 

3 

I'lO  bis 

11-15 

45  1. 

13,  IG 

99 

24 

19 

16 

166 

15 

203 

24  et  seq 

19 

17-20 

44 

IG 

297 

26 

209 

22 

81,129 

18-21 

13 

30-32 

156 

22,23,53  130 

16. 

1-3 

156 

32 

81 

25 

47 

2 

161 

32-35 

66 

31 

152 

i-14 

156 

37 

164 

40 

147 

4-10 

151 

20 

2 

230  (5) 

46,  48 

396 

o,G 

153 

2-6 

152 

50 

152 

10-14 

228 

16 

127 

55 

154 

11 

164 

16 

127  VL 

60 

ibid. 

12 

53 

21 

8 

148 

60 

1001. 

17. 

1 

147,  306 

8 

166 

64 

49 

5 

164 

8-21 

168  II. 

65 

127 

8 

297 

9-11 

153 

67 

31 

9-14 

219,306 

10 

170  V. 

25 

1-6 

108  II. 

10 

81,162 

14 

81,  167 

8 

203.3141. 

10-14 

163 

20 

52 

8,9 

203 

11-14 

105 

21 

27  1. 

9 

205  bis 

13-17 

109 

21 

152 

10 

314  n. 

15 

164 

22 

231 

16 

28 

23 

170  V. 

24 

283 

23  etseq. 

165  ni. 

18 

1 

101  III. 

25 

45 

25,26 

164- 

1-30 

174 

25-30 

297 

30,34 

141 

2-6 

141 

33 

396 

31,  32 

165 

3-9 

149 

22 

3 

48 

34 

54 

4 

29, 123 

3,5 

48 

26 

.    1 

44 

4 

149 

10 

81 

4 

221,  303 

4-G 

81 

13 

374 

4 

326  1. 

G 

114 IV. 

15 

228 

7-17 

152 

G 

138, 140 

18 

214,  221 

10 

230  (5) 

G 

140  bis 

18 

303,3261. 

12 

62 

6 

148 

23 

27  note 

12-14 

54 

G-9 

31 

2  et  seq 

.  207 

12,  15,18   81 

7 

141 

2-4 

205 

13-22 

45 

8 

47 

4-20 

20  G 

25 

327,396 

10-21 

304 

6 

207 

34,  35 

297  note 

16-20 

214 

7,12 

174 

27 

.   3,4,9,10  141 

16-25 

306 

9,  19 

14IV. , 

3,  4,  14 

81 

IS 

221,303' 

10  etseq. 

2-47 

9 

148 

18 

326  I. 

1.3-16 

81 

25 

66 

19 

303,  304 

15,  IG 

104  I. 

27 

135,117 

INDKX    OF    r.VSSAGlCS    ILLLSTKATKU. 


Genesis.             I 

Genesis.             j 

Genesis. 

Chfip.     vurM". 

Scctiou. 

Chap,     verse. 

Scctiou. 

Chap,    verse. 

.«rc'io" 

27.  28 

21 

33.  19 

115 

39.20 

45  IL 

29 

1G5  III. 

20 

327         ! 

20 

249  (2) 

28.    2-0 

104  III. 

34.    1,  2 

31 

40.    2 

109 

8,  9 

297  note' 

1-12 

150  III. 

3,4 

230  \. 

11,18,: 

>2    40         i 

2-0 

152 

3,4 

249 

It 

214,  221 

11,12 

153 

11 

144 

U 

103,3201. 

11-27 

152 

15 

45  II. 

17,22 

401  II. 

14 

163 

15 

249  (1) 

18 

71 

20 

180 

17-19 

257 

20-22 

303 

25 

162  11. 

17-19  • 

259  II. 

'22 

00,  148 

25-31 

291 

20 

148,  101 

22 

390,  393 

oo.    1,  3,  7 

327 

20 

227 

29.    0-12 

45  1. 

2 

325 

41.    2 

141 

G 

175 

2-7,  9-13  303 

5,  47 

62 

9 

44 

8 

106,  200 

0 

02 

10 

106 

10 

104 

6,23 

21 

11,10 

175 

11 

113  X. 

8 

85  n.  I. 

18,27 

153 

20 

209 

8 

403  1. 

22 

148 

22 

105  1. 

35 

65 

27 

304 

28 

314  II. 

40 

225 

27 

346  V. 

29 

203  bis 

42 

85,  118 

27,28 

102 

29 

205  bis 

42 

128,  130 

30. 

44 

36.    2-24 

297  note 

43 

59 

1-3,1 

5    151 

20-30 

27  1. 

43 

104  II. 

1-18 

156 

20-30 

297  note 

43 

174,  179 

3-5 

161 

24 

48  n.  I. 

43 

179  note 

13 

156 

24 

105 

45 

104 

14-10 

151  III. 

37.    3 

118 

45,50 

407 

15,  IG 

156 

3,  23 

119 

46 

238 

32-34 

46 

7 

54,  02 

47 

58 

31.  10-12 

46 

22  ff. 

45  11. 

42.    1-5 

107 

15 

153 

25 

48,  74 

0 

174 

17 

49  bis 

25 

110 

13 

253 

18,19 

118 

25,26 

107 

15 

392 

19 

413 

34 

211 

to.  11 

09,74,70 

19,37, 

34    81 

35 

203  tris. 

11 

77,  178 

19,  34 

413  lY. 

34 

314I.II. 

19 

254 

19,34,35   413 

36 

230  V. 

20 

392 

27 

92,90  I. 

38.    8-12 

157 

27 

175 

27,  54 

148 

11 

108  V. 

32 

145 

38 

44 

14 

127  IV. 

44.  17 

254 

42 

409 

18 

85,  128 

18 

392 

32.    G 

171,284 

18 

220 

34 

173 

9-12 

396 

18,  25 

128 

45.    5,8 

306 

25,  32 

143  in. 

24 

158,  107 

0 

59 

28 

164 

24 

210,  259  I. 

10 

12 

33.    1 

171 

28 

118,  119 

19 

104  IL 

4 

175 

39.     1 

240  V. 

19,21 

59 

17 

28,30,4  1 

'.1 

;)!I3,  30C 

19,27 

59 

536 


IXDEX  OF   I'ASSAGKS    IM.USTUATED. 


Genesis. 

Genesis. 

Exod 

JS. 

Chap.    Terse. 

Poet  ion. 

Cliap.    verse. 

Section.      Chap,     verse. 

Section. 

45.  22 

118,  17850.    9 

104  II.    10. 

2 

305 

22,23 

178 

10 

63 

12,  15 

23  IV 

4G.    4 

204 

13 

206 

13-20 

ibid. 

4 

297  note 

13,  25 

ibid. 

15 

ibid,  bis 

20 

407 

17-20 

303 

11. 

2 

299 

47.    G 

171 

20 

306 

4-7 

190 

G 

234  n. 

23 

161 

5 

139 

G,  11 

12 

24,25 

204 

7 

51 

8-11 

175 

24-36 

297  note  12. 

354 

17 

50 

1-0 

il.id. 

18 

55 

Exodus. 

1,13, 

IC 

310 

19-2G 

234 

1.    9,10 

297  note 

1-28 

354 

20-27 

104  1. 

9,11 

65,  234 

2 

103 

29-31 

297  note 

19 

161 

7 

354 

48.    4,21,22  297 

2.    5 

180 

11 

123,  128 

5,  6 

1G5L 

7,9 

166 

12 

305 

5,  G 

217 

10 

164 

15,34 

140 

7 

205 

16 

44,45 1. 

16 

353 

10-12 

175 

16 

166,  231 

18 

354 

22 

278 

20 

149 

23,29 

190 

49.    1-26 

297 

3.    1 

231 

25-28 

308 

1-27 

1G8  II. 

4-20 

228 

29 

165  in. 

2-28 

1G7 

5 

123,  368 

34 

122,  140 

3,9,17,2 

2  288  I. 

7 

189 

51 

269 

8-10 
8-10 

1G5  m. 

217 

13 
16 

305 
213 

13 

1-10, 
11-16 

} 

320 

10 

226 

22 

299 

2,11- 

16  388 

11 

66 

4.  10,  13 

392 

3,7 

140 

11,  12 

66 

16 

230 

4 

103 

13 

104  m. 

27 

175 

4-16 

308 

14 

48 

5.  1,14,15 

,19  213 

6,7 

354 

17 

50 

14, 15, 

19  ibid. 

13 

388  bis 

19 

269 

15-19 

238 

16 

320 

24 

278,  405 

6.    3 

306 

18 

269,  290 

25 

21 

7 

305,  306 

19 

204 

26 

19 

14 

85 

19 

297  note 

27 

269,  298 

7.    1 

230 

14 

2 

408 

29 

203 

5 

305,  306 

4,17,18,31  305 

29 

206 

11 

100  III. 

6 

283 

29 

314  II. 

11 

235  II. 

6,7 

104  11. 

33 

3141. 

11-18 

403  I. 

6,7 

269 

50.    2 

105 

19-25 

180 

6-28 

50 

2-10 

314  1. 

8.    3 

85  n.  I. 

7 

209,  200 

2-2G 

204  bis 

18 

235  II. 

23-28 

283 

3 

211 

22 

377 

24 

101 

4 

ibid. 

9.    3 

50 

15 

90,  396 

7-11 

205 

14-16,29  305 

1-21 

295 

7-13 

207  note 

31,32 

62 

4 

269,  290 

7-14 

205 

10.    1,  2 

306,  308 

9 

298 

INDKX    OF    PASSAGKS    ILLUSTRATED. 


537 


Exodus, 


Exodus. 


Cha{>.     verse. 

Section.       C 

;;i!ip 

15.  17 

334         21. 

20 

90  I.  97 

20,  21 

349 

27 

75 

IG.  12 

305,  300 

16,18,22 
32,33,30 

}U4  1I. 

22-30 

340  IV. 

22-30 

348 

29 

113VIII. 

32,  30 

333 

33,34 

333  note 

30 

114  III. 

17. 

207 

8,  U 

215  II. 

14 

85,88 

14 

394 

10 

225 

18.    3,4 

104 

7 

175 

13-20 

210 

19.    4,  0 

221 

4-8 

214 

4,9 

305 

6 

361 

22 

7 

218  (2) 

7 

218  (4) 

7,8 

219 

10,14 

325 

20. 

214 

2 

309 

2,3 

228 

4 

406,  407 

4,5 

401  n. 

4-6 

189 

5,6 

307 

6 

.   392 

8-11 

346  IL 

1 

8-11 

347 

8-12 

306 

10 

171  IV.  23 

10 

348 

10,  1 1 

309  bis 

12 

107 

20,21 

301 

23 

107 

i 

24 

329 

21-24. 

214 

21.    2 

350 

verse. 

2-4 


2-11,1 
JO-20  j 


eq. 


20 
4 

5,  0 
7  et 
7,8 
8 
9 

9-12 
10 

10,  11 
12 

15,  17 
10 

18,  19 
19 

20,  21 
23-25 
20,  27 
28-31 
30 
32 
32 
1 
2 
2 

3,  0,8 
6 
12 
16 

20,  21 
21 

22-24 
25 

25,26 
25,26 
25,  20 
27 
31 
1-7 
1-9 
4,5 
7 
8 
9 

9,  12 
10,  11 
11 


.Section. 

171VIII. 

309 


i7ivm 

ibid. 

ibid. 

ibid. 

171  VII. 

152 

155 

100 

151  III. 

204 

107 

170  IV. 
250 
105 

171  II. 
250 

171  III. 
253  (2) 
253  (1) 
170  VI. 

253  (4) 

254  bis 

170  m. 

254 
ibid. 

21,  63 

44 

150  in 
248,  309 
215 
108  V. 
251 
122 

250  IL 
309 
ibid. 

143  n. 

309 
248 
309 
248 
177 
215 
309 
350 
52 


Exodi 

("Iwp.    verse. 

23.  11,  12 
12 
15 
15 
10 
17 
19 
19 

20-23 
20-33 
32,33 

2-8 

3,8 

3-8 

3-8 

3-8 

4 


24. 


25. 


26 


27 


28. 


12 

4 

10-15 
23-28 
29,  30 
31-40 
33 
36 

7-13 
15-30 
36,37 

1-8 

3 

9-19 
20 

4,37 

4,40 

4,40 

4—43 

6,7 

6,7 

9-11 

16 

30 

30 

31-35 

33,34 

36-38 

38 

39,41 


309 
347 

103,  354 
354 
356 
353 

143Vm. 
389 
228 
221 
215  I. 
218  (4) 
219 

218  (2) 
218  (4) 
383 
85,  329 
325,  384 

87  m. 

107 

333 

331 

ibid. 

330 

144  IL 

119 

328 

ibid. 

ibid. 

329 

ibid. 

328 

71,  330 
368 
126 

368  IV. 
370  IV. 
368 
122  IL 
370  IL 

85 

113  in. 

370  IIL 
370  note 
370  L 
73 
370  IV. 
310 
308  IL 


538 


INDEX    OF    PASSACKS    ILLUSTRATED. 


I'^xolIus. 

E.xodijs. 

Leviticus. 

Oliap.     vci-M-. 

Srction. 

Chip.    ViTic. 

Swtion. 

Chap,     verse. 

Soctioa 

28.40 

126 

34 

8 

396 

1. 

3 

379 

42 

120 

12,  16 

215  1. 

3-9 

378  1. 

29.    5 

'i'i^  II. 

13 

409 

3-17 

379 

5 

370  IV. 

15 

143  VII. 

5 

378  III. 

5-9 

367 

15,  16 

152 

2. 

1,5,7,1 

5  71 

G 

126 

18 

103 

2 

114  1. 

G 

370  IV. 

22 

355,  356 

4 

140  III. 

9 

126 

24 

300 

5 

140  IV. 

9 

368  IV. 

26 

68 

10,  12 

385 

10-1 4 

367 

26 

143  VIII. 

11 

140,  385 

13,22 

143  III. 

26 

309 

12 

138,  389 

13,22 

378  VII. 

27,  28 

^h 

12,14 

138 

15-18 

367 

31,32 

218  (2) 

13 

378  VII. 

19-34 

ibid. 

35. 

1-3 

348 

3. 

1 

378  1. 

22 

143  III. 

2 

158,  257 

1-17 

382 

24 

378  V. 

2 

258,  347 

4,10,15 

143  III. 

24,27,28 

ibid. 

3 

348 

4, 10, 15 

378  \\\. 

27 

ibid. 

22 

128,  129 

9 

143  III. 

28 

378  V. 

22 

130 

9,10,17 

143  1. 

29 

367 

25 

83 

4, 

5. 

252 

25-37 

ibid. 

30-35 

82 

4. 

1-16 

381 

46 

306 

35 

119 

3,5,16 

367 

30.    1-10 

332 

36 

1  et  sec] 

.    82 

7 

378  IV. 

8 

330 

37 

1-9 

333 

9 

143  III. 

10 

357 

10-16 

331  bis 

9 

378  VII. 

18 

329 

17-24 

330 

13 

218  (2) 

22-33 

391 

25-29 

332 

14 

378  1. 

25 

378  vn. 

38 

1-7 

329 

15 

378  II. 

34-37 

332 

3 

ibid. 

22-26 

380 

35 

142  note 

8 

132 

24 

413  in. 

37,38 

148,  176 

9-20 

328 

27-35 

380 

31.  12-17 

347 

22,23 

82 

5. 

1 

392 

13-17 

ibid. 

25,  26 

115 

1-4       \ 

» 385  IV. 

14 

158,  257 

39. 

5 

370  1. 

11-13 

14 

258 

9 

113  III. 

1-16 

381  I. 

14-17 

348 

9 

370  III. 

1-19 

381 

17 

306 

27,28 

370  IV. 

2 

183  VI. 

18 

87  ni. 

27-29 

368 

7 

377 

32.    2,3 

129 

28 

126 

12 

114  L 

4 

405 

31 

ibid. 

17 

381 

4,5 

405  I. 

31 

370  IV. 

6. 

1-5 

252 

6,7       . 

349 

40 

4,24 

331 

8  et  seq 

.  348  ni. 

16,32 

86 

5,26 

332 

10 

368  1. 

19 

87  III. 

7 

329 

14 

140  IV. 

29 

216,  367 

29 

ibid. 

15 

71,  367 

32 

85 

18,22 

375 

33.  18-23 

306 

Leviticus. 

7. 

1 

ibid. 

34.    1  et  seq 

.   87  ni. 

1 

2 

374 

3 

143  m. 

6,7 

307 

2 

377 

3,4 

378  ^01. 

INDEX 

OF 

rASSA( 

;es  illusti 

.VTKD. 

oijy 

Leviticus.            ; 

Leviticus.            ' 

Leviticus. 

Chap.    Tciso. 

Section. 

'Jhap.    verse. 

Section. 

Ch.ap.    vcr^^e. 

Section. 

7.  11-1 4,) 
28-35  ; 

382 

13. 

2,39 

189 

17.  10-14 

143  L 

3 

183 

15,  16 

180 

13 

385 

38,39 

189  n.  L 

18. 

127 

15-21 

382 

45 

183  L 

1-30 

309 

23-27 

ibid. 

45 

211 

3-5 

ibid. 

2C.,  27 

143  1. 

46 

334 

7-18 

152 

30,32,3-4  378  V.    | 

47-59 

135  note 

21 

402  L 

8.    2 

307 

14. 

1-7 

387  bis 

19.    2 

309,  301 

2.3.14-17  ibiil.     | 

2 

180 

2 

ibid. 

3-5 

218  (2) 

4-7 

377 

9 

302 

9 

12G 

5,  50 

45  L 

9,  13 

309 

13 

368  IV. 

8,9 

387 

10 

09 

15,  IG 

378  IV. 

10-14 

381  V. 

10,12,14 

^309 

18-21 

3G7 

10-18 

387 

18,25,28 

22-3  G 

ibid. 

12 

378  V. 

30-32, 

2G 

143  ni. 

13 

375 

34,37 

2G 

378  vn. 

13,19,22  )     OOA   TT 

12 

392 

27 

378  V. 

30,31 

^  00\J   XX. 

14 

309 

9.    5 

218  (2) 

19-32 

387 

15 

248 

9, 10, 19  378  Vil.l 

33-57 

39 

10 

309 

10,19 

143  m. 

41,  42 

ibid. 

10-18 

ibid. 

15 

413  III. 

41,42, 

45  ibid. 

18 

181,  309 

19 

143  III. 

48-53 

387 

19 

01,  119 

21 

378  V. 

56 

189 

20 

255 

22 

329 

15 

1-8 

180 

20-22 

158 

10.    1-5 

306 

3 

183  11. 

20-22 

381  in. 

6 

211,212 

16-28 

183  III. 

20 

143  L 

7 

307 

18 

151  IV. 

27 

124 

8-11 

309 

19-25 

183  V. 

28 

134,211 

14 

378Vin. 

29 

377 

29 

150  L 

15. 

378  V. 

16 

.    1-34 

357 

31 

100  in. 

17 

375 

4 

126 

31 

314  n. 

11.    1-38 

143  V. 

4,23 

370 

31 

403  n. 

4 

49 

0-10 

357 

32 

174 

8-11, 
24-31 

1 183  VI. 

9, 18, 20  413  m. 
11-19        357 

33,34 
34 

181,309 
215 

9 

^    78 

20-22, 

1    ibid. 

30 

115 

35 

140  II. 

20-28 

30,37 

111 

44 

309 

21 

378  n. 

20.    1-5 

402  L 

44,45 

3G1 

23-25 

357 

0,7,20,27  314  11 

45 

309  bis 

32 

307  bis 

7 

309 

45 

361 

34 

357 

7,8 

ibid. 

12.    1-6 

183  IV. 

17 

.    1-7 

370 

7,8,20 

301 

1-8 

161 

3 

413  IT. 

9 

107 

0,8 

379,3801. 

4 

258 

10 

158,  257 

0-8 

377 

7 

377,  413 

10-18 

258 

13. 

189 

7 

413  11. 

11-20 

152 

1-14,57  105 

8 

382 

14 

259  L 

540 


INDEX   OF   rASSAGKS    ILLUSTRATED. 


Leviticu.«. 

Leviticus. 

Leviticus. 

Chap.    Tcree. 

Section. 

Chap,    verse. 

Section. 

Chap.     Tcrse. 

Section. 

20.  2G 

309,  3G1 

24.  12 

249 

27. 

21.28,29  295 

20 

403  II. 

1 6,  22 

181 

24 

351 

27 

100  III. 

19-22 

256 

26 

388 

27 

100  IV. 

25.    1-7 

79,  350 

28 

298 

27 

403  II. 

1-17 

102 

30 

55,  390 

21.    1-5, 

} 

183  VI. 

1-17 

171VIII. 

31 

390 

10,11 

1-22 

102  111. 

ibid. 

7,13, 

14  152 

3,4 

68 

9 

150  1. 

5,  6 

309 

Numbers. 

9 

259  I. 

6,7 

52 

1. 

1-54 

207 

10 

211,367 

7 

309 

16 

213 

IG,  17 

3G9 

8-11 

351 

53 

286 

20-22 

189 

8-13 

ibid. 

2. 

ibid. 

22.3-8,30- 

-33  309 

9 

357 

1,3,10 

) 

6 

180 

10,13-17 

'|35in. 

17,18,25, 

>287 

7-U 

354  note 

23-34 

31 

i 

20-24 

377 

17 

309 

3. 

1-36 

365 

24 

28 

337 
309 

20-22 
25 

79 
395 

5-13  ) 
40-51   C 

362 

23.    1-14 

354 

35-37 

251 

9 

363 

4-8 

316,  354 

38 

309 

12,  13 

165  L 

6 

354 

39-41 

171 VIII. 

12,  13 

388 

7 

353 

39-41 

171  IX. 

21-38 

286 

10 

385  n. 

39-46 

351  I. 

20-51 

388 

10-15 

62 

39-53 

171  I. 

24, 30, 35 

213 

15,  16 

355 

39-53 

309 

42 

151 

17 

355,  385 

47-55 

171VIII. 

4 

1,30,35 

|365 

17-20 

385  III. 

49 

ibid.  X. 

46-49 

18-20 

355 

26.    1 

85  n.  I. 

3 

369 

20 

378  V. 

1 

407 

7 

331 

22 

309 

3-46 

219,  221 

9 

330 

22,43 

309 

4 

21,  62 

5 

2  et  seq 

.  183  L 

24 

352 

6 

276  1. 

5-10 

252 

27-29 

357 

8 

100  1. 

11-31 

159 

34-42 

356 

26 

40,  140 

18 

125 

38 

353,  356 

30 

376,  407 

19-22 

392 

40 

73  note 

33-35 

350 

22 

ibid. 

40 

75  bis 

34 

102  III. 

ii 

87 

40 

356 

34,35 

79 

25 

378  V. 

42,43 

356 

20-25 

307 

6 

.    3 

144 

43 

44 

27.    1-8 

170  VI. 

5 

125 

24.    1-4 

330 

1-8 

363 

9-12 

395 

4 

330 

1-24 

394 

10 

377 

5-9 

331 

1,  25 

393 

10,  11 

380  nL 

5-9 

385  I. 

1-33 

309 

11 

381  IV. 

G,7 

331 

13 

388 

11-16 

379 

7 

331 

16-21 

351  II. 

24,  25 

396 

8 

349 

,       20-34 

214 

24-26 

309 

INDEX    OF    rASSAOKS    ILLL  s^TKAlKD. 


541 


Chap,    vcr.-c. 

15.  35,  o6 
37-41 
1-17 
1-50 


IG. 


4  et  seq.  ibid. 
G,17,18, 
37,38 


17G 


13 
22 
30-33 

1-11 

7 
10 
10 

G 


Numbers.  I  Xuiiibcrs. 

Chap,    verse.  fk'ction. 

7.  3,  6,  7  59 
12-83  144 II 

8.  5-22  3G4 
5-26  216 

lG-19  362 

17,  19  363 

18  165  1. 

23-26  365 

9. 14  181 

15-23  287  bis   : 

10.  1-10  93         il7. 
2-4  218  (3)  I 

3  ibid. 

4  213         ' 
5-8,13-28  287         I  8. 

9,  10  290         I 

10  352  bis 

12  27  I. 

29  325 

29-32  110 

11.  244  note 
4,  13  141 

5  78 
8  138 

16  216 

32  142 
33-35  219 

12.  1-10  188 
1-15  219 

10  189 

11  392 
13. 20  69 

22,  23  27  III. 

24  20 IV. 

24,  25  66 

25-33  41 

28  275 

33  27  ni. 

14.  5  219 
18  307 

15.  3  382 
3-12  385  IV. 

14  181,309 

17-21  389 

27-31  252 

32, 36  348         31 

32-36  347         | 

32-41  122,  219, 


jS'umbers. 


Section. 

158,  257 
397 
216 
219 


77 
306 
314  II. 
219 
226 
333 

ibid,  note 
363     ■ 


Chap,     verve. 

21.14 

21  et  seq. 

21-35 

22 

24  et  .«eq. 

29 

1-35 

4 


09 


Section. 

88 
13 
215 
45  II. 

90 
408  1. 
297 

60 


21 

21,30 
24 
24.    7 
11-13 
17 
10, 11, 18  378 VIII.  25.    1 

1-9 
4,5 
7 


7, 16,37  177 


11 

11-13 

12 

12,  13 

14 

14-16 

15,  16 

17 

17,  18 

19 

20-24 

21,  22 

25-32 


68 
389  bis 

71 
389 
295 
388 
165  I. 
378  IV. 
388 

142  note 
390 
214 
390 


19.6,8,10,21386 


20, 


6 

11-16 
11-21 
15 
17 

3,29 

5 
14-22 
17-19 
24,26 
24-26 
26 

26-28 
28 
29 

2 


180 

183  VI. 
386 
143  VI. 

45  1. 
203 

73 
297 

4.5 
203 

314  III 
203 
367 
205 
211 
394 


16,17 
26.  2 
3 

5-50 
1-8 
1-8 
1-11 
5 
8-11 

16 

18 

18,23 


48 
ibid. 

67 

230  (3) 
177 
226 

15  III. 
408  1. 
259  II. 
276  11. 

31 
215 
267 

15  III. 
213 

168  m. 
219 

152,219 
219 
168  ni. 

306 
106  V. 
378  II. 


28.    3  et  seq.  348  III. 


29. 


4,10-31  297 
8,  9  288  III. 

46 


30. 


7-29 
9,10 

11-14 

16-25 

17 

26 

27-31 
1-6 
2-9 
7-11 

12,35 

12-38 

39 

39 
2-14 


385  IV. 
349 
352  bis 

354  bis 
ibid. 

355  tria 
ibid. 
352 
ibid. 
357  bis 
356 
ibid. 
353 
356 
309 


bi-J 

INDKX 

OF    TASSACI 

:s  ir.i.usT 

UATKD. 

Numbers. 

Deuteronomy. 

Deuteronom3\ 

Olinp.    verso. 

Scrtion. 

Ch:!]).     vorso. 

Hcr'iou. 

Ch; 

p.     A'erso. 

flection. 

30.    2,  17 

393 

2.32,34 

394  bis 

G 

.13 

392 

3,11,1-1 

ibid. 

34 

298 

20-25 

166 

31. 

267 

3.    1-8 

394  bis 

7 

.    1-11 

215  I. 

1-24 

215 

1-18 

215  III. 

3 

152 

3-54 

297 

3-16 

27  II. 

5 

401 1.  II. 

4,14-) 
18,  35  C 

170  VI. 

5 

7 

37 

298 

5 
5 

ibid.  IV. 
409 

9 

298 

9 

14  1. 

6 

361 

10 

28 

11 

113  IV. 

G-8 

215 

14,  15 

296 

11 

205 

G-9 

307 

19-24 

295 

12-27 

24 

6-11 

309 

48 

269 

14 

107 

9,  10 

307 

48-54 

298 

17 

19 

13 

71 

50 

129,  130 

26 

180 

19 

166 

32.10,24,36 

46 

27 

14  V. 

8 

1-G,   ) 

10-18  r 

309 

33.    2 

85 

4.    1-40 

309 

52 

ibid.  n.  I. 

12-20 

405 

1-19  ^ 

ibid. 

52 

401  II. 

12-20,39  306 

2-20 

307 

52 

407 

16-18 

401  II. 

5 

ibid. 

34.    1,2 

13 

19 

190,  407 

7 

21 

G 

ibid. 

20 

22  note 

8 

73 

35.    9-29 

264 

23 

306 

9 

22  note 

9-35 

ibid. 

28 

401  11. 

12 

32 

25 

367 

28-31 

307 

9 

1,2 

27  III. 

30 

248  III. 

32-36 

306 

4,5 

309 

36.    1-9  , 

219 

32-40 

309 

4-8 

307 

1-10 

219 

35,  39 

305 

4-24 

215 

1-12 

152 

39 

306 

10 

1-11 

307 

4 

351 

41-43 

264 

8 

238 

5,  G 

219 

46-49 

215 

12 

214,  309 

5.    1-6,  25 

309 

14-18 

306 

Deuteronomy. 

4-9 

320 

16 

310 

1.    4 

215,  409 

8 

401  II. 

17 

177,  309 

15 

269 

8,9 

ibid. 

18 

168  V. 

28 

27  III. 

9 

189 

18 

181 

44 

77 

12-14 

348 

18,  19 

215,  309 

2.    4-12,) 

16-37  1 

297 

14 

171  IV. 

21 

306 

14,  15 

309,  347 

28-30 

298 

6-28 

45 

24-28 

309 

11. 

1 

309  bis 

9-19 

215  m. 

6.    4 

306,  397 

1,  13 

214 

9-19,  37 

ibid. 

4,5 

307,  309 

1,13,14 

309 

10 

27  III. 

4-9 

214 

10 

57 

10-23 

27  II. 

4-9 

397 

10 

104  n. 

11,  12 

ibid. 

5-9 

So 

12,15,22 

307 

12,  22 

27  1. 

8 

320 

13-20 

35 

12,  22 

297  note 

9 

35 

13-21 

320,  397 

24-37 

215 

12,13,1 

309 

14 

62,  71 

29 

ibid.  m. 

20-25  ) 

14,  17 

21 

INDF.X    OF    PASSAGKS    II.I.USTKATF.D. 


543 


Deutei 

ouoniy. 

'       Deuteronomy. 

Dt'utt.Tunomy. 

Chap,    vcr.e. 

.Sction. 

Chap.     Ter^e. 

Soctioii.     Clinp.    Tfi-.-c. 

.^^octinn. 

11.  18 

320 

15.    9 

350 

18 

.10 

100  III. 

I'J 

IGG 

12 

ibid. 

10 

100  IV. 

20 

35 

12-15 

309 

10 

411 

24 

13  bis 

12-17 

171 VIII. 

11 

314  II. 

12.    2 

401  I. 

IG 

ibid. 

11 

403  II. 

2 

401  IV. 

18 

171 

19 

.    1-13 

264  bis 

o 

ibid.  II. 

19-23 

388  bis 

2-5 

214 

3 

ibid.  IV. 

20 

141 

o 

107 

4-18 

148 

23 

143  1. 

12 

216 

5-7 

309 

16.    1 

103 

16-21 

256 

G,7 

388 

1-8 

310 

20 

1 

283 

11,  17- 

-19  390 

1-8 

354 

1-18 

215  I. 

12-18 

148 

11-17 

353 

2  et  5eq 

.290 

13,  14 

376 

2,  5,  G 

354 

5 

216 

15,  IG 

ibid. 

2-G 

ibid. 

5-8 

268 

15,  22 

377 

3 

140 

5-9 

85,  268 

1G,23, 

25  143  I. 

8 

354 

9 

269 

17 

71 

9 

62 

10 

292 

17,  18 

171  V. 

9 

347  note 

14 

170  1. 

17-19 

55,  214 

9,  10 

102 

19,20 

293,  295 

18 

309,  353 

9,  10 

ibid.  I. 

21 

1-9 

265 

18 

382 

9-12 

62 

G 

320 

31 

411 

10 

355 

10,  11 

170  1. 

13.    2,3 

403  in. 

10,  11 

148 

10-14 

155  bis 

2,3 

405 

10-12 

309 

15-17 

1C5 

2-19 

214 

11 

171  V. 

17 

ibid.  I. 

4,5 

309 

11-14 

148,  309 

18-21 

167 

10 

257 

12-15 

214 

19 

247 

14,  15 

394 

12-15 

356 

22,  23 

259  II. 

17 

295 

14,  15 

ibid. 

22,23 

261 

14.    1,2 

211  bis 

18 

21 G 

22. 

1-3 

309 

1,  2,  2 

1    309 

19 

177 

5 

127,309 

2,  21 

361 

21 

401  IV. 

6,7 

52 

21 

143  n. 

17.    i-15 

248  III. 

6,  7, 10 

309 

21 

ibid.  VIII. 

3 

406,  407 

8 

34 

21 

309 

7 

257,  263 

9 

61,  67 

22,  23 

390  bis 

8,  9 

243 

10 

48,  60 

22,29 

214 

12 

238 

11 

119 

22-29 

55,  148 

13 

246 

16 

152 

22-29 

309 

14-20 

232 

18 

255 

23 

388 

17 

151  n. 

19 

253  (4) 

2G 

353 

17 

237 

20,21 

150  IV. 

28,  29 

390 

18 

223  in. 

23-29 

ibid.  ni. 

15.    1,2 

350 

18,  19 

86 

29 

153 

1-10 

79 

18. 

219          23. 

1 

237 

1-11 

250  m. 

3 

389         1 

3-8 

215  in. 

7-11 

251 

4 

71,  389 

4-7 

ibid. 

7-15 

309 

9-14 

402  I. 

5 

215  in. 

544 


INDKX   OF   rASSAGKS   II.LUSTRATKD. 


Deuteronomy. 

Deutei 

ononiy. 

DeiUer 

onomy. 

Chnp.     Torsc. 

Sri-(ion. 

("hap.     yorsc. 

Miction. 

Chaii.     verso. 

t^cclion. 

23 

7,8 

309 

26. 

1-10, 

} 

309 

32. 

2 

21 

8 

181 

13-15 

6 

307,  309 

10-15 

287 

1-11 

308,  389 

13 

77  bis 

13 

59 

3-10, 

} 

396 

14 

66 

13-15 

334 

13-15 

17 

415  I. 

14,15 

160 

10,11 

148 

22 

314  II. 

15,16 

171  ad  fin. 

11 

353 

23,42 

278 

15,  16 

309 

11-15 

309 

24 

ibid. 

18 

51 

12-15 

390 

30 

100  1. 

18,  1!) 

150  I. 

19 

361 

32 

19 

18,  19 

309 

27- 

-30. 

214,  219 

39 

306 

19 

150  IL 

27. 

14  1V. 

42 

91  III. 

20,21 

242,  251 

1-9 

87  III. 

42 

144 

22,23 

309 

2,4 

32 

48-50 

14  V. 

23 

393 

8 

85 

50 

203 

23,  24 

ibid. 

15-26 

392 

33 

10 

371 

25 

02,67 

18 

309 

13 

21 

25 

138 

19 

181,215 

17 

47,  60 

24 

1-3 

86 

19 

309  bis 

34 

1,2 

14  V. 

1-4 

1  GO 

25 

177 

3 

75 

6 

40, 138  28- 

-30. 

221 

7 

314  1. 

6 

139 

28. 

5,  17 

140 

8 

211 

6,12 

250  IL 

9 

361 

7 

170  IV. 

12-24 

62 

Joshua. 

8,9 

105,  189 

22 

62  bis 

1. 

4 

13 

10,  11 

.250  I. 

22-49 

23  V. 

11,  12 

233 

13 

122,  251 

27 

185 

14 

269,  290 

14,15 

248 

27,35 

189 

2. 

1 

15  III. 

16 

ibid. 

49,  63- 

Ga 

221 

1-6 

149 

17 

168  V. 

29. 

1 

309 

6 

34 

17 

181,215 

9,  10 

218  (3) 

3. 

1 

15  III. 

17 

309 

9-14 

ibid.  (4) 

2  et  seq.  233 

19 

62,  63 

9-14 

219 

15 

13 

20 

71 

11 

283 

4. 

12 

290 

25 

1 

248  1. 

17 

401  II. 

18 

18 

2,3 

255  bis 

17-27 

221 

5. 

9 

163  bis 

4 

64  bis 

18,  19 

61 

15 

368 

4 

171  VI. 

22 

22 

6. 

4,5 

288  note 

4 

309  bis 

23 

19 

6 

291 

5-10 

157 

39 

1-10 

307 

17-19 

394 

6,7 

247 

6 

310 

24-26 

298 

7-9 

180 

20 

309 

7 

1,26 

394 

8,9 

216 

31 

90 

6 

212 

9 

123  bis 

10-13 

79,  350 

7,11, 

12  267 

13-16 

111,309 

16 

314  1. 

8 

392 

13-18 

115 

26 

333 

13-21 

370  III. 

17 

215  II. 

28 

216  bis 

14-18 

ibid,  note 

26 

1-10 

309 

32 

308 

14-24 

248  IV. 

INDEX 

OF    PASSAGE 

5    ILLUSTl 

AT  ED. 

5i0 

Joshu 

a. 

Joshua.              1 

Joshua. 

Jhap.     Terse. 

Section. 

Chap.    vcKC. 

Section. 

Chap.     Terse. 

Section. 

7. 15,  25 

259  I.     , 

14. 

295 

24.    1  et  seq. 

218  (4) 

lG-22 

219 

15 

27  in. 

2  et  seq. 

219 

21,24 

122  m. 

15.    1-15 

24 

3 

303 

22  et  scq 

.  248  V.   1 

2-12 

ibid. 

25 

383 

25 

254,  257 

8 

335 

32 

115,  204 

25,26 

259  111. 

9 

57 

26 

209 

9, 10, 60 

16 

Judges. 

8.    2 

394 

15-19 

153 

Judg. 

221 

12 

291 

16 

ibid. 

1.    1- 

11 

216,  289 

18,26 

277  11. 

18 

48 

1, 

2 

219 

26-28 

298 

18,19 

153 

1- 

3,22 

217 

27,29 

209 

25 

200 

6, 

7 

295 

30-35 

14  IV. 

35 

14  IV. 

14 

48 

32 

88 

61,  62 

17 

15 

57,  153 

32  et  seq 

87  III. 

16.    1-4,8 

24 

16 

75,  325 

33        216,218(4) 

4 

ibid. 

16, 

17 

153 

9.    1-27 

169 

10 

234 

19 

50,  283 

3-26 

297 

17.    5,14 

55  bis 

21 

335 

14,  15 

392 

7-10 

24 

21, 

27-33  217 

15-21 

218  (4) 

8,9 

20  in. 

2.11 

408 

18,  19 

219 

9,10 

24 

13 

407,  409 

19 

149 

15 

16 

3.    7 

408,  409 

23-29 

363 

16-18 

283 

10 

191 

10.    5 

292 

18.    1,8,9 

334 

12- 

30 

215  III. 

12-15 

291 

9 

104  ni. 

13 

75 

16 

14  IV. 

12 

17 

16 

113  V. 

16 

27  note 

16-28 

335 

16 

276 1,  bis 

21 

51 

19. 1-9, 40-4 

7  24 

18 

178 

24 

269,  295 

9 

55 

20 

36 

27 

207 

10-15 

24 

20, 

24 

ibid. 

11.    4-9 

50 

17-23 

ibid. 

24 

180 

11 

298 

24-31 

13,24 

25 

37 

16 

24 

28,29 

13 

27 

288  note 

16,17 

13 

32-39 

24 

27 

289 

17 

14  1.407 

34 

17 

31 

59,83 

19 

2151.297 

20.    1-9 

264 

4.    1  et  seq 

.    15  II. 

20 

190 

7 

25 

5 

29,  75 

21,22 

27  III. 

21.11-13,21 

}264 

10 

217 

12.    1-G 

24 

27,  32,  38 

11 

325 

1-7 

13 

13-20 

218  (4) 

15 

50 

5 

107 

34 

14  III. 

17- 

-22 

149,  291 

7 

407 

22.    9-34 

217,  376 

18 

40 

23 

25 

23.    1,2 

216 

19 

49 

13.    2 

107 

1,2 

218  (3) 

25 

14  n. 

2-6 

13 

1  et  seq 

219 

5. 

396 

5 

•107 

2 

216 

1- 

-31 

295 

8-33 

24 

2  et  seq 

.  218  (4) 

6 

110 

13 

107 

24.     1 

216  bis 

8 

83 

15-33 

13 

1 

218  (3) 

10 

48  bis 

46* 


546 


INDEX    OF    PASSAGES    ILLUSTRATED. 


Judges.              1 

Jud 

jes. 

Judges. 

Chap.    Ycrse. 

Section. 

Chap.    Tei-sc. 

.Si'Ption. 

'ha 

1.     versp. 

Section. 

5.11 

45  1. 

8.33 

408 

16. 

26,  27 

34 

17 

107 

9.    3-46 

216 

32 

206  bis 

20,21 

291 

4 

327,40811. 

17. 

3-5 

83 

22,  28 

50 

4,46 

401  III. 

3-13 

405  IIL 

2o 

47,49 

15-21 

218  (4) 

4 

83 

28 

38 

23 

191 

4 

401  II. 

30 

119,  298 

25 

53 

5 

413 

6.    3-5 

215  11. 

27 

69 

18. 

24 

5 

23  IV. 

45 

19 

3-6,15 

-31  405  HL 

5 

49 

46,49,51  275  II.  | 

5.6,14- 

20  413 

11 

76 

50 

292 

19. 

2-10 

149 

13,15 

392 

53 

138 

3 

48 

15 

213 

10.    4 

48 

10 

ibid. 

19 

114  lY. 

6 

407,  409 

20 

175 

19 

140,  141 

6,  10 

408 

29,30 

289 

19,20 

141 

11.    1-7 

168  II. 

20. 

218  (3) 

23-28 

409 

1-11 

217 

267 

25-33 

405  II. 

5 

216  bis 

1 

334 

32 

164 

6,  11 

269 

1  et  seq.  217 

33 

15 II. 

12-28 

289,  297 

1,11- 

14  218  (4) 

34 

191 

13-23 

215 

1,27, 

28  218  (3) 

34 

288  note 

24 

297 

1-30 

296 

34 

289 

29 

191 

6 

279 

37 

63 

30-39 

394 

10 

269,  298 

7     1 

164 

34 

97 

11-46 

217 

8 

15  11. 

34-37 

295 

12-24 

216 

11 

269,  290 

35 

211 

16 

284 

12 

23  IV. 

35,  36 

393 

18,  27, 

28  219 

13,  15 

403  III. 

12.14 

48 

26 

358 

16-19 

290 

13.  2-5,12- 

-23395 

27,28 

289 

16,20 

269 

7 

125 

39 

291 

18 

288  note 

14.    1,  2 

152 

45 

27  note 

19 

286,  101 

1-4 

ibid. 

45-47 

14  IV. 

20 

291 

6 

191 

47,48 

295 

22 

289 

8 

154 

23,24 

217 

11-16 

ibid. 

Ruth. 

8.    1-3 

ibid. 

12,13, 

19  122  111. 

Ruth 

168  V. 

4-21 

296 

17 

154 

1 

.17 

392 

7 

64,  295 

18 

91  III. 

20,  21 

164 

9,  17 

275  11. 

15.    4 

40,51 

22 

62 

14 

86,  216 

5 

63 

2 

.2,23 

62 

21 

257 

!         8 

27  note 

4 

175 

21,26 

49,  130 

14 

51 

4,8,2] 

[,23  62 

21-26 

409 

16.    3 

37 

5 

171 

23 

173 

^ 

20  IV. 

7,15, 

16    62 

24 

129 

I       17 

125 

14 

144,  147 

24,25 

298 

21 

139 

14,18 

138 

24-27 

405  II. 

23-26 

414 

17 

64 

33 

408  II. 

!       26 

36 

23 

62 

INDEX    OF   PASSAGES   ILLUSTRATED. 


547 


Ru 

th. 

1 

1  Samuel. 

Chnp.     verso. 

Section. 

Chap.    Terse. 

Section.     Clmp 

3.    2 

65 

8.    4 

216 

12. 

3 

125, 

180 

5 

231         I 

13. 

13 

392 

1 

7 

221         1 

15 

127  IV.  1 

11 

50 

4.    letseq.  247 

1 

12 

269  bis 

4 

55 

13 

140         1 

7 

123 

15 

234  IV. 

7,8 

ibid. 

157 

20 

220 

11 

180 

9.    7 

178 

11,  12 

154 

11,  12 

166 

18-22 

99 

13 

145 

22 

ibid. 

14. 

1  Samuel. 

22-24 

147 

1-8. 

221 

25 

34 

1.    3-24 

334 

10.    1 

223 

4,5 

147 

3 

14  m.  76 

G,7 

156 

5-10 

179  note 

9 

225 

5-11 

344 

11 

125 

17 

218  (3) 

12-15 

396 

17 

334 

22-24 

166 

17-23 

221 

24-28 

ibid. 

19 

213 

26 

392 

24 

218  (4) 

2.12 

147 

24 

219,  223 

14 

334 

25 

223  m. 

19 

83 

25 

232,  234 

35 

147 

27 

177 

15. 

3.    3-21 

334 

27 

2341. 

4.  3,4,13-18  ibid. 

11.    1 

292 

12 

212 

3,10,11  ibid. 

18 

225 

6 

191 

5.    1-5 

414 

7 

56,  233 

4,5 

ibid. 

7 

267 

16. 

6 

185 

7,8 

289 

6,12 

ibid. 

11 

101 

6.    5,11, 

18  ibid. 

bis 

11 

ibid.  m. 

7 

60 

11 

269 

7,8,10 

'1    59 

14 

218  (4) 

11,  14 

14,  15 

ibid.  (3) 

18 

185 

14,  15 

ibid.  (4) 

20 

334 

14,  15 

219 

7.    2 

ibid. 

15 

383 

17. 

3,4 

409 

12.    3,4 

173 

4 

407, 

408 

3-5 

230 

5 

334 

10 

407,  408 

6 

358 

10 

409 

6,7 

ibid,  note 

12 

231 

10 

291 

14,15,20 

"1  091 

8. 

234 

22,24,25  r- 

1  Samuel. 

verse.  Section. 

17  21 

3  288  note 

5  50 
5-14  221 

6  27  note 
8-13  290 
8-14  376 

19  83 
20, 21  59 

21  ibid. 

22  277  I. 
248  IV 

6  269 

14  61 

16  286 

24etseq.  394 

25-27  77  bis 

37  219 

37-40  248  m. 

37-45  370  note 

40-43  ibid.  m. 

41  ibid,  note 

41,  42  ibid.  IH. 

45  289, 392 

47  215  m. 

49  164 

1  et  seq.  215  n. 

1-81  221 

6  325 

20  230  (3) 

22  384 

23  413 
1-3  221 
1-5  376 
1-13  223 

4  175,  216 
14  191 
14,  15  ibid. 
16  105  bis 
20  141,  178 
20  234 1. 

4  27  in. 

4  113  in. 

4  113  IV. 

5, 38  273 

6  274 

6  277  n. 

7  269 
17-20  298 


548 


INDEX   or   I'ASSAGKS   ILLUSTRATED. 


1  Samuel. 


1  Samuel. 


Chap,     verse. 

17.  18 
25 
25 
38 
39 

40-43 
43 
44 

44-4G 
49 
50 
52 
1 


18. 


19, 


20 


21 


4 
4 
6 

G,7 
10 
10 
11 
13 
17 

23-26 
24-27 

9 
10 
13 
13 

13-17 
IGetseq. 
18-24 

3  21 

4-8,41,42173 

5, 24-27  352 
20, 35-40  284 
27 


Sertion. 

47 
234  IV 
295 
270 
276  1. 
42 
51 
295 
205 
279 
284 
291 
173 
122  II. 
178 
96  III. 
97,  295 
191,226 
227  1. 
ibid. 
269  bis 
295 
153 
ibid. 
191 
277  1. 
413  IV. 
413 
ibid. 
86 
344 
392 


23. 


Chap.    Terse. 

22.  18 

2 

9-12 
14-16 
16-18 
19 
23 

4 


24. 


25 


4-15 
6,  10 
7-11 
7-12 
14 


Section 

257 
289 
219 

16 
173 

17 
213 
180 
230 
223  1 
230 
173 

51 

43 
205,  211 

46 


Chap 

30. 


31. 


26. 


2,4,18,36 

3,4 

5 

6 
13 
18 
18 

19-30 
20,23 
22,34 
26 
27 
.    5  et  seq.  286 

6-20       230 

9-12        173 
9,11,16,23  223  1. 
9-11,16,23  230 
11,12,16  110 


ibid. 

1411. 
175 
121 

69,72 
114  IV. 
153 

48 
120 
392 
178 


1  Samuel. 

Terse.  Seel  ion. 

215  II. 

8  219,289 

8,15,23  269 


2L 


33 
1,2 
3-6 

7 

7,8 
8 
12 

,    1  et  seq. 
5 
6 
6 

6,7 
18 


352  note 
277  I. 

14  IV 
385  1. 
171 

234  n. 

277  1. 

230  (5) 
27  note 
16 

180,  226 

277  1. 

238 

248  V. 


27. 


28. 


29 


14-17 
21 

o 

8,9 

8-10 

1-10 

3 

3-10 

3-10 

6 

6 

7 

8-24 
24 

1-11 

2 


10 
12 
17 
20-25 

2 

8 

8-13 
10 
12 
13 
13 


409 

72 

49  bis 
298 
164 
295 
205 

295,  414 
210 

206,  211 
358 


2  Samuel. 


2. 


286 
231 

14  II. 
215  II. 
107 
289 
206 
314  11. 
403  11. 
289 

370  III 
314  II. 

27  note 
141 

15  n 

269 


4. 


2 

2-4 

6 
10 
10 

11,12 
15 
17 

17,18 
18 
21 

21,22 
22 

1 

4 

4 

19 

19-24 

28 

32 

,    3 

3 

8 

9,35 

10 

17 

17-19 

22 

31 

31,32 

33 

35 
2 


211 
ibid. 
50 
223  n. 

224 
211  bis 
257,  263 
211 
295 

88  note 
264,  271 
271 
284 
219 

218  (4) 
223  bis 
284 
291 

288  note 
206,  295 

14  U. 
107 

51 
392 
225 
217 

218  (4) 
269 
211 
205 

211  bis 
211,  358 
269 


INDEX    OF    PASSAGES    ILLUSTRATED. 


519 


2  Samuel.           ' 

2  Samuel.           i 

2  Samuel. 

Chap     vcr¥i'. 

Seouon.      Chap,    tit.-c. 

ScoMoii.     1 

'hap.     Tcrse. 

Section. 

4.    5 

180 

12.  26  et  seq. 

215  III.  i 

18.  17 

209 

8 

257 

30 

224,  298 

17 

259  ni 

12 

205 

31 

39,  64  1 

20, 

27 

275  II. 

12 

260  V.     ; 

31 

295,  296 

19.    4 

211  bis 

12 

263          ?3'.    6,8 

140 

7 

228 

5.    1-3 

218  (4)  j         7 

160 

21 

230 

1-3 

221,  223       18 

119 

24 

124 

3 

223 

19 

211  bis 

20 

48 

3 

ibid.  in. 

20-29 

152 

32 

43 

3 

232,  234 

23 

46 

35 

227 

21 

295         1 

23 

234  II. 

37, 

38 

206 

6.    1-20 

334 

29 

48  u.  I. 

20.    1- 

22 

288  note 

5 

94  n. 

29 

228 

8 

270  1. 

5 

96 1,  m. 

34 

275  n. 

8-10 

121 

13 

141 

37 

107 

9 

175  bis 

14 

122  11. 

14. 

232 

15 

275  IV. 

14 

349 

2 

125,211 

15 

293,  294 

lG-23 

97 

2,3 

238 

19 

41 

19 

140 

19 

392 

21, 

22 

257 

7.    2 

235  n. 

26 

125  bis 

23 

230  V. 

8 

40 

15.    1 

50,  59 

24 

235  in. 

12 

203 

1 

179 

25 

208 

14 

230 

1 

236  V. 

21. 

23  V. 

8.    2 

296  bis 

1  et  seq 

.231 

1- 

-14 

232 

2  et  sec 

.  215  III. 

2 

203,  229 

6 

259  II. 

4 

50  bis 

2 

231 

9, 

10 

205 

5,  6 

16 

2,3 

238 

14 

295 

6 

295  bis 

8 

107 

22.    5 

91  n. 

7 

271 

30 

123,  211 

6 

203 

11,12 

298 

30 

212 

30 

209 

13 

295 

10.    1 

48,09 

31, 

36 

271 

16 

235  in. 

0,7 

180 

35 

284 

17 

268 

9 

51 

23.    1 

223  1. 

18 

231,  362 

10 

190 

1 

230 

9. -8 

51 

10 

179 

8 

104 

10 

171  X. 

22 

34 

8- 

-39 

295 

10.    1-0 

296 

17.13 

294 

18 

277  L 

1-12 

289 

18 

35 

24. 

207 

4-10 

124 

23 

48  bis 

1         1 

190 

6 

298 

23 

228 

12, 

15 

ibid. 

18 

50 

27  et  seq.    43 

15, 

16 

ibid. 

11.    1 

289,  296 

28 

138                10 

190  note 

2 

180 

j       29 

47 

16, 

24 

03 

2,6,7 

34 

18.    2 

269 

11 

392 

4 

228 

1  Kings. 

14ef  sn 

.     89 

i         0,  8, 17 

10            1.  1, 

11,19 

,) 

12.    3 

40,  149 

9, 10 

48  n.  I.       24, 

34,39 

>  223 IV 

5 

254 

11 

121,  295        40 

) 

16 

211 

i       10 

288  noti 

2 

-4 

105 

550 


INDKX    OF   PASSAGES    ILLUSTRATED. 


1  Kinp;s.             1 

1  Kings.             1 

iKi 

ngs. 

C'liap.     vor?u. 

Sicfion. 

Chap.    Tcrse. 

portion. 

Chap,    verse. 

Pccti  )n. 

1.    5 

179,228 

6.32 

75 

10.28 

50  bis 

9  et  scq. 

383 

33-35 

338 

11.    1-3 

237 

32-34 

223  1, 

36 

39,  337 

2-5 

153 

33 

48  n.  I. 

38 

losvni. 

3 

237 

33,  38 

335 

7.    2 

16 

5,33 

409 

33-38 

228 

2-6 

36 

21 

203 

35,  48 

223  Y. 

3,7,11 

39 

29-40 

223 

38 

236  V. 

7 

36 

43 

206,3141. 

40 

179 

8 

35 

12. 

217 

2.    1-9 

232 

9,11,  12   39         1 

218  (4) 

10,  11 

314  n. 

9-12 

ibid. 

1 

ibid.  (3) 

13-15) 
et  sen.  \ 

237 

10 

73 

1-18 

232 

12 

337 

1-24 

217,  235 

19 

175 

13-51 

ibid. 

6-8 

238 

23 

248  V. 

15-20 

338 

6-12 

235  I. 

23 

392 

17 

38 

11 

255 

25,34 

236  V. 

21 

113  II. 

13 

234  IV. 

25,29,) 

31,34 ; 

257 

26 

26 

144  1. 

337 

20 

27,28 

223 
229 

26,27 

366 

27-39 

ibid. 

13.    4-6 

199  IV. 

28-34 

264 

40-47 

ibid. 

13 

48 

40 

48 

48-50 

338 

29,30 

211 

3.    5-15 

334 

8.    1-9 

334 

30 

205 

9 

220 

2 

103  VII. 

14.10 

258 

17,26 

392 

2 

396 

11 

51 

4. 

224 

8 

333, 338 

11-14 

205 

3 

86 

9 

333  note 

13 

ibid. 

3 

235  III. 

10-12 

339 

24 

150  IV. 

4 

269,  366 

14-21,) 

396 

25-28 

271 

5 

236  IV. 

23-53  X 

26 

ibid. 

5,7-19 

ibid.  I. 

37 

-   62 

27 

236  V. 

6 

ibid.  I.  II. 

38,42,) 

396 

31 

206 

6-19 

234  IV. 

44,  48  1 

15.    8 

ibid. 

21 

ibid.  V. 

51 

22  note 

12 

150  IV. 

22,23 

227 

54 

396 

13 

4oa 

30 

98 

9.  16 

153 

18 

230  (4) 

33 

106 

26 

111 

19 

177 

5.    9-14 

98 

10.    2 

49 

23 

105 

11 

71 

8 

238 

16.    4 

51 

6,7. 

338  n.  I. 

11,  12 

39 

31 

408  IV 

6.    1 

103  II. 

12 

94  II. 

33 

409 

1-38 

337 

15 

234  VI. 

17.  12 

140 

2-4 

338 

16,17 

271  tris 

19 

36 

3 

ibid. 

'17 

115 

18.    3 

236  II. 

5,6,8 

ibid. 

18-20 

225 

19 

409 

18 

39 

21 

144  n. 

19-29 

408  IV 

23-28 

338 

21 

227 

21-40 

376 

31,32 

ibid. 

26 

283 

22 

235  n. 

INDEX    OF    PASSAGES    ILLL'STUATED. 


551 


1  Kin 

S^- 

2  Kin 

gs-          ! 

2  K 

ngs. 

Chap.     Ter-f. 

.^ertion. 

Chap.    Tense. 

.•Section. 

Chap.     Terse. 

Section. 

18.  26-21) 

402  n. 

1.    9- 

14 

269 

8.    9 

49,  177 

27,28 

400 

2.    2 

392 

9 

178 

42 

399 

3, 

5 

86 

9 

230  (4) 

42-45 

21 

4 

217 

11- 

14 

223 

4G 

121 

8 

122  III. 

12 

295  bis 

46 

179 

12 

203,  283 

13 

51 

19.    1,2 

153 

23 

125 

15 

40 

6 

140  1. 

24 

16 

18 

408  IV. 

13,  19 

122  m. 

25 

14  n. 

29 

105 

18 

396 

3.18- 

25 

295 

9.    1 

121 

18 

408  IV. 

27 

294,  296 

3 

223 

19 

56 

4.    1 

170  II. 

8 

258 

20.11 

2761. 

1 

254 

13 

* 

179,  223 

15 

2361. 

10 

36 

13 

223  V. 

23,28 

400 

13 

127,  238 

15 

105 

30-43 

296 

21 

204 

17- 

19 

275  n. 

31 

173 

22, 

24 

48 

17, 

21 

228 

31 

260  II. 

23 

344,  349 

25 

269 

21.    2 

70 

23 

352 

26 

248 

5-15,1 
23-25  ; 

408  IV. 

24 
29 

48 
121,  175 

27 

28 

70 
206 

7,8 

153 

38 

86 

30 

38,  125 

7-16 

248 

39 

66,  122 

30 

134 

9-16 

234  in. 

42 

42 

32, 

33 

237 

21 

258 

5.    1 

289 

36 

51 

23 

51 

1  et  seq 

.  188 

37 

57 

27 

212 

2 

269 

10.    6-8 

257 

22.    2 

229 

5 

135,  177 

13 

175 

6 

235  n. 

7, 

8 

211 

15 

228 

6-13 

289 

9 

59 

18- 

■27 

408  IV. 

7,8 

235  II. 

9- 

-12 

176 

22 

178 

9 

237 

10 

180 

22 

236  ni. 

11 

47 

12 

14  1. 

25 

ibid.  V. 

16 

392 

17- 

-19 

325 

25 

290 

19 

225,  406 

18 

415  IV. 

29 

405 

24 

180 

19 

113  X. 

11.    2 

166 

27 

249  (5) 

23 

133 

5 

365 

30-34 

290 

6.    1 

86 

10 

271,  295 

32,35 

283 

21- 

■23 

296 

12 

223  m. 

38 

51 

25 

114  VI. 

12 

224 

39 

39 

25, 

28 

23  V. 

12, 

19 

223  IV. 

48,  49 

111 

28- 

-31 

293 

12- 

-20 

223 

30 

211 

12- 

-20 

ibid.  I. 

2  Kiiijrs. 

31 

392 

18 

408  IV. 

1.    2 

35 

7.    2, 

17,19  269,290 

19 

223  V. 

2 

408  m. 

16, 

18 

114  IV. 

12.  11 

86 

8 

121 

18 

41 

13.    2, 

11 

405 

8 

122  UI. 

8.    6 

237 

6 

409 

552 

INDEX 

OF   PASSAGl-.S   II.I.USTI 

{AT 

Kl). 

^ 

2  Kings. 

2  Kings. 

1  Chronicles. 

Chnp.      V 

LTSO. 

Si'ction. 

Chap,    vcrec. 

Section. 

Ch.ip.    verse. 

Scrtion. 

13.  14 

283 

20.  18 

237 

5. 

1 

165  L 

17 

38 

20 

41 

9,  16 

13 

21 

207 

21.    3 

406 

10, 18, 

19  217 

14.    7 

15  ni. 

6 

403  11. 

18 

271  bis 

8 

289 

6 

411 

18 

278 

13 

294 

7 

409 

18-21 

46 

20 

206 

18 

70,  206 

19 

13 

24 

405 

18, 

26 

206 

19-21 

46 

15.    5 

188 

22.  10 

228 

23 

141. 

K) 

296 

14-20 

235  II. 

6. 

54 

28 

25 

35  bis 

23.    4, 

5 

406 

77 

14  m. 

25 

209 

5 

100  in. 

7. 

21 

12 

IG.    3 

«411 

5 

407,  411 

21,24 

297 

8 

177 

6 

206 

8. 

40 

278  bis 

17.    4 

215,  295 

6, 

7 

150  II. 

9. 

26,33 

337 

14 

190 

7 

409  bis 

10. 

2 

164 

16 

406 

10 

15  III. 

10 

414 

24 

326 

10 

411 

13 

314  II. 

24-34 

400 

11 

237,  407 

11. 

1,2 

223 

26- 

34 

326 

12 

36,  337 

3 

ibid.  ILL 

30, 

31 

415  IV. 

13, 

14 

409 

10-50 

295 

31 

412 

16 

206 

12. 

1 

284 

18,  19. 

215 

16, 

17 

209 

8 

291 

18.    4 

409 

24 

314  11. 

8,24 

271 

14 

177 

24 

403  11. 

8,24,34  271 

18 

236  II. 

24 

413 

15 

18 

18, 

37 

235  III. 

29 

15  II. 

24,34 

269 

23 

190 

30 

205 

34 

277  1. 

31 

292 

34 

223,  295 

40 

48  n.  I. 

19.    1 

212 

34, 

35 

164 

40 

49,69 

2 

et  seq 

.289 

24.    1, 

14 

295 

40 

72 

2- 

-20 

235  II. 

12 

292 

13. 

1-3 

269 

3 

187 

14 

83 

1-14 

334 

6- 

8 

190 

17 

164,  223 

6 

225 

8- 

-13 

295 

•25.    1 

292,  293 

H 

1 

83 

14 

88 

3 

23  V. 

15 

1-16 

334 

15 

225 

4 

70 

18 

96n.ni 

20  et  seq 

.289 

7 

255  note 

20 

ibid. 

21 

41 

7 

295 

21 

941. 

23 
26 

10 

62 

8, 
11 

10, 
-20 

1  236  V. 

27 
27 

122  II. 

364 

28 

60 

17 

338 

27-29 

179 

32 

294 

27 

352  note 

16 

5 

93 

35 

190 

29 

249  (5) 

39-43 

334 

37 

415  IV. 

17 

13 

230 

20.    1 

IGSI. 

1  Chronicles. 

18 

4 

10,50 

7 

72,  190 

4.14 

83 

7,8 

271 

9, 

10 

101 

21 

118 

10 

175 

INDEX    OF   PASSAGES    ILLUSTRATED. 


553 


1  Chronicles. 

2  Chronicles. 

2 

Chronicles. 

Chap,    \crso. 

Soction. 

Chnp.    VtTJC. 

Swtion. 

Chap.     Torsc. 

Section. 

18.12 

15  III. 

1.  14 

283  note  13.  13- 

16 

271 

15 

235  III. 

15 

72  note 

21 

237 

15,  16 

269 

16,  17 

50 

14.    5 

407 

16 

235  IV. 

2.    1,16,17  181 

7 

271 

16 

2GS 

8 

39 

8 

269  bis 

17 

231,362 

14 

119 

8 

271,  278 

19.    3-5 

124 

3.    1-4,22 

337 

15 

49 

20.    1 

295 

3,4. 

338  n.  I. 

15.  13 

371 

3 

260  VII. 

3.    3 

113  IV. 

16 

409 

3 

295 

4 

338 

16.  10 

249  (7) 

21.    1 

190 

6 

39 

12 

105 

IG 

ibiil. 

10-13 

338 

14 

206,  210 

22.    2 

39,  181 

14 

119,338 

17.    2 

275  n. 

15 

83 

15-17 

338 

2, 

19 

275 

23.3-5,24-3 

2365 

4.    1,  10 

337  ' 

5 

234  rv. 

4 

231,235 

3-5 

ibid. 

7- 

9 

371 

4,5 

93 

5 

113  II. 

12 

298 

24,27 

365 

6 

337 

14 

269 

28 

337 

9 

ibid. 

14-17 

ibid. 

29 

331 

19-22 

338 

17 

269  bis 

24.    1,2 

366 

5.    2-20 

334 

17 

278  bis 

3-19 

ibid. 

9 

338 

18.    9 

41 

20-31 

365 

12 

364 

18 

406 

25.    1-31 

93 

12,13 

93 

19.    5- 

11 

231 

26.    1-28 

365 

12-14 

ibid. 

11 

232 

17-19 

ibid. 

13,  14 

339 

20.    5 

337  bis 

29  et  seq 

231,235 

6.    1 

ibid. 

12 

289 

27.    1-15 

269 

13 

396  bis 

20 

17,  290 

28 

65 

22 

383 

21 

291 

28 

234  IV. 

28 

62 

36 

111 

25-31 

236  I. 

34,38 

396 

21.    3 

165  III. 

28 

72  note 

7.    1-3 

339 

6 

237 

28 

234  III. 

8.  11 

35 

12- 

.15,) 

19; 

186 

29,  30 

171 

14 

366 

18, 

29-31 

43 

9.    8 

225 

19 

210 

32 

2351. 

10,21 

39 

20 

206  bis 

33 

236  IV. 

14 

10 

22.    3 

237 

28.    1-21 

235 

15 

271 

11 

166 

2 

225 

16 

115,271 

23.    1- 

-21 

223 

4-6 

221 

17 

225 

1- 

-21 

223  I. 

7-10 

ibid. 

21 

111 

4 

365 

12 

337 

24 

178 

9 

271 

20.    5 

367 

27 

72 

11 

22 

3  III.  IV. 

6 

235 

11.  15 

413  m. 

11 

224 

7 

117 

21 

237 

17 

408  IV. 

13.    4 

290 

24.16 

206 

2  Chronicles. 

5 

142  note 

25 

ibid,  bis 

1.  2-G,  13 

334 

12-14 

290 

25.    5 

269,  271 

47 


554 


IXDKX    OF    PASSAGKS    ILLUSTRATKD. 


2  Clironicles. 

2  Cliroi 

icles. 

Neheiniiih. 

Chnp.     vor-f. 

SK-tion. 

riinp.     verse. 

S.Tt 

ou. 

CliJip.     verse. 

ScoMnn. 

25.    6-9 

298 

33.  14 

335 

1.      1 

103  IX. 

11 

15  ni. 

34.    4-7 

407 

2.    1 

ibid.  I. 

12 

296 

8 

235  III. 

16 

239 

14 

295 

31,32 

383 

3.    3 

78 

17 

289 

35.    4,  5 

366 

8 

275  IV. 

23, 

24 

294 

15 

93 

15 

335 

26.  10 

50,23411. 

9-) 

15 

II. 

4.    3 

67 

10 

234  III. 

25 

211, 

295 

13 

239 

10 

275  11. 

36.    4 

223 

5.    1-12 

250 

11 

2G8,  269 

21 

79 

4,5 

170  IT 

12, 

13 

269 

22 

233 

18 

148 

14 

271  bis 

6.    1-14 

326 

14 

272,  273 

Ezra. 

5 

89 

14, 

15 

275 

1.    1 

233 

15 

103  VI. 

1 6  et  sc(] 

.  188,  231 

5 

239 

17,  18 

239 

19 

189 

2.25 

16 

7.29 

16 

21 

231 

36-39 

366 

39-42 

366 

23 

206 

54,58 

363 

64 

369 

27.    4 

275  n. 

62 

369 

70,72 

117 

5 

234  V. 

69 

117 

8.    1,3 

41 

28.    3 

411 

3.    8 

365 

6 

396 

7 

236  II. 

8,9 

339 

7 

371 

8 

296 

10 

93 

15 

356 

9- 

15 

295 

12 

339 

18 

344,  356 

14-19 

298 

4.    2-11 

326 

9.  32-37 

312 

27 

206  bis 

3 

239 

10.28 

390 

29.10 

383 

4-24 

326, 

339 

29 

363 

23 

378  II. 

7-10 

89 

36-38 

389 

24, 

34 

ibid.  III. 

13,19,20  234 

11.    3 

363 

27 

93 

15-17 

89 

35 

83 

29 

396 

5.    1-6,22 

339 

12.    1 

366 

30.    1- 

10 

326 

5 

239 

39 

78 

31.    2 

366 

7 

89 

45-47 

93 

5 

69 

6.    2 

88 

13.    5,12 

390 

12 

337 

3,4 

339 

10-14 

ibid. 

16 

166 

4 

39 

17,18 

312 

17 

365,  369 

8 

239 

23 

152 

32.    5 

275 

7.    1-5 

99 

28 

326 

o 

ibid.  I. 

6,7 

229 

G 

41 

25 

239, 

243 

Estb 

er. 

28 

298 

8.20 

363 

1.    5 

35 

28, 

29 

234  II. 

27     - 

117 

5-8 

148 

30 

41,  335 

9.    2-12 

152 

6 

39 

33 

205,  207 

5 

396 

6,9 

146 

33 

207  n.  I. 

7-15 

312 

9 

227 

33.    3 

406 

10.    3 

152 

19 

232 

6 

411 

2.    3 

35 

14 

78,  275 

16 

103  X. 

INDEX    OF    TASSAGKS    ILLUSTRATED. 


555 


Esther. 

Jo 

b. 

Job. 

Chap.     Toi>t-. 

Section. 

Chap,     vcrsc. 

Section,      ("hap.     verse. 

Section 

2.19, 

21 

229 

11.  12 

48n.II.32.  19 

69 

3.    2, 

3 

ibid. 

13.    4 

105          33.11 

249 

7 

103,XII. 

27 

249          36.  16 

148 

7 

359 

14.    2 

21          37.  18 

132 

10, 

12 

128 

17 

248         38.  10 

37 

12 

235  III. 

15.    2 

21 

14 

89 

4.    1, 

211 

16.  12, 

14 

284 

17 

203 

11 

228 

15 

135 

31, 

32 

100  III. 

5.    1 

36 

17.    1 

207 

39.    5 

48  n.II. 

-i, 

7 

227 

6 

96  1. 

5- 

8 

ibid. 

G.    1 

235  in. 

18.    5, 

G 

40 

8 

ibid. 

7- 

-9 

179  note 

13 

165  ni. 

10 

61 

8, 

10,1] 

L  224 

19.    6 

78 

19 

50 

7.    1 

227 

23 

88 

23 

277  n. 

8.    2 

128 

24 

87  ni. 

40.24 

GO 

9 

103  ni. 

20.24 

278 

41.    1 

78 

10 

48  n.  1. 

21.12 

96  1. 

7 

78,  271 

15 

12G,  178 

17 

40 

15, 

16 

138 

15 

224  bis 

18 

65 

28 

279 

9.18, 

19 

148 

32 

209 

29 

277  11. 

2G 

359 

22.    6 

122,2501. 

42.  11 

115 

10.    1 

234 

7 

45,  149 

2 

235  in. 

7 

182 

rsalnis. 

23.    3 

225 

Psalms 

90 

Job 

24.    2 

00 

1.    1 

180 

Job 

90,  lOG 

3, 

7-9 

250  1. 

3 

57,70,75 

1.    3 

4G,47,54 

5 

48  n.II. 

4 

Go 

4 

IGl 

7 

122 

2.    2 

223  1. 

14 

59,  GO 

7, 

10 

120 

6- 

8,12 

230 

17 

2G9 

10 

62 

9 

276 

20 

211 

10, 

11 

171  VI. 

12 

223  III. 

2.10 

180 

11 

71 

5.    1 

95  II. 

12 

211 

26.    5, 

G 

314  II. 

9 

207 

3.    3 

161 

28. 

22  note 

6.    1 

94  1. 

12 

ibid. 

29.    7 

41 

5 

314  n. 

18 

314  II. 

14 

122 

7.    9 

289 

13- 

19 

ibid. 

19 

21,70 

12 

276  1. 

14 

207 

23 

.21 

13 

278 

5.  10 

43 

30.    1 

30,51 

14 

187 

6.    4 

278 

4 

278 

8.    1 

96  n.II. 

15- 

■20 

110 

31.  10, 

11 

139 

9.    1 

96  n.III. 

15- 

22 

45  1. 

13 

171 

7 

225 

18- 

20 

110 

13- 

15 

309 

9 

289 

7.  e, 

118 

16 

182 

13 

203 

1.3 

189 

17 

149 

16 

52 

8.  10 

70 

20 

118 

16 

96  n.  L 

9.    9 

100  III. 

26, 

27 

408  IV. 

20 

295 

10.21 

314  II. 

29- 

31 

309 

11.    6 

23  VI. 

556 

INDT.X 

OF 

PA 

SSA 

TKS    ILLUST] 

lATED. 

Psalms. 

Psalms. 

Psalms. 

Psalm,    vcn-so. 

Spctiou. 

INal 

11.    verso. 

Section. 

Psalm,    verse. 

Sectioa 

11.    6 

147 

37. 

21, 

26 

251 

65.15 

57 

12.    1 

94  1. 

39. 

1 

96  n.IV. 

66.  12 

50 

14.    1 

180 

12 

203 

13,14 

379 

lo.     'i 

251 

13 

ibid. 

14 

393 

15 

251 

40. 

2 

45  II. 

67.    1 

96  n.IV 

16.    6 

55 

•5, 

6 

384 

68.    4 

148 

17.  13 

276  1. 

7 

88 

25-27 

319 

18.    4, 

5 

203 

41. 

3 

40 

26 

97 

4-6 

91  II. 

9 

149 

31 

47 

5, 

6 

203 

42. 

7 

23  111. 

19.  12 

180  bis 

8- 

15 

23  III. 

43. 

1 

289 

15 

45  II. 

10 

91  II. 

44, 

5 

ibid. 

21 

61 

11 

225 

12 

295 

72.  10 

234  V. 

30 

269 

45. 

3 

223  I. 

20 

396 

33 

291 

6 

ibid.  II. 

75.    3 

35,  289 

34 

278 

6 

226 

8 

147,  295 

19.    5, 

6 

91  II. 

7 

148 

10 

47 

8- 

10 

91  III. 

7, 

8 

230 

76.    6 

50 

20.    6 

289 

8 

39,  135 

13 

289 

21.    3 

224 

9 

119 

77.  18, 19. 

91  III. 

22.    1 

101  I. 

46. 

3 

23  II. 

78.    9 

269,  289 

11 

161 

3 

335 

9 

278 

12 

47 

47. 

2- 

9 

223  IV. 

47 

72 

16- 

20 

51 

9 

271 

49,50 

190 

23.    1- 

4 

42  note 

48. 

7 

•Jl 

49-51 

ibid. 

4 

42,  226 

13 

275  IV. 

55 

00 

5 

125,  148 

49. 

15 

203 

57 

278 

24.    3 

238 

50. 

5 

383 

65 

144 

5 

182 

8- 

-13 

384 

79.    2,3 

205 

26.    1 

289 

20 

180 

80. 

88  note 

4, 

5 

180 

51. 

11 

191 

9-13 

68 

5 

ibid. 

19 

379 

12 

67 

6 

320 

52. 

8 

71 

18 

392 

10 

177 

53. 

1 

96n.V. 

81.    1 

96n.II. 

27.    0 

28 

56. 

88  note 

1,2 

223  IV. 

29.    l- 

10 

23  III. 

57. 

4 

277  1. 

17 

77  bis 

32.    4 

21 

6 

52 

82.    1,6,7 

230 

9 

48  n.  I. 

17 

396 

8 

289 

9 

50  bis 

58. 

4, 

5 

403  III. 

83.10 

57 

33.    2 

94  II. 

59. 

G, 

u, 

15   51 

13 

65 

17 

50 

60. 

88  note 

14 

21 

34.    1 

230  (5) 

1 

96n.V. 

84.    1 

96  n.IL 

7 

190 

1 

295 

86.  16 

170  V. 

35.    3 

276  1. 

2, 

3 

23  II. 

87.    7 

45  I. 

5 

65 

63. 

1 

17 

88.    1 

96n.V. 

24 

289 

10 

51,  205 

6 

207 

37  39 

73 

106 

11 

392 

11,  12 

314  II. 

37  10, 

3G 

203 

64 

2 

180 

89.    7 

180 

INDKX    OF    PASSAGKS    ILl.U$TI?ATi;i). 


557 


Psalms. 

Psalms. 

] 

'roverbs. 

Psnlra.     Terse. 

S?cction. 

Psdlni.  Verve. 

Section. 

('Imp.     ver>u. 

.*^e<  tion. 

89.  17, 

24 

47 

113.    5,  6 

91  III. 

Prov. 

90,  106 

27 

165  III. 

114.    1-8 

ibid. 

2.  11- 

-19 

150  IV. 

27 

230 

115-118. 

354 

17 

153 

32 

255 

115.  17 

314  II. 

3.    3, 

22 

130 

38 

223  I. 

116.    3 

203 

18 

105 

39 

224 

16 

170  V. 

27, 

28 

182 

44 

225 

118.  11,  li 

77 

5.    3- 

6 

150  n  . 

91.    1 

149 

22 

39 

6.    1- 

5 

250 

b 

52 

119.  19 

149 

21 

130 

4 

271 

83 

46 

30, 

31 

254 

6 

190 

85 

52 

7.    5- 

27 

150  IV. 

92.    3 

9411. 

103 

77 

6 

38 

4 

96  n.  I. 

119 

22  note 

13- 

15 

91  III. 

10 

47 

162 

298 

9.    1 

35 

10 

125 

120-134. 

356  II. 

2( 

3t  seq. 

148 

12 

75 

120-137. 

354 

10.  13 

255 

12- 

14 

70 

120.    4 

278 

11.    1 

115 

94.  13 

52 

126.    6 

62  bis 

15 

250 

95.    4 

22  note 

127.    3-5 

156 

30 

105 

G 

396 

5 

180, 247 

12.  18 

ibid. 

97.    1 

223  IV. 

128.    3 

71  bis 

13.    9 

40 

99.    1 

91  II. 

4 

156 

14.    4 

47 

1 

223  IV. 

129.    3,4 

61 

16.  11 

115 

5 

225 

8 

175 

15 

21,105 

101.    8 

246 

132.    2,5 

405 

33 

370  note 

103.  15 

21 

3 

40 

17.    2 

168  IV. 

15, 

16 

23  VI. 

7 

225 

3 

22  note 

16 

203 

17 

230 

G 

156 

104.    2 

35 

133.    2 

125,367 

18 

250 

4 

190 

137.    8 

41 

26 

255 

11 

48n.II. 

138.    1 

230 

18.  16 

177 

105.  18 

249 

139.    9 

91 II. 

18 

248  IV. 

lOG.  20 

392 

20 

91  III. 

18 

570  note 

37 

415  I. 

141.    7 

207 

19 

35 

38 

411 

142.    7 

249  (8) 

19.  17 

251 

107.  10 

249 

144.    2 

271 

20.  20 

40 

16 

275  V. 

9 

94  II. 

21.    1 

57 

18 

203 

147.  10 

50 

12 

125 

23- 

30 

109 

15,  18 

21 

21 

182 

32 

180 

16 

46 

31 

50 

109.    G 

248  II. 

148.    8 

190  note 

22.  22 

247 

10 

182 

149.    3 

349 

'"'26 

250 

110.    1 

225 

6 

276  I. 

27 

ibi.l. 

•) 

276 

150.    4 

94  II. 

24.    7 

247 

o 

290 

4 

349 

13, 

14 

77 

111.  1 

180 

5 

96  II. 

20 

40 

112.    5 

251 

31 

57,  67 

113-118 

. 

356  I. 

25.    4 

22  note 

47^ 


558 


INDEX   OF   PASSAGKS   ILLUSTUATED. 


Proverbs. 

Canticles. 

Isi 

liali. 

Chap,    verse. 

Section. 

Chnp.    verse. 

Section. 

Cha 

p.     verse 

Poctioj. 

25.13 

14  I. 

1.    5 

30 

4 

.      1 

156 

14 

21 

6 

67 

1, 

2 

152 

16,  17 

77 

11 

130 

2 

62 

18 

276 

2.    9 

38  bis 

4 

23  VL 

23 

21 

13 

72 

5 

1 

67 

26.    1 

21 

15 

51,67 

1- 

-7 

68 

3 

48 

4.    1, 

2 

46 

2 

67,69 

11 

51 

1, 

3 

127  II. 

5 

67 

14 

37 

4 

271 

6 

08 

15 

147 

11 

77,  135 

11, 

22 

144 

23 

22  note 

13 

70 

12 

95  n. 

27 

52 

5.    4 

37 

12 

148 

27.    9 

176 

5 

ibid. 

18 

59 

21 

22  note 

7 

127  I. 

23 

177 

27 

46 

11 

125 

24 

39,  65 

29.    1 

105 

15 

39 

26 

288  in. 

17 

91  III. 

6.    5 

46 

26 

289 

24 

392 

6 

ibid. 

27 

121,  123 

26 

228 

7 

127  II. 

27 

274 

30.    5 

271 

11 

70  bis 

28 

50,  278 

27 

23  lY. 

7.    8 

75 

29, 

30 

291 

31.    6 

2G1  note 

18 

156 

30 

23  ni. 

10-31. 

166 

8.    6 

128 

6 

1 

225 

13 

ibid. 

9 

28 

13 

76 

15 

171 

7 

215 

16 

250  III. 

Isaiah. 

3 

41,  119 

17 

121 

1.    6 

105 

14 

164 

18 

40 

11- 

15 

384 

15 

47,  301 

18-31 

83 

11- 

18 

374 

18 

77 

24 

122  III. 

15 
17 

396 
168  V. 

20 
20 

124,  125 
295 

Ecclesiastes. 

18 

46 

23 

57 

Eccles. 

90,  106 

22 

144 

8 

1 

85,87 1, 

2.    5 

70 

22, 

25 

22  note 

3 

164 

3.13 

314  II. 

23 

177 

6 

335 

4.    1 

182 

2.    4 

68,9111. 

7, 

8 

23  III. 

14 

249  (3) 

4 

284 

19 

403  n. 

5.  16 

145 

3.    3 

235  1. 

9 

2, 

3 

298 

6.    3 

156 

16- 

26 

130 

3 

62 

9.    8 

148  bis 

18 

129,  130 

4 

61,  274 

10.  11 

403  III. 

19 

127  ni. 

10 

39,70,72 

12.    5 

206 

20 

130,  131 

14 

75 

7 

203  bis 

21 

129 

18 

21 

7 

314  II. 

22 

127  IV. 

10. 

1 

232 

11 

38 

22 

133 

1, 

2 

248  1. 

14 

314  n. 

23 
23 

122  in. 

127  1. 

2 

6 

168  V 
39 

24 

125 

19, 

33,34    70 

INDEX    OF    PASSAGES    II.LUSTUATED. 


559 


Isaial 

. 

Isaial 

I 

Isaiab. 

Chap,     verse. 

giH-tion         Chap,     vcr-e. 

?cction.       Chap,    verse. 

section. 

10.  2G 

59          20.    3,4 

295          28.  25 

58 

27 

Gl                  4 

123 

27 

G4 

34 

14  1.      21.    5 

271,  290 

28 

50,59,G4 

11.    1 

70                  G 

275  II.   '29.    3 

292 

4 

220                 7 

50,  282: 

4 

314  II. 

0 

121            ;         10 

G3         ! 

4 

403  II. 

6-9 

91  II.    1       13 

110        1 

G 

23 II.  III. 

15 

23  III.         14 

ibid.        ' 

11 

88,  89 

12.    3 

35  G  I.           15 

278 

IG 

83 

13.    2 

288  III.  22.    1 

34 

17 

141.11. 

2 

289                  9-11 

292         ' 

18 

86 

3 

ibid.               10 

294 

30.    2-6 

177 

8 

187                12 

212 

2-12 

215 

10 

100  III.        13 

148 

6 

49  bis 

lG-18 

295                I5etseq. 

23 G  II. 

14 

83 

17,  IS 

ibid.               16 

207 

17 

288  in. 

18 

278               22 

37 

17 

289 

14.    9 

4G               22 

23 G  II. 

22 

405  II. 

9  et  seq. 

314  II.   '       23 

38 

23 

21 

9-20 

91  II.          24 

128 

24 

GO,  Go 

12,  13 

19G  III.  23. 

108 

24-28 

91  n. 

lo 

207                12 

41 

25 

57 

18 

20G          24.    2 

295 

29 

93, 95  n. 

19 

205                  7,  9 

148 

29 

180 

30 

1G5  III.         13 

71 

33 

411 

31 

180,  290        17 

52 

31.    1 

50 

15.    2 

212                18 

23  III. 

1-3 

215 

3 

34               20 

G2 

4 

91  III. 

IG.    1-G 

295               21-23 

91  IT. 

32.    2,20 

57 

2,3 

212                22 

249  (8) 

G 

180 

0 

231                23 

91  II. 

13 

57 

9,  10 

G9          25.  10 

57 

14 

35 

10 

ibid          2G.    1 

275  IV. 

14 

4Sn.IL 

17.    G 

G9,  71            4 

295 

15 

14  II. 

8 

407                  9,  10 

314  U. 

20 

60 

10 

70                17 

187 

33.13 

44 

12 

291                 18 

ibid. 

15 

177 

12,13 

ibid.               2t»,  21 

91  III. 

16 

45  I. 

18.    3 

288  III.  27.    2 

GG 

17 

228 

3 

288  note           2,  3 

G7                18 

2G9 

3 

289                  2-G 

G8          34.    4 

88,  91  IL 

5 

G8                 8 

23  YI.           G 

148 

1?.    3 

314 II.            9 

407 

7 

47 

3 

403  II.    28.    1 

148 

9,  10 

20 

8 

78tris            1-11 

144         35.    2 

14  1. 

11-13 

235  I.              2 

23  III.          2 

14  II. 

15 

75 

2 

291          3G,  37. 

215 

18et?e 

1.  324 

IG 

39          3G.    1-20 

292 

25.    2-4 

120 

24,25 

59,  Gl 

3 

235  m. 

560 


INDEX   OF   PASSAGKS   ILLUSTUATt:D. 


Isaiah. 

Chap,    verso.  Pocion. 

36.  3  23GII. 
9  50 

37.  2  2;JGIL 
8-20  292 

29  GO 

38  415  IV. 

38.  8  101 
10,  18  203 

18  314 11. 

21  190 

40.  7  21 

11  42  note 

24  91  III. 

41.  15  276  I. 
15,  16  65 
17,  18  45  II. 

19  39 
21-24  289 

42  7  249  (8) 
11  295 

22  52 

43  14  228 
19,  20  45  I. 

44  3  45  II. 
14  39 
15,17,19  175 

16  36 

45  1  230 
2  37 

2  275  V. 

46  1         400, 415 11. 
6  175 

47  1  225 
1-S  41 

2  127  II. 

2  139 

3  295 

9  100 IV. 

9  156 

11  91  in. 

14  36,  65 

4S     2  335 

16  228 

4<^     6,  16  91  III. 

8  91  III. 

10  45 1. 

22  288  III. 

22  289 

26  144,405 


Isaii 

Chnp.     verse. 

50.  1 
11 

51.  1 
1,2-5, 

20 
92 


ih. 


52. 
53. 


7,  8 


5-12 

6,7 

3 
10 

9-11 

4 

7 

9 

3-12 

7 

13 

59.  17 

6 
10 
16 
19,20 

1,2 

3 

7 
10 
11 

62.  4 
10 

10-12 
10-13 
11 

63.  1-3 
2 

11 


54. 

50. 
57. 


58 


60 


61 


64. 
65. 


66. 


1 

1 

4 

4-25 
10 
17 

1 

1-5 

3 

9 
15,  16 
20 


170  II. 
137 

22  note 
8     91  III. 

78 
147 
295 
384 
ibid. 

91  III. 

41 

23  II. 
30 

180 

409 

314  II. 

358 

140 

349 

273,  289 

49  bis 

39 
405 

91  n. 

351 

76,  212 

62 
154 
415 

41 
289 
228 

288  m. 
179 

69 
114  IX. 

42  note 
137 

415  III. 
141,403  V. 

91  n. 

43 

9111. 
225 
91  II. 

60 

41 

289 

49 


Chap.     vor;:c 

1.  17 

2.  13 
21 
22 
22 
23 
25 
28 

1 


Jeremiah. 

Section. 


3. 


2 
2 
3 

8-14 


121  bi3 

45  I. 

66 

22  note 
134 

49 
123 
400 
160 

10,53 
150  IV. 

21 

41 


4. 


5,15,21  288  note 
6,  21       ibid.  III. 


11 

11,  12 
16,  17 
19 
24 
29 
30 
31 
,    5 

7 

17 
24 
27 
.    1.  17 

4 

6 
20 
21 
26 

2,3 

6 
18 

18,19 
31 
31 

31,32 
33 
34 
.    2 

2 
13 
14 
17 

90 


23  VI. 

65 

G2 
291 

23  11. 
295 
134 
187 

61 
150  IV 

67 

21,  62 

52 
288  note 
289 
294 
374 

52 
211 
233 
168  V. 
409 
140 

15  in. 

411 
ibid. 
205 
154,  180 

57,  203 
205,  406 

67 

61,  144 
403  III. 

74,  105 


INDEX    OF    TASSAGICS    ILLUSTRATKl"). 


5G1 


Jeremiah. 


Jeremiah. 


Chap,    verse. 

9.  2 
12 
14 
20 

21,22 
22 

24,25 
25,  2G 
2C 

10.  9 
21 

11.  4 
6 

IG,  17 
19 

12.  5 
12 

13.  1 
IG 
21 
23 
24 
26 

14.  6 
12-16 

15.  1 
3 
7 

18 

16.  4 
4,7 
8 

IG 

17.  1 
8 

11 
13 
19,  20 

18.  14 
20 
22 

5 

G-14 
13 
13 

5,  G 

5-8 
15 
21.    9 


19 


20. 


Section. 

110 

21 
144 
211 

G2 

57 
1G3 
1G3 
124 
401  II. 

42  note 

22  note 
233 

71 

4G 

16 
276  I. 
121 

21 
187 

35,  237 

65 

41 

48n.II 
276  I. 
238 

51 

65  bis 

45  I. 
57,  205 

211 
144 
295 

87 

70 

46  note 
45  I. 

233 

14  1. 
238 

52 
411 
ibid. 
406,  34 
407 
295 

41 
101 
292 


9-> 


23. 


24. 


25. 


Chap.   .ver;:e. 

21.  12 

14 

3 
14 

16-19 
20 
23 
24 

1 
12 
15 
32 

1 

2 

10 

15,  27 
15-31 
23 
24 
30 
30 
33 
33 
34 

34,35 
26.  11 
23 

2,  8-12 

9 

9 

5 
13 

2 
22 

6 


33. 


27. 


28. 


29. 


30. 


31. 


32 


19 

4,  13 

4 

5 

6 
10 
19 
21 
22 

1-14 

7 

10-13 
24 


'60. 


Section 

240 

21 

168  V.    I 
33,36,39' 
206         34 
295         I 
187 
128         1 

42  note 

21         I 

61 
403  m. 

83 

72  bis 
139,  154 
147  36 

295         1 
124         I 

10 

69  bis 
291 

57,  203, 
295  I 
211         37, 

46 
235 
206 

61 
100  V. 
235  n. 
238 

83         1 

83,  237  40, 

260  in.  I 

187 


Jeremi 

Chap.     Terse. 

32.44 

4 
11 
13 

5 

7  et  seq. 

8,9 

8-22 

14 

17 

18,  19 

20 


I. 

bis 


38. 


39, 


61 

180 
97 
41 
67 

275  n. 

42  note 
211 
110 
152 
248  I. 

55 

248  in. 

293,  294 


41 


42 


43 


2,4 
5 
4 

9-19 
10 

a8 

22 
23 
30 
32 

4 
15 

15-20 
21 

6 

7 
17,18 

9-11 
16 

1-0 

4 

4 

5 
10 
16 
17 

5 

14 

,    3 

G 

6 

9 

13 
.  17,19 
.    3,4 

4 


ah. 

Section. 

24 

294 
154 
24,  390 
210,  211 
351  I. 
233 
172 
350 
293 
383 
205 
325 
337 
147 
86 
233 
337 
87 

21,36 
86,87,88 
206 

36 

249  (6) 
ibid.  (4) 
249,  255 
140 

45  II. 
228,  237 
292 
236  Y. 
237 
236  V. 
249 

358  III. 
295 

236  Y. 
237 
110 
392 
288  note 

39 
236 
295 

39 
407 
409 
290 

970 


Y. 


5G2 


INDEX    OP    rASSAGi:S    ILLUSTRATED. 


Jeremiah. 


Chap 

46. 


47. 

48. 


49. 


50. 


9 
11 
20 
23 
25 

6 

7 

7,  13 
17 
25 

32,33 
33 
36 
38 
41 
44 

3 

7 

9 
12 
19 
29 
32 
35 

2 

G 


Section.       Chap 

271,278;  1. 

74,  105 

47 

23  IV. 
295 
276  I. 
295,  400 
408  I. 
226 

47 

69 


3. 
4. 

5.  13 


Lament. 

Section. 

41 
69 
47 

349 

101 

45  n. 

140 
139 

Ezekiel. 


1-8, 17 
15 

3 

6 
19 
53 

4 


Ezek. 


1411.69 
9411.211 
34 


1. 


51. 


200 
52 
67 
98 
69 
147" 
16 

46,49 
124 
278 
295 
42  note 
8      46 
9,14,29,42  278 
16      62 
19      43 
35      100 IV. 
44      16 
2      65 
2, 12, 27  288  III. 
8 
11 
14 
23 


6 
9 

3.  1 
17 

4.  1,2 
2 

10-15 
15 

5.  1 
10-15 

6.  4,6 
11 
13 

7.  7 
7,17 

19 

8.  7-13 
14 
16 
16,  17 

74,  105   9.    2,3,11 
271         I         2-12 
23  IV.  11.  19 
42  note  12.    3 


112 
338  n.II, 
2-28  91  n.II, 

3etseq.  225 
180 
88  bis 
87  III. 
275  II. 


Ezekiel. 


Chap.     Terse. 

16.  14 
20,21 
24,31,39 
38,  40 

17.  1-8 
3,4 
6,7 

10 

15 

17 

17-23 

18 

18.  8 
31 

19.  4 


52. 


27 
33 
58 

4 

6,7 
11 

12-20 
21 
24 
31 
31 


288not.289i 
63 
275  I. 
293 
358  1. 
249, 255  n 
236  V. 
113  II. 
366 

249  (6) 
352  note 


5-7 
11,  14 
18,21 

1 

1-5 

8 
10 

10  et  seq, 
10,  13 
12 
13 


281 

293,  294 
273 

16 
125 
293 
407 
211 

76,  409 
295 
ibid, 
ibid. 
407  bis 
410 
396 
407 

86 
134 
191 
110 

39 
ibid. 

40 
239,  344 

67 
153 

119,  123 
130 
118 
129  bis 
141 


20 


10,  11 

11 

12 

1 

1-8 
20,21 
21.12 
21 

21,22 
22 
26 
27 
37,38 

22.  7 
18,  19 
18-22 

23.  6 


Section. 

41 

411 

36 

158,  257 

67 

70 

67 

21 

50 
293 
294 
392 
251 
191 

52,60 

52 

67 
226 

21,  67 
344 
239 
347 
211 
413 

403  III. 
281 

223  II. 
294 
390 
168  V. 

22  note 

ibid. 
119 


12,13,23  269 


24.    7 


25. 


26. 


18 

24 

25 

29 

31-34 

40 

7,8 
16,  17 
17 

4 

5 

6 
11 

1-18 

2 


166 
272 
158 

41 
147 
134 
264 
211 
123 

28,49 

46 
180 
289 
212 
111 


IXDEX 

OF    PASSAGES    ILLUSTUATKD. 

503 

Ezekiel. 

Ezekiel. 

Daniel. 

Chap,    verse. 

Scotion. 

Chap.    Ter>e. 

Sootion. 

Chap,     verse. 

Section. 

26.    0, 

14 

78 

46.    6-18 

234  III. 

6.  15-25 

263 

8 

294 

23, 

24 

36  note 

16 

232 

9 

281 

24 

378  III. 

24 

248 

10 

200 

17.    1  et  seq. 

45  1. 

7.    7,8,24 

47 

IG 

122  II. 

10 

78 

9 

46 

30 

91  II. 

11 

19 

10 

248 

17,  28. 

108 

16-18 

25  VI. 

8.    3-5 

47 

27.    1- 

-36 

212 

21 

413  m. 

7 

288  III. 

Daniel. 

9.24 

335 

10, 

11 

271 

1.    6 

1G4 

12.    2,3,13 

314  n. 

11 

275  II. 

18 

238 

4 

88 

11 

298 

20 

100  IV. 

14 

48  n.  I. 

20 

235  II. 

Hosea. 

17 

71,77 

■     20 

403  I. 

1.    4,6,9 

164 

18 

46,  66 

2.    2 

100  IV. 

2.  11 

349 

24 

122  III. 

2 

235  II. 

12 

67 

2G 

21 

2, 

10 

403  1. 

16 

408 

28.  13- 

-20 

224 

5 

2G0  V. 

3.    1 

69 

13 

95  n. 

13, 

48 

100  IV. 

1,2 

153 

29.    5 

205 

14, 

14 

236  V. 

4 

413 

lS-20 

298 

46 

175 

4.    6 

371 

21 

47 

49 

229 

12 

191 

30.    2etseq. 

212 

3. 

2  GO  III. 

12 

403  m. 

21 

105 

4 

233 

13,14 

409 

31.    3, 

13 

70 

5 

951.175 

15,16 

47 

14-18 

91  II. 

5,7,10,15  941.11. 

5.    8 

275  n. 

32.    2- 

-32 

212 

5, 

10 

95  III. 

8 

288  note 

4 

205 

6, 

15 

101 

15 

215 

7,8,17-2 

2  9in. 

21 

120,  126 

6.    1,2 

91  ni. 

27 

208 

4.    4-6 

403  I. 

3 

21 

33.    1- 

.9 

275  II. 

10- 

-16 

70 

4 

ibid. 

34.    2- 

28 

42  note 

10, 

14,20  191 

6 

374,  384 

37.    1- 

14 

314  II. 

23 

406 

7.    1 

269 

16 

87  I. 

28 

191 

4-7 

140 

24 

42  note 

31, 

33 

ibid. 

4-10 

139 

38.    4, 

5 

271 

5.    1 

227 

8 

140  1. 

30.  11- 

-14 

295 

2 

146,  227 

11 

215 

17- 

20 

148,  205 

5 

39,  101 

IG 

278 

40.    3 

55 

7 

130 

8.    1 

288  note 

5 

113 IV.  VI. 

8 

235  II. 

9 

48n.n. 

28 

337 

11 

403  1. 

9.    4 

211 

42 

39 

21 

48n.II. 

10 

72 

41.    8 

113  IV. 

29 

233 

13 

70 

42.14 

368 

6. 

260  IV. 

14 

156 

43.  13 

113  IV. 

0 

3 

234 

10.    4 

61 

44.  18 

368  1. 

10 

101,  39G 

5 

400 

19 

368 

10,13,17 

128 

5,6 

295 

45.12 

117 

11 

344 

11 

47,61 

13-16 

234  IV. 

11, 

14 

396 

14 

295 

jG4 


IXDF.X    OF   PASSAGES   ILLUSTRATED. 


Ilosea.             1 

Amos.              1 

Micab. 

Clinp.     vcr;e. 

Si-otion. 

2hn\).     verse. 

Seotiou. 

?hap.    Terse. 

Section. 

12.    1 

71 

5.    1,2 

212 

4.  12 

62 

1  et  seq. 

215 

8 

100  ni. 

12,13 

64 

11 

57 

11 

39 

13 

63 

13 

275  n. 

16 

205,  211 

13-16 

47 

13.    2 

408  IV. 

26 

327,  412 

5.    5 

42  note 

3 

36  note 

6.    4 

40 

7 

21 

14 

52 

4,5 

148, 180 

6.    6,8 

384 

15 

21 

6 

148 

11 

115 

14.    6 

71 

10 

210 

15 

7L 

6,7 

70 

12 

50 

7.  14 

1411.42 

6-8 

16 

13 

47 

16 

212 

7 

66 

7.14 

72  note 

14 

177 

Nabum. 

Joe 

. 

17 

55 

1.10 

65 

1.    4,7,10, 

[-23  IV. 

17 

150  IV. 

13 

61 

12,16,18, 

8.    6 

123 

15 

295 

20 

9,10 

91  II. 

2.    1 

275  n. 

5 

23 IV.  bis 

9.    3 

14  n. 

3.    2 

59 

12,13 

212 

9 

65 

5,6 

41 

19 

21 

13 

67 

11 

295 

2.    2,10 

23  IV. 

12 

72 

3,4.5 

ibid. 

Obadiah. 

14 

39 

5 

65 

1 

289 

16,17 

23  IV. 

7-9 

23  IV. 

18 

65 

17 

ibid. 

11 

ibid. 

18 

42  note 

20 

19, 23 IV. 

Jonali. 

23 

21 

1.    3 

111 

Habakkuk. 

3.    9 

289 

3.    5 

135 

1.15 

78  bis 

10 

68 

5-7 

212,  223 

2.    1 

275  n. 

13 

62 

.    6 

122  m. 

3.    5 

190 

18 

45  I. 

4.    5 

28 

8 

289 

8 

21 

11 

291 

Amos. 

13 

223  I. 

1.    3 

64 

Mieah. 

5,8 

226 

1.    4 

'  91  m. 

Zepbaniah. 

13 

295,  296 

6 

67 

1.    5 

406,  407 

2.    1 

296 

8 

120 

9 

414 

2 

200 

11 

295 

16 

275  III. 

6 

123 

2.    3-5 

212 

2.    6 

46 

7 

150  IV. 

5 

55 

9 

19 

8 

403  V. 

8 

53 

13 

59,  62 

9 

160,  250 

Ilaggai. 

13 

62,  63 

3.11 

371 

1.    4 

39 

3.12 

44 

4.    3 

59,68 

5-11 

62 

15 

36,39 

3 

284 

2.    1-9 

339 

4.    1 

47 

4 

67,72 

6,21 

91  n. 

5 

140,  233 

4 

180 

6,22 

23  n. 

9 

62 

8 

44 

12 

122 

5.    ]  et  seq 

I.  212 

9,10 

187 

1       16 

69 

INDEX    OF    r.VSSAGES    II.I.USTRATICD. 


565 


Haggai 

Chap.    Terse. 

2.16 


17 
23 
23 


Section. 

114  IX. 

62 
128,  203 
oU  n. 


Malachi. 


1  Maccabees. 


Zecliariali. 


1.  2-6 


7-12 

1,3 

1-3 

7 
10 

5  et  seq 

1 
11,  1-1 

3 


10. 


11. 


12. 


13. 


14. 


o 
16 
19 
19 
19 
23 

3 

9 

9 

14 
15 

1 

2 

3 

4 

1 

2 

3 
15 
17 

2 

3 

2-6 

4 

8 
10 
18 
20 


312 

103  XI. 
238 
228 
248  II. 
314  II. 

67 
228 

88 
224 
358  n. 
ibid,  m, 
247 

358 1.  n.i 
358  III.  IV. 
358         ' 
122 

39 

48,50 
179 
278 
378  IV. 

21 
413 

46 

38 

91  ni. 

16 

ibid. 

42  note 
109  IV. 
295 
285 
314  II. 
122  III. 

19 

69 

45  1. 

96  II. 


Chap,     verse. 

1.  14 

2.  1-9 
6-9 

11-14 
14 

3.  1 
2 

8-10 
10,  11 

4.  1 


Section 

60 
384 
371 
160 
160 
223 

22  note 
390 

62 

Go 

91  II. 


Tobit. 


1. 

390 

12-19 

205 

2. 

4-8 

ibid. 

3. 

6,  13 

203 

4. 

17,  18 

205 

7. 

15 

154 

2. 

12,  13 

205 

Judith. 


10. 


16. 


3 

4 

16 


123,  125 
123 

ibid. 


TVisd. 
2.    7 


Wisdom. 
98,  106 
148 


19 
1-11 
7-16 

10 
7 

14 


249 

314  II. 
ibid. 
203 
19 
134 


Ecclesiasticus. 
Eccles.  106 

43.  22  21 

44,  16  203 

1  Maccabees. 


1.    8 
10 


Malachi. 
377 
374 


14,  15 
15 
16 
41 
1 
31  etseq. 
39-42 
42 
48 


2S5 
163 
285 
349 
366 
348 
300 
317 


'h:i\>.     veriC. 

3.  10 

47 
54 
55 

4.  52-59 
54 

6.  1,  2 
34 
37 
•1!) 

7.  13 
8.12,14,15, 

8.  22 

9.  37-47 
55-58 

10.  18-20 
65 

83 

11.  26,  27 
71 

13.  25-30 
20 

27 
51 

14.  20-27 
32 
35-47 

15.  10 


326 
212 

290 
269 
360 
93,941. 
415  V. 
2^2 
ibid. 
292 
317 
215 

87  m. 

154 

199  V. 

366 

236  IV. 

414 

236  IV. 

212 

209 

211 

209 
75,  93 
87  HI. 

298 

366 

117 


2  3I:iccabees. 
7  334 


1.    7 

13,  14 
4.  12-14 

18-20 
6.  10,  19, 

24,  30 


415  V. 

285 
408  IV. 

260  YJ. 


) 


9,11,14U.,  jj 
23,29,36  )-^^"^  "■ 

23,^29,  Ve}^^^"- 


bis 


10. 


27,28 

1-8 

6 

7 
40-45 
40-45 

4 

6 
36 


ibid. 
3(50 
356 

il)id.  bis 
314  II. 
318  IT. 
260  IX. 
317  bis 
359 


5GG 


INDEX    OF   rASS.VGKS   ILLUSTRATICD. 


IMatthew.            1 

Maitliew.            1 

Matthew. 

Cliap.    veiso. 

F.ction. 

L'hap.    Terse. 

Poctiou. 

I^hap.    Terse. 

Siotion. 

1.    8 

99 

7.    6 

51 

12.    1 

347  note 

16-18 

230 

17-20 

70 

1  ct  seq. 

319  II. 

18-20 

154 

22 

193  V. 

1-5 

62 

19 

160 

25 

23  III. 

1-13 

348  II. 

21 

164  bis 

25 

39  bis 

5 

ibid.  III. 

2.    letseq.  100  IV.  | 

8.    2-4 

387 

10 

297 

22 

240 

4 

ibid. 

10-13 

199  IV. 

3. 'l 

17 

5 

241 

22 

193  II. 

4 

49,77 

.9,10 

199  V. 

22 

195  II. 

4 

121,  142 

12 

148 

22 

196  I. 

10 

70 

16 

196  1. 

24,27 

100  IV. 

11 

123  bis 

28 

25  m. 

24-30 

196  III. 

12 

65  bis 

28 

193  1. 

25,  28 

193  X. 

4.    3 

318  III. 

28 

196  in. 

27 

106 

5 

342 

28 

206 

27,28 

193  V. 

8 

14  V. 

28  et  seq. 

195  1. 

28 

ibid. 

13 

24 

29 

193  VII. 

33 

70 

15 

25  I. 

29 

195  IV. 

43 

193X1. 

19 

78 

29-31 

193Vin. 

43-45 

173 

23 

372 

9.    9 

242 

43-45 

196  III. 

23,24 

196  1. 

10,  11 

ibid.  361 

44 

40 

24 

193  V. 

11 

106,  320 

13.    8 

62 

24 

195  1. 

17 

69 

25 

180 

5.    1-12 

319  III. 

20 

122 

25-40 

61 

13 

142  note 

20 

183  V. 

55 

84 

19 

319  in. 

20 

199  note 

14.    1 

240 

21,  22, 
27-30 

1  319  III. 

23 
32 

205,  211 
193  II. 

2 

6 

318  II. 
161 

22 

189,  411 

32 

195 1.  II. 

8-12 

257 

22 

245 

33 

193  V. 

19 

140,  145 

22,35- 

38  372  I. 

36 

42  note 

15.    letseq 

320 

26 

117,  249 

10.    4 

321  note 

2,3,6 

ibid. 

31etseq.  319  1. 

8 

196m. 

4 

319  in. 

31,32 

160 

9 

121 

5 

393 

33 

319  II. 

10 

42,  120 

5,6 

167 

33-37 

392 

10 

123, 135 

22-28 

51 

34 

225 

14 

334 

28 

195  I. 

38-40 

256 

17 

255 

36 

140,  145 

40 

122 

25 

100  IV. 

16.    2 

21 

41 

113 1:^?:. 

27 

34 

14 

318  II. 

41 

236  V. 

29 

117 

16 

230 

43 

319  II. 

34 

276  I. 

18 

91  II. 

46,47 

242 

42 

149 

18 

203,  229 

6.    1 

182 

11.    5 

196  I. 

23 

180 

2 

ibid. 

17 

205 

28 

203 

2,5 

319  III. 

18 

196  I. 

17.    4 

28 

5 

397 

19 

106,  242 

15 

193  III. 

7 

402  II. 

29,  30 

61 

15 

195  III 

9-13 

396 

'12.    1 

138 

15 

196  L 

INDEX    OV   1\ 

VSSAGES    ILI.CSTItATKD 

56- 

Matthew. 

1 

Matthew. 

1 

Mattl 

lew. 

Chap.    Tcr!;e. 

Section. 

Chap,     vci-se. 

Portion. 

Chap,     versi-. 

.■^ootion. 

17.25 

242 

23.  27- 

-29 

207 

27.28 

122  in. 

2G,  27 

117 

29 

209  bis 

29 

261 

18.    6 

48, 260  X. 

29 

319  III. 

32 

236  V. 

10 

318  III. 

24 

196  III. 

33 

335 

17 

242 

7 

23  II. 

44 

144 

25 

170  II. 

16, 

17 

35 

34 

261  note 

28-34 

249 

17 

34 

35 

263 

19.    1-9 

160 

20 

21 

48 

144 

3  ct  seq 

319  1. 

29 

91  11. 

52, 

53 

207 

4-8 

151 

32 

72 

52, 

60 

ibid. 

8 

160 

41 

139 

59 

204 

24 

49 

51 

260  V. 

59, 

60 

205 

20.  21 

244 

25.    1- 

-10 

154 

28.    2 

207 

21.    1-7 

48 

3 

40 

9 

175 

1-11 

223  IV. 

21, 

23 

148 

12 

241 

7,8 

179 

21- 

-23 

171  v. 

8 

75 

30 

148 

Mark. 

12 

242 

33- 

-46 

248  1. 

1.    4 

17 

12-16 

342 

35 

149 

6 

121 

IG 

166 

26.    1- 

-19 

354  note 

7 

123  bis 

19 

72  bis 

3, 

57 

244 

21 

397 

31,32 

242 

5 

246 

24 

193  vn. 

33 

67,69 

6-14 

204 

24 

195  IV. 

33-46 

68 

9 

182 

24 

196  III. 

42 

39 

26 

140 

25 

193  VIII. 

22.    1  et  seq. 

227 

26, 

27 

354 

32 

193  VI. 

4 

148 

27 

145,  354 

32 

196  1. 

11,12 

178 

28 

384 

32, 

39 

193  V. 

13 

148 

36 

70,71 

40-44 

387 

17etscq. 

321 

39 

147,  396 

44 

ibid. 

17-19 

242 

49 

175 

45 

43 

19 

117 

25 

233 

2.    4 

34,35 

23 

322  I. 

57 

246 

14 

242 

23-28 

157 

57, 

59 

244  III. 

15, 

16 

ibid. 

24-34 

318  II. 

59 

248  III. 

22 

69 

32 

314  II. 

63 

ibid. 

23 

347  note 

34 

319  m. 

63 

392  bis 

26 

385  I. 

23.    1-9 

106 

64 

180 

3.    1 

397 

2 

ibid.  II. 

65 

212 

2 

348  II. 

4 

319  m. 

67 

180 

17 

164 

5 

320 

69 

36 

18 

321  note 

5,  14 

ibid,  note 

27.    2- 

65 

241 

21, 

22 

196  I. 

6 

345 

3,12 

,20,41  244  III. 

22 

100  IV. 

15 

319  III. 

5 

200,  343 

22- 

30 

196  III. 

16-22 

392 

7 

206 

23- 

25 

193  X. 

24 

49,  320 

24 

320 

5.    1 

25  III. 

27 

207 

27 

241 

2 

195  I. 

27 

207  n.  II. 

27, 

28 

269 

7 

193  I. 

568 


INDEX  OF   rASSAGKS   ILI.USTRATi:!). 


MlM 

k. 

1 

Maik. 

Luk 

e. 

riiap.    verpe. 

?0C*iO!l. 

[Cliap.    verse. 

?iTiion. 

Cliap.     vcr.-u. 

Portion 

5.    7 

193  VII. 

12 

.41 

342 

2.29 

203 

7 

195  IV. 

42 

117 

44 

110 

8 

193  vm. 

13 

15 

34 

46 

106  bis 

8 

195  I. 

44 

3 

125 

46 

233 

8 

196  III. 

8 

204 

3.    1 

25  VI. 

9 

ibid. 

12- 

■18 

354  note 

1 

25VIU 

15 

195  1. 

22 

145 

13 

242 

25 

199  note 

24 

384 

14 

298 

26 

105 

26 

354 

17 

Go 

26 

199  note 

51, 

52 

122  III. 

23  et  SCO. 

164 

29, 

34 

184 

Go 

180 

4.    2 

318  III. 

41 

105 

15 

16 

241,  269 

10 

ibid. 

43 

ibid. 

17 

122  III. 

16 

397  tris 

6.    2 

397 

17 

261 

1 6  et  seq. 

ibid. 

3 

84 

21 

236  V. 

16-21 

372 

8 

121 

22 

335 

16,32,33  397 

9 

123 

23 

261  note 

17-20 

88 

17 

195  in. 

24 

263 

20 

372  IV. 

17- 

29 

160 

34 

398 

23 

105 

21 

145,  227 

37 

203 

34 

193  VII. 

21- 

25 

97 

42 

348  IV. 

34 

195  IV. 

27 

236  V. 

43 

320  note 

35 

193VIIL 

29 

205 

44 

262  V. 

35 

196  in. 

7.    3 

320 

46 

70 

40,41 

ibid.  I. 

3- 

13 

ibid. 

46 

122  III. 

41 

193  V. 

4 

ibid. 

16 

2 

101  I. 

41 

230 

11 

394 

2, 

9 

102 

5.     1  et  seq. 

78 

11- 

13 

167 

3, 

4 

207 

8 

361 

29 

1961. 

17 

196  n. 

15 

196  I. 

34 

398 

19 

34,35 

9.    1 

203 

Luke. 

27,29 

242 

17 

196  1. 

1. 

2 

366 

31 

105 

25 

193  V. 

3 

174 

6.    1 

347  note 

25 

ibid.VIII. 

9 

369 

1-5 

348  11. 

25 

196  III. 

13- 

15 

395 

6 

397 

41 

149  bis 

13, 

60,63 

164 

6et  seq. 

319  n. 

42 

260  X. 

27, 

28 

175 

15 

321  bis 

49 

378  VII. 

39 

24 

17,18 

193  VI. 

49, 

50 

142  note 

61 

164 

7.    2 

199  V. 

10.    2- 

-12 

160 

63 

87  I. 

12 

206 

12 

ibid. 

69 

47 

14 

205 

46 

182 

2 

5 

154 

21 

184 

11.  13 

72  bis 

7 

110 

21 

193  VI 

15 

242 

22 

161,  388 

21 

196  1. 

12.  14, 

15 

ibid. 

22etseq. 

165  I. 

21,  22 

ibid. 

18- 

-23 

318  II. 

24 

380  I. 

32 

211 

28etseq 

.  322  note 

25 

320  note 

33 

106  1. 

35 

233 

i 

25- 

-35 

106 

34 

149 

INDEX 

01 

'    I'ASS.VGI 

:S    ILLUSTRATED. 

569 

Lul 

ie. 

Luke. 

Luk» 

^ 

Chap.    Terse. 

Scot  ion. 

Ch;i 

p.    verse. 

Section. 

Chap,    verse. 

Sec  ion. 

7.35 

lOG 

11. 

52 

106  IV. 

21 

35 

52 

3G, 

38 

14G 

12. 

6 

117 

22 

4, 

52 

269 

37, 

38 

148 

46 

260  Y. 

20 

384 

38 

125 

13 

1,2 

321 

22 

203 

39 

320 

4 

335 

31 

65 

44 

123 

G  et  seq. 

72 

31 

196  in. 

8.    2 

193  YI. 

10 

397 

38 

180 

2 

195  IV. 

10-17 

348  II. 

41 

396 

2 

19G  I. 

11 

193  xn. 

61, 

62 

36 

2, 30,  S 

8  193  Y. 

11 

195  1. 

23 

1-5 

,13-15  261 

26 

25  III. 

11 

196  1. 

31 

70 

27 

193  I. 

11-13 

ibid. 

34 

263 

27 

195  I. 

12 

196  in. 

36 

261  note 

30 

19G  III. 

14,  15 

372  1. 

43 

197  II. 

30- 

32 

193YIII. 

16 

193  xn. 

51 

320  note 

30- 

32 

19G  III. 

32 

193  Yl. 

53 

122  III. 

35 

195  I. 

32 

196  1. 

24 

1 

102 

41 

372  I. 

33 

244 

43 

105 

14 

1  et  seq. 

319  n. 

John. 

43 

199  note 

7 

148 

1 

27 

123 

44 

122 

8 

145 

29, 

36 

384 

9.    1 

19G  I. 

8,  10 

146 

41, 

49 

230 

3 

42 

13 

148 

42 

164 

3 

120 

24 

145 

2 

6 

114  m. 

7 

240 

34,35 

57 

6 

320 

27 

203 

15. 

22 

123 

8 

146 

38- 

40 

195  III. 

23 

141 

12- 

22 

342 

39 

19G  I. 

16. 

2 

238 

15 

242 

42 

ibid. 

14 

319  in. 

20 

340 

49 

193  Y. 

18 

160 

3 

3 

325 

G2 

59 

19 

119,224 

10 

ibid. 

10.    4 

42,  175 

20 

182 

29 

154 

15 

19G  in. 

21 

51,  182 

4 

25  n. 

17 

19GII.III. 

■22,  23 

146 

5 

326 

18 

193  IX. 

22  et  seq. 

197  II. 

9 

166 

30 

14  IV. 

17. 

16 

326 

9  et  seq. 

326 

33 

319  II. 

18. 

10-14 

396 

20 

326  n. 

34 

110 

11 

319  ni. 

25 

230 

11.  14 

193 II.  v. 

11 

320 

25  et  seq. 

326  1. 

14 

195  I.  II. 

11,  13 

238 

27 

106 

14 

19G  I. 

13 

396 

35 

62 

13- 

19 

100  I  v. 

18 

320  note 

36 

ibid. 

IG- 

24 

19G  III. 

19 

2 

242 

46 

196  II. 

17- 

19 

193  X. 

4,5 

72 

5 

2 

198 

19 

193  v. 

20 

133 

2- 

4,6,7 

il)id. 

24 

193  XI. 

29-36 

48 

2- 

18 

348  II. 

24- 

28 

19GUr. 

20 

27-36 

318  II. 

3 

196  n. 

44 

207 

21 

29,  30 

48* 

72 

3 

199  IV 

570 


INDEX    or    PASSAGES    ILLUSTRATED. 


Jo 

hn. 

John. 

Act 

s. 

( hap.    Teivo. 

Section. 

Chap.     Tcrse. 

Section. 

Chap.     Terse. 

Section. 

5.    4, 

G 

198 

15 

30 

318  II. 

2 

5- 

13 

355 

G.    2 

19G  IT. 

16 

1,2 

258  II. 

11 

315 

19 

113  YII. 

2 

245 

13 

69 

7.    2, 

37 

356 

2 

372  11. 

15 

101,396 

9- 

20 

196  II. 

16,17 

203 

42 

399 

19, 

20 

196  1. 

21,22 

187 

46 

345 

23 

162 

18 

1 

19,70,71 

3 

1 

101,  396 

23 

348  III. 

1,2 

70 

2 

182,  341 

33 

203 

3,12 

269 

11 

233 

35 

324 

13-18 

246 

4 

1 

269 

37 

356  1. 

16,  17 

35 

5 

244  III. 

52 

22 

24 

244 

11 

39 

8.    1- 

-8 

87  ni. 

29 

241 

5. 

6, 

10 

205 

1- 

-8 

159 

31 

244  bis 

12 

233,  342 

5 

158,  257 

19 

2,5 

261 

24 

269 

7 

257 

2,23 

241 

34 

106 

21 

203 

6 

244 

34 

320  note 

31- 

-34 

172 

17 

335 

37 

321 

32, 

34 

ibid. 

23 

368  II. 

38, 

39 

318  1. 

33 

172,  173 

23,24 

263 

42 

345 

44 

318  III. 

29 

261  note 

6 

1 

324  bis 

52 

23 

31 

347  note 

1  etseq. 

372  III. 

9.    1- 

-34 

348  bis 

31  etseq. 

259  II. 

5 

315 

2, 

34 

318  II. 

31-37 

262  V. 

9 

324 

7, 

11 

335 

36 

254  bis 

12 

244  III. 

10.  11- 

-16 

46 

36,  37 

384 

7. 

173,  244 

3 

233 

38 

241 

53 

190 

3, 

14 

46 

38 

320  note 

60 

396 

12- 

14 

42  note 

39 

117 

8 

2 

205 

20 

1 96 1.  II. 

39,40 

204 

5, 

15 

229 

22 

3G0 

41 

70,  206 

27 

230  (6) 

23 

342 

41 

207 

28 

59 

40 

17 

20 

1 

101  I. 

9 

2 

244 

11.    9 

101 

1,  19 

102 

29 

324 

18 

113  VII. 

5,  11 

207 

37 

204,  205 

24 

318  II. 

7 

204 

37- 

39 

36 

31 

211 

15 

70 

39 

83 

38 

207  bis 

21 

7 

120,  121 

41 

361 

44 

204,  133 

18 

263 

43 

84 

12.    2 

145 

10 

1 

241,  269 

3 

1 17,223  lY. 

Act 

3, 

2, 

22 

325 

12- 

16 

48 

Acts 

97  note 

9 

101,34,396 

42 

372  II. 

1 

12 

113  VIII. 

17 

176 

13.    5 

149 

13 

321  note 

25, 

26 

175 

18 

ibid. 

18 

200 

32 

84 

23 

146 

2 

1 

355 

38 

193  xn, 

26 

147 

5 

325 

30 

19  GLUT, 

14.30 

203 

5-11 

315 

11 

19 

315 

INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  ILEUSTHATED. 


f)71 


]3. 


Acts, 

Chnp.    T11-5C. 

11.20 
12.    2 

4 
8 

13 
15 
19 
20 
23 
1 

2,3 
4-6,   ] 
13-52  i 
5,  15 
G-12 
14 
15 
15 
16 
42 
43 
50 
51 
1-28 
4 
13 
2 
21 

1-40 
13,16 
13-25 
14 
15 
16 
16 
16 

22,  25- 
30,37 
27 
17.    1-17 


t 

19 

23 

18.    4 

0 


14. 


15. 


16. 


Section. 

324 
257 
269 
121 
35 

318  m 
249 

285  note 
190,  202 
240 
364,  367 

315 


Acts. 

I'hap.     Tcrso. 

18.    7-13 
18 

99 


19, 


20 


21 


22. 
23. 


?i 


0/2 

201 

397 

372 1.  II. 

397  bis 

325 

347  note 

315 

ibid. 

334 

315 

372  V. 

401  V. 

229 

372,  397 

315 

345 

397 

315 

149 

193  IV. 

195  IV. 

196  in.  ;26 


9 

9,  10 
12 
16 
24 
25 
29 
29 
6,7 
7-11 
9 
, 10-14 

20 

23,24 

31 

31-34 

32 


.■5i'c(ioii. 

315 
395 
229 
345 
397 
133 
195  I. 
412 
84 
285  note 
315 


!  Romans 

Cln)).     vi-rsu.  i 

2.  13 

3.  2.-3-25 
1  4.  11 


16 


24, 


25. 


8,9 
23 
24 

24-26 
24-36 
26 

1 

1-10 

3 


399         I 
ibid,  bis    12 
345 

263         I 
321         1 
395         I 
269 
341 
241 

106,  321 
3221. 

318  in. 

269 

239 

241 

ibid. 

174 

229 

241 

174 


6.  17 
23 

7.  25 

8.  15 
17 
29 

1 
9 
17,24 

1 

13 

13.  13 

15.  16 

25,  26 

2 


9. 
11. 


86 

.•;s4 

162 

172 

298 

384 

171,  172 

361 

165  ni. 

392 
52 
70,  71  note 
3781.384 
149,  361 
148 
384 
361 
ibid. 
345 
372  V 


1  Corinthians 
20 

6 

2 

9 

1  et  seq 

2-9 


3,22-27  241 


6. 


255 

219 

315 

397 

315 

149 

247 

401  III, 

397 

334 

325 


27 


28 


27 
12 
23 

5 

10 
24, 
1 
14 
.  7 
16 


1-11 
1.    1 

7 


ibid, 
ibid, 
ibid. 
171 
361 
241 
269 
21 
149 
249 

Romans. 

318  IV. 

367 

361 


10 


11, 


19-25 


313 


5 

7 

9-11 
1-7 
9,13, 
18 

21-23 
4 
5 
10 
7 
9 

9-12 
24 

2-1-27 
26 
.  16 
30 

6-12 


182 
ibid. 
171 

285  note 
325 

258  n. 

ibid. 

354,  384 
402  V. 
239 
18  402  V. 
163 
172 

196  III. 
408 

143  \TL 
298 
171  VI. 

64 
285 
ibid, 
ibid. 
354 
145 
399 
125 


572 


LNDKX   OF   I'ASSAGKS   ILLUSTRATED. 


1  Corinthians. 

Ephe 

sians. 

1 

Timoth\'. 

CKnp.    Tc-r.-e. 

I^prtion. 

Chap,     ver.-o. 

Section. 

Clm 

p.     vertc. 

i^i'ctiou. 

11.  10 

127 

1.13 

134 

3. 

8 

84 

11-lG 

399 

2.  14 

173 

15 

35 

17-34 

ibid. 

14,  15 

36.1 

4. 

4, 

5 

145 

24,  25 

384 

3.    2 

171 

5. 

10 

149  bis 

2G 

354 

3 

367 

17 

106 

2.S 

247 

4.  11 

42  note 

18 

64 

12.    9 

196  II. 

28 

252 

18 

171 

13 

172 

5.    2 

384 

13.  12 

132 

25-33 

153 

2  Timothy. 

14.    1-33 

399 

6.    8 

172 

1. 

10 

314  11. 

34-40 

ibid. 

14 

273,  274 

2. 

4 

298 

15.    1 

182 

14 

291 

5 

285 

32 

2  GO  VU. 

17 

272 

19 

39 

do 

52 

3. 

8 

403  1. 

55,  56 

203 

Philii 

pians. 

4. 

6 

203,  379 

IG.    1-4 

372  V. 

1.13 

203 

6 

384 

13 

291 

21 

197  II. 

7, 

8 

285 

19 

345 

27 

291 

8 

285  bis 

2.    9 

164 

13 

87  n. 

2  Corinthians. 

17 

379,  384 

13 

122  ni. 

1.23 

392 

25 

372  Y. 

14 

84 

2.  17 

144 

3.    2 

51 

17 

260  vn. 

3.  15 

397 

5 

324 

5.    1 

197  n. 

11-14 

285 

Titais. 

0-9 

203 

14 

ibid. 

1. 

7 

84,  171 

21 

384 

21 

197  II. 

8.23 

372  V. 

Philemon. 

9.    1-15 

399 

Colos 

siaiis. 

2 

, 

345 

11.    8 

298 

1.  15-18 

165  ni. 

10 

172 

22 

324 

3.  10,  11 

172 

24 

245,  255 

15 

285 

lebrews. 

24 

372  II. 

4.    6 

142  note 

1. 

4 

164 

12.    7 

190 

15 

345 

2. 

2 

190 

7 

196  m. 

5 

318  m. 

21  ■ 

402  V. 

1  Thess 

\lonians. 

9 

203 

2.  15 

173 

14 

ibid. 

Gal: 

itians. 

15,  16 

361 

14 

318  III. 

2.    9 

35 

3.    8 

291 

7. 

5- 

-7 

390 

15-17 

361 

4.  13 

211  note 

9. 

2 

328 

3.  13 

259  11. 

5.    8     . 

273 

3- 

■28 

384 

15 

51 

4 

333 

19 

190 

2  Thess 

donians. 

13, 

14 

252 

28 

172 

2.  15 

291 

10. 

1- 

-18 

318  IV. 

4.    2 

171 

3.  17 

89 

10- 

-14, 

18  384 

G 

ibid. 

28 

258 

5.    1 

291 

1  Timotliy. 

33 

285  note 

21 

148 

1.20 

258  II. 

11. 

5 

203 

6.  17 

134 

3.    2 

149 

13, 

15 

ibid. 

INDEX    OF    TASSACKS    ILLUSTHATED. 


Hebre\YS. 

Cliap.    verso.  Section. 

11.  35  260  VI. 
37  122  UI. 

12.  1  285 

23  1G5  ni. 

23  197  U. 
■24:  384 

13.  2  149 
15,  16  384 

20  42  note 

James. 

1.  1  324 
25  172 

2.  1-8  319  in. 

2  128 

3  345 
5.    2  135 

4  62 
7  21 

11  86 

1  Peter. 

1.  1  324 
2  384 

2.  6  39 

24  384 

25  42  note 


1  Peter. 

Chap,     verse.  S<'<tion. 

3.  3  125 

7  153 

4.  3  148 

10  171 

5.  4  42  note 

2  Peter. 

2.    4  197  n. 

22  51 

1  John. 

2.    2  384 

4.  10  ibid. 

2  Jolin. 

11  175 

Jude. 

6         197  n. 

7  19 

9  203 

Revelation. 

1.  3  86 

5-11     165  ni. 

10  399 

2.  1,8,'^2,18  372  Y. 


Ivcvelalion. 

Chap,    verse.  Section. 

17  164 

3.  1,  7,  14  372  V. 

5  178 

20  145 

5.  1      88 

6.  7  ibid. 

7.  4-8  134 

9      75,  285 
9.  7      23  IV. 

17  273 
10.  9      87  111. 

12.  7-9  196  III. 
9  318  III. 

13.  17,  18  134 

14.  1-5  ibid. 
9  172 

19, 20    69 

20  113  VII. 

18.  12  119 
12,  16  224 

19.  17,  18  148 
20  175 

20.  2  318  ni. 

21.  14      39 

16  113  VIL 

22.  4  172 
9  175 


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